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Evaluating Circuit Resistance Tests
Evaluating Circuit Resistance Tests
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
CONTENTS PAGES
Constructions ...................................................................................................................... 1
Kelvin Bridge ........................................................................................................ 1
Ducter.................................................................................................................... 3
Digital Low-Resistance Ohmmeter (DLRO) ......................................................... 5
Current Injection Test Sets (for Millivolt Drop Tests)........................................... 6
Operational Principles......................................................................................................... 7
Kelvin Bridge ........................................................................................................ 7
Ducter.................................................................................................................... 9
Digital Low-Resistance Ohmmeter (DLRO) ....................................................... 12
Current Injection Test Sets (for Millivolt Drop Tests)......................................... 13
Work Aid 1A: Non-Mandatory Test Report P-009, Circuit Breakers - Medium
Voltage (Handout 8) ......................................................................................................... 44
Work Aid 1B: Manufacturer’s Literature .......................................................................... 44
Work Aid 1C: Applicable Procedural Steps...................................................................... 46
Work Aid 2A: Non-Mandatory Test Report P-013, Grounding Systems (Handout
14)..................................................................................................................................... 47
Work Aid 2B: Table of Circuit Resistance Values for Motor Contactor
Electromagnet Coils.......................................................................................................... 47
Work Aid 2C: Applicable Procedural Steps...................................................................... 48
Work Aid 4A: Non-Mandatory Test Report P-013, Grounding System (Handout
15)..................................................................................................................................... 52
Work Aid 4B: Applicable Procedural Steps...................................................................... 52
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................... 54
Constructions
This section explains the constructions of the following circuit-resistance test sets:
• Kelvin Bridge.
• Ducter.
• Digital Low-Resistance Ohmmeter (DLRO).
• Primary-Current Injection Test Set (Millivolt Drop Test).
These are the test sets that are most often used to perform circuit resistance tests.
Kelvin Bridge
A Kelvin bridge is a single-unit test set that exists in bench-type or portable versions. Figure 1 is an illustration
of the front panel of a Kelvin bridge. The names of the front panels devices are identified on this illustration.
A Kelvin Bridge has three accessory devices:
• Test leads that are connected to the terminal posts marked C1, P1, P2, and C2.
• An optional external battery that can be connected to the terminal posts marked BAT and “+” (Most
models of Kelvin bridge have a built-in battery).
• An external detector that can be connected at the external detector receptacle.
A Kelvin bridge is distinguished from other low-resistance test sets by its superior accuracy. The limits of error
are typically ± 0.03% of the dial indication plus 0.03 micro-ohm. A Kelvin bridge measures resistance in the
range of 0.01 micro-ohm to approximately 1000 ohms.
Ducter
A Ducter is a two-part portable test set. Figure 2 is an illustration of the metering part of a Ducter. The names
of the top panel devices are identified on this illustration. The second part can be a low-voltage battery or a
rectifier-type DC power supply. A Ducter has no built-in battery. The only accessory device is a set of
calibrated test leads.
A Ducter is distinguished from other low-resistance test sets by its ruggedness and simple operation. It can
measures resistance in the range of 1 micro-ohm to 1 ohm. Ducter is a trade mark that is the property of AVO
Biddle Instruments.
Figure 3 is a top-view illustration of a DLRO. The names of the DLRO’s metering and control devices are
identified on this illustration.
A current injection test set is a high-current low-voltage source of AC current and associated control equipment
that are enclosed within a metallic structure, and mounted on wheels. Current injection test sets are as large as
0.90 meters in height, 1.35 meters wide, and 0.7 meters deep and they are as much as 550 kilograms in weight.
Figure 4 is an outline diagram of a current injection test set, a circuit breaker under test, and a millivolt meter
connected together for performing a millivolt drop test.
Operational Principles
This section explains the operational principles of the test sets whose constructions were described in the
previous section.
Kelvin Bridge
A Kelvin bridge operates on the principle of a double bridge. Referring to Figure 5, the resistance X is the
unknown value of resistance. The bridge is in a balanced condition whenever the multiplier dial and the
mechanically-linked measuring dials are adjusted to achieve a zero voltage differential between nodes m and n,
as indicated by the detector-circuit meter. When the bridge is balanced, the ratio of resistance values is:
X A
• =
S B
• Where X is the unknown resistance, S is the resistance of the standard resistor, A is the resistance of the
adjustable arm A, and B is the resistance of the fixed arm B.
Each operating knob of each measuring dial is marked with numbers. When the bridge is balanced, the value of
the unknown resistance X is indicated by the series of numbers that appear in the windows of the measuring
-5
dials multiplied by 10 and multiplied by the number indicated on the multiplier dial.
The resistance values R1 and R2 shown in Figure 5 are parts of the measured circuit but do not add to the
resistance indicated on the bridge. The leads L1, L2, L3 and L4 have resistance, but these do not add to the
resistance indicated. As in the case with other four-terminal resistance measurement instruments, the resistance
measured is only that resistance between the points of the probes P1 and P2.
When a Kelvin bridge is making a measurement, a significant amount of current flows in the measured circuit.
The amount of current can be as large as 5 amperes but depends on the specific model of bridge being used and
the ohmic value of the measured circuit . This current will, in some cases, heat the circuit components of the
measured circuit. Consequently, this warming will change the resistance of the measured circuit.
Ducter
A Ducter contains a two-coil moving coil meter whose deflection is proportional to the magnitude of voltage
across its deflection coil divided by the magnitude of current in its control coil. Figure 6 is a representation of
the operational elements of a Ducter’s meter. These elements are:
• The deflecting coil, A. This coil is also called the voltage coil.
• The reference coil, B. This coil is also called the current coil.
• The north pole N and south pole S of the permanent magnet.
• The fixed coaxial magnet core C.
• The ligaments L. The ligaments conduct current to the deflecting coil and reference coil while not
producing a significant torque on the coil assembly.
• The bearings J support the coil assembly.
Figure 7 is a schematic diagram of the circuit of a Ducter. The range selector connects built-in resistors whose
ohmic values are appropriate for different ranges. The model of Ducter most often found in industrial plants
has ranges of 100, 1000, 10,000, 100,000, and 1,000,000 micro-ohms. 1,000,000 micro-ohms is equal to one
ohm. As in the case with other four-terminal resistance measurement instruments, the resistance measured is
only that resistance between the points of the probes P1 and P2. A Ducter differs from a Kelvin bridge because
the resistance of the test leads adds to the value of resistance that is displayed. All Ducters are specifically
calibrated using test leads that each have 0.04 ohm resistance. If leads of different resistance values are used, a
correction factor must be applied to the scale reading.
V( millivolts) × 1000
• R( micro−ohms ) =
I( amperes)
• Where R is the resistance of the interrupter circuit in micro-ohms, V is the measured drop at the terminals
of the interrupter in millivolts, and I is the interrupter current in amperes.
The general purpose of a primary-circuit resistance test is to detect a loss of contact pressure, physical damage
to the surfactes of the contacts, or chemical contamination on the surfaces of the contacts.
Test Hookups
Figure 9 is a connection diagram for performing a primary-circuit resistance test. This example showns a
Ducter. The hookup is similar for tests that are conducted using a DLRO. Note that the voltage probes are
placed inside of the current connections. This arrangement is important for making an accurate measurement of
resistance. Additionally, the voltage probes are placed so that all of the conducting components of the
interrupter are between the voltage probes. Any components that are not secured with their normal pressure or
torque are not included between the voltage probes. For example, the voltage probes are placed on the bushing
caps of the circuit breaker shown in Figure 9 rather than being placed on the loosened screw-eyes of the
bushings.
Evaluation Factors
This section explains the factors that influence the evaluation of primary-circuit resistance tests and the readings
obtained from these tests. These Evaluation factors are:
Physical Damage
Physical damage to interrupter components often causes an increase in primary-circuit resistance. This increase
in resistance is related to incorrect alignment of moving contacts with respect to stationary contacts.
Chemical Contamination
Chemical contaminants on contact surfaces cause an increase in primary-circuit resistance. Typical
contaminants are rust, copper sulfate, silver oxide, burned oil, sand particles, and improperly applied lubrication
materials.
The applications and methods of the following circuit-continuity tests are briefly explained below:
• Control-circuit tests.
• Heat-tracing circuit tests.
• Neutral-grounding circuit tests.
Control Circuits
Individual circuits of an electrical control system are tested for continuity after control components are installed
in their permanent locations and before the initial energization of the control system. The testing of these
individual circuits is also called point-to-point wiring checks. If the functional operation of the control system
components was verified at the manufacturer’s plant, only that wiring which was installed at the equipment
users site needs to be tested for continuity.
In order to keep an account of which point-to-point circuits have already been tested for continuity, a copy of a
construction document (called an interwiring diagram) is marked with a red pencil. The interwiring diagram
also identifies the correct terminals between which each conductive path is supposed to exist.
The test equipment that can be is used to perform continuity tests includes test lamps, buzzers, and multimeters.
Figure 10 shows the circuit diagrams for tests that use these three types of continuity testers. A test lamp is a
device that has two probes, a low-voltage isolation transformer, and a lamp connected in a series circuit. When
the probes are touched to the two terminals of a continuous circuit, the lamp becomes illuminated. A buzzer is
similar to a lamp tester except that it has an audio signaling device rather than a lamp. Many models of digital
multimeters have a built-in audio signaling device that sounds when the two probes of the multimeter are
touched to the two terminals of a continuous circuit.
A test lamp, buzzer, or digital multimeter will signal that a circuit is continuous if its resistance is less than
approximately 150 ohms.
Grounding Systems
In addition to establishing plant electrical apparatus at earth potential, the conductors of a grounding system
also connect together the frames of individual apparatus. Continuity tests are periodically conducted to detect
open-circuit faults and high-resistance connections in these grounding system conductors. Grounding system
conductors are tested using a special test set called a safety-ground test set. In a safety-ground test, 5 to 300
amperes of direct current are made to flow in the grounding system conductors between the frames of two
pieces of electrical apparatus or between a frame and a derived neutral grounding point. The ability of
grounding conductors to carry 300 amperes for a short period of time proves their integrity.
Grounding system conductors are sometimes tested while substation apparatus or plant apparatus is energized.
To avoid electrical hazards, take special care not to disconnect any of the grounding system circuits. Although
voltage might not can be detected, handle test leads as if they are energized with several hundred volts.
• Short-circuit faults.
• Open-circuit faults.
• Intermittant-circuit faults.
Short Circuit
Short-circuit faults between control circuits can be discovered using a test lamp, buzzer, or a digital multimeter.
Short-circuit faults between series-connected components of a control circuit, heat tracing circuit, neutral
grounding resistor, or grounding system cause a decrease in circuit resistance. Circuit resistance measurements
made using an ohmmeter, Kelvin bridge, or digital low-resistance ohmmeter are compared with previous
resistance measurements to discover this decrease in resistance.
Open Circuit
Because control circuits, heat tracing circuits, neutral grounding resistors, and grounding system circuits usually
have parallel paths, an open circuit in a single path does not cause an open circuit resistance indication in a
circuit-continuity test. To detect open circuits in parallel paths, the circuit resistance is compared with previous
resistance measurements to detect an increase in resistance.
An increase in resistance compared to previous resistance measurements might also indicate the existence of a
high-resistance connection.
Intermittent Circuit
An intermittent circuit is a circuit that becomes continuous and discontinuous at irregular intervals. There are
several methods for evaluating an intermittent circuit: elevating or lowering the temperature of circuit
components to cause the intermittent circuit to become continually continuous or discontinuous, applying
impact force to components, applying mechanical stress to components, and replacing suspect components.
Terminal-to-terminal resistance tests are applied to resistance temperature detectors, motors, generators, and
transformers. The methods of performing terminal-to-terminal resistance tests on the following equipment are
explained briefly below:
The resistance measurements for two, three, and four-terminal RTDs are illustrated in Figure 11.
Two-Terminal − A single measurement of resistance, M 12, is made for a two-terminal RTD. Terminals C1 and
P1 of the Kelvin bridge are connected to RTD terminal 1. Terminals C2 and P2 of the Kelvin bridge are
connected to RTD terminal 2. M 12 is the measured resistance between terminal 1 and terminal 2.
Three-Terminal − Three measurements of resistance, M 12, M23, and M31, are made for a three-terminal RTD.
For each of these three measurements, the Kelvin bridge is connected to two RTD terminals.
Four-Terminal − One direct measurement of resistance is made for a four-terminal RTD. Terminals C1, P1,
P2, and C2 are connected to RTD terminals 4, 2, 1, and 3 respectively. The value of resistance measured using
this method does not include the resistance of the RTD leads.
Transformer Windings
A measurement of terminal-to-terminal resistance for a transformer is made using a digital low-resistance
ohmmeter, Ducter, or Kelvin bridge. Individual winding circuits of power transformers typically cannot be
isolated by changing external connections. The resistance of the individual circuits of a delta or a wye-
connected winding circuit can be resolved mathematically. Work Aid 2 contains a procedure for calculating the
resistance of individual winding circuits. The average winding temperature, as indicated by the winding’s
embedded detector or the transformer’s liquid temperature gauge, should be recorded with the terminal-to-
terminal resistance measurements.
Measuring Wye-Connected Winding Circuits − Refer to Figure 12a. For wye-connected windings that have
a neutral terminal, the following values of terminal-to-terminal resistance are measured:
Refer to Figure 12b. For wye-connected windings that do not have a neutral terminal, the following values of
terminal-to-terminal resistance are measured:
Measuring Delta-Connected Winding Circuits − Refer to Figure 12c. For delta-connected windings, the
following values of terminal-to-terminal resistance are measured:
Evaluation Factors
The sections below explain the factors that affect the evaluation of terminal-to-terminal resistance tests:
• Lead resistance.
• Average conductor temperature.
• Time and temperature.
• Trends.
Lead Resistance
The resistance of the leads of RTDs, motors, generators, and transformers influence the results of terminal-to-
terminal resistance measurements in different ways.
The resistance of the leads of a two-terminal RTD (see Figure 11a) will add ohmic value to the measurement of
the RTD’s resistance. For example, a two-terminal platinum RTD has approximately 112 ohms of resistance at
30° C temperature. If the RTD’s lead cables each have 0.1 ohm resistance, the measured terminal-to-terminal
resistance would be 112.2 ohms. This additional ohmic value represents a 0.18% addition. This extra
resistance corresponds to an extra 0.5 degree of temperature registration for this example RTD.
The exact resistance of a three-terminal RTD (see Figure 11b) is determined mathematically using the data
resulting from terminal-to-terminal resistance tests. The RTD resistance value is calculated using the following
formula, which eliminates the resistance of the leads:
M12 + M13
• R= − M23
2
• Where R is the resistance of the RTD, M 12 is the resistance measured between terminal 1 and terminal 2,
M13 is the resistance measured between terminal 1 and terminal 3, and M 23 is the resistance measured
between terminal 2 and terminal 3.
The exact resistance of a four-terminal RTD is measured directly using a Kelvin bridge. The resistance of the
RTD leads does not affect the result of this terminal-to-terminal resistance measurement.
The resistance of motor leads, generator leads, or transformer leads is a significant portion of the measured
value of terminal-to-terminal resistance. This error does not, however, prevent accurate evaluation of
commissioning or maintenance tests.
Trend
Trend analysis is the method used to evaluate terminal-to-terminal resistance tests that are made for purposes of
maintenance. The most recent resistance measurement is compared with past measurements to discover any
deteriorating trends. Rising values of resistance generally indicate the development of high-resistance joints or
open-circuit faults. Declining values of resistance generally indicate the development of short-circuit faults.
Constructions
The construction types of earth-resistance test sets are:
Most of the Saudi Aramco earth-resistance test sets are either the single-balance transformer type, having the
trade names Megger, Vibrometer, or Ground Ohmer, or the direct-reading Megger types which are used for less
critical tests.
Figure 14 is a line drawing of a single-balance transformer type of earth-resistance test set. The single-balance
transformer test set has four terminals marked C1, P1, P2, and C2 similar to a Ducter or a Kelvin Bridge. The
range switch and the measurement dials are changed until a null-balance indication shows on the detector. The
ohmic value of earth resistance is read from the numbers of the dials. The model shown in Figure 14 has a
hand-crank generator. Other models have a battery source of current rather than a generator.
Figure 15 is a line drawing of a direct reading Megger test set. The direct-reading test set has three terminals,
X, P, and C. The ohmic value of earth resistance is read directly from the scale of the test set.
Induced-polarization receiver and transmitter test sets are specialized electronic types which are used to measure
the earth resistance of the grounding components of high-voltage transmission towers.
Operational Principles
With the availability of single-balance transformer and direct-reading test sets, voltmeters and ammeters are
seldom used in industry for earth-resistance testing. A circuit diagram, such as the diagram in Figure 16, of a
voltmeter-ammeter test circuit is, however, useful for explaining the operational principles of all earth-
resistance test sets.
The electrode X is the permanently installed grounding electrode, sometimes called the made electrode, whose
resistance RX with respect to remote earth is to be measured. A low-voltage (6 to 50 volts AC) transformer
drives current into electrode X. This current, whose magnitude is indicated by ammeter A 1, flows through the
earth to the test probe Z. A voltmeter indicates voltage V 1 between electrode X and probe Y. The test probes Z
and Y also have resistance values R Z and RY with respect to remote earth. Because R Y is significantly smaller
than the impedance of the voltmeter, no appreciable error is introduced in the measurement due to the small
voltage drop across RY. The voltage drop across Rz is not in the loop of the voltmeter circuit. The resistance of
the grounding electrode RX is, therefore, equal to voltage V1 divided by current A1.
The internal and the external circuit of a single-balance transformer test set is shown in Figure 17. The
generator drives an AC current into the primary winding of the test set’s transformer and into electrode X. This
current returns to the generator through earth probe Z. The earth voltage between probe Y and electrode X is
balanced in the resistor network that consists of R A, RB, and the decade resistors against the voltage induced in
the secondary winding of the test set’s transformer. When the detector indicates a null balance, the ohmic value
of RX can be read from the measurement dials. The mechanical rectifier is mechanically linked to the generator
and makes the detector sensitive only to the output frequency of the generator. This synchronizing of the
detector with the generator makes a single-balance transformer test set insensitive to power-frequency earth
currents. Because this type of test set is a null-balance type, the accuracy of the earth-resistance measurement is
not sensitive to the impedance of the test leads or the impedance of the probes.
The operational principle of a direct-reading Megger test set similar to that of a Ducter or a megohmmeter. The
test set’s circuit diagram (Figure 18) shows its control coil and its deflecting coil. Earth resistance is read
directly from the scale of a direct-reading Megger test set.
Theories
An electrode buried in earth that has uniform resistivity radiates current in all directions. Shells of earth can be
imagined as surrounding the electrode. All the shells are of equal thickness (see Figure 19). The earth shell
nearest an electrode has the least surface area and, therefore, offers the greatest resistance to current flow. The
next earth shell has a larger area and offers less resistance. At some distance away from the electrode,
additional shells of earth do not add significantly to the resistance of the earth surrounding the electrode.
Spheres of Influence
Figure 19a shows a diagram of three rods driven into the ground. Earth shells are drawn around the electrode
X, which is the electrode that is permanently installed for grounding purposes. The outermost earth shells
define spheres of influence for electrode X and probe Z. If probe Y is moved in a straight line to various points
between electrode X and probe Z, a set of earth-resistance measurements would reveal a directly proportional
relationship between the distance of Y from X to the ohmic value of earth resistance. This relationship is a
direct proportion because probe Y is always within the spheres of influence of electrode X and probe Z.
Fall-of-Potential Profiles
Figure 19b shows a diagram of three rods driven into the ground but spaced at greater distances. If probe Y is
moved in a straight line to various points, a set of earth-resistance measurements would reveal ohmic values
increasing with distance but with a discernible flattening of the of the curvilinear relationship for positions of
probe Y that are not within the spheres of influence of either electrode X or probe Z. An earth-resistance-
versus-distance plot of this kind is called a fall-of-potential profile. The flat portion of the profile is usually
about 62% of the distance between electrode X and probe Z.
Methods
The three tests most often performed with an earth-resistance test set are the soil-resistivity test, fall-of-potential
earth-resistance test, and direct earth-resistance test.
• ρ=2πLR
• Where R is the measured resistance, L is the distance between probes in centimeters, and ρ is resistivity
in ohm-centimeters.
The plotted curve should have a relatively flat horizontal portion. The flatness of this horizontal portion is
evaluated by calculating its slope variation coefficient:
R 0.6 − R0.4
• µ=
R0.4 − R0.2
• Where µ is the slope variation coefficient, R 0.6 is the earth-resistance at distance 0.6C, R 0.4 is the earth-
resistance at distance 0.4C, and R 0.2 is the earth-resistance at distance 0.2C.
If µ is greater than 1.59, the earth-resistance values must be measured using a greater distance C.
If µ is within the range of 0.4 to 1.59, a distance PT is calculated. Distance PT is the distance that probe Y
should be placed from electrode X to measure the “true” earth-resistance value of electrode X.
• PT = (PT / C) × C
• Where PT is the distance to place probe Y for the final measurement, PT/C is a ratio that is read from a
table of values that are a function of the value of u, and C is the distance of probe Z from electrode X.
Figure 22 is an abbreviated table of values for the ratio PT/C. The complete table of values for PT/C can be
found in SADP-P-111, chapter 13.
Evaluation Factors
Factors that affect the evaluation of earth-resistance tests include climate condition, recent weather conditions,
soil temperature, soil composition, and the integrity of grounding system components.
Recent rain causes earth resistance to decrease. When comparing a recent measurement of earth-resistance with
past measurements, an approximate correction must be estimated to account for recent weather that might have
been unusually dry or unusually wet. Several measurements taken during a time interval of one year can be
analyzed to account for seasonal variations. Figure 24 shows the seasonal variation of earth resistance for two
different electrodes buried within the same substation. If the minimum required resistance criteria for each of
the electrodes is 50 ohms, only the electrode corresponding to Curve 2 meets the minimum criteria. This is true
even though the most recent data point for Curve 1 is less than 50 ohms.
Soil Temperature
Soil resistivity becomes greater when soil becomes cooler. Figure 25 is a table relating soil temperature to soil
resistivity for a sandy loam soil having 15% moisture content. The earth resistance of a grounding electrode
will change with temperature but is expected to meet minimum resistance requirements under any condition of
soil temperature. Whenever the water in soil freezes, soil resistivity becomes significantly greater.
Soil Composition
Soils of various compositions will have different values of resistivity. However, the earth resistance of a
grounding system and its individual components should meet their respective minimum requirements of ohmic
value without regard to variability in soil composition.
Electrolytes that are found naturally in soil or that are added to soil decrease resistivity. Typical electrolytes
added to soil to intentionally decrease its resistivity are magnesium sulfate, calcium chloride, copper sulfate,
and sodium chloride.
Earth-resistance tests are conducted for the purpose of discovering these faults.
Work Aid 1A: Non-Mandatory Test Report P-009, Circuit Breakers - Medium Voltage
(Handout 8)
For the contents of Test Report Form P-009, refer to Handout 8. Note: Handout 8 was used in Work Aid 1 of
the preceding Module.
2. Determine from the manufacturer’s instructional literature the minimum magnitude of current required
for performing a primary-circuit resistance test on the particular model of power circuit breaker that
was tested. Figure 29 is an excerpt from a manufacturer’s instruction book that contains a specification
for a magnitude of test current. If the manufacturer’s instructional literature does not contain a
specification for a minimum magnitude of test current, use 10 amperes as a minimum recommended
value.
3. If the manufacturer’s literature has no recommended value for maximum primary circuit resistance, use
the evaluation criteria given in Project Acceptance Committee Form P-000. Form P-000 states that any
value greater than 200 micro-ohms must be investigated.
4. Compare the maximum recommended value of resistance determined from step 1 or step 3 to each
value of primary circuit resistance given on the test record. If all test-record values are less than the
recommended value, the evaluation ends at this step.
5. Compare the minimum recommended value of test current determined in step 2 to the value of test
current given on the test record. The use of less than recommended current is a possible reason for
failing to meet the maximum criteria for a primary-circuit resistance test. If less than the recommended
current was used, the circuit breaker should be re-tested using the recommended value.
6. If the primary circuit resistance of any pole of the circuit breaker is greater than the maximum
recommended value, a physical inspection of main contacts, main contact springs, flexible shunts, and
current-carrying joints should be recommended.
Work Aid 2A: Non-Mandatory Test Report P-013, Grounding Systems (Handout 14)
For the contents of Test Report Form P-013, refer to Handout 14.
Work Aid 2B: Table of Circuit Resistance Values for Motor Contactor Electromagnet
Coils
A representative example of a manufacturer’s table of resistance values for electromagnet coils of motor
contactors is reporduced below.
Figure 30. Resistance Values of Electromagnet Coils for Westinghouse A200 Motor
Contactors
2. If the circuit continuity test was conducted on a neutral grounding resistor, compare the measured
value of resistance to the value stamped on the nameplate of the resistor. The measured value should
be the same as the nameplate value within plus or minus 10%. A greater resistance value indicates a
high-resistance or open-circuit fault. A lesser resistance indicates a short-circuit fault.
3. If the circuit continuity test was conducted on the conductors of a grounding system, the continuity of
the circuit is evaluated by its ability to conduct 300 amperes of alternating current for a short period of
time. An inability to carry 300 amperes indicates a high-resistance or open-circuit fault in a grounding-
system conductor, a fused connection, or a clamped connection.
4. If the circuit continuity test was conducted on an electromagnet coil of a motor contactor, compare the
measured resistance value with the value read from the coil manufacturer’s table of values. The
measured value should be equal to the table value within ±10. A representative example of a
manufacturer’s table is given in Work Aid 2B.
(TS + K)(RM )
• RS =
(TM + K)
• RS is the resistance corrected to the standard reference temperature.
• TS is the standard reference temperature. T S is equal to 25°C for motor windings and generator
windings. TS is equal to the rated average temperature rise plus 20°C for power transformers.
• TM is the average temperature of the circuit conductors at the time the terminal-to-terminal resistance was
measured.
2. If the circuit tested has only two terminals, compare the single value of temperature-corrected terminal-
to-terminal resistance to the temperature-corrected value of resistance that was recorded during
commissioning tests or to the value that was recorded at the manufacturer’s factory.
Note: There are no universally accepted criteria for evaluating a change in the terminal-to-terminal
resistance of a motor, generator, or transformer winding. Any evaluation is based on the subjective
judgment of the evaluating engineer. The International Electrical Testing Association’s publication
entitled Maintenance Testing Specifications states that a change in winding resistance should be no
greater than 1%. A 1% or greater change almost certainly indicates the existence of a winding fault
but does not suggest the nature of the fault.
3. If the circuit tested is a winding circuit that has a wye connection with no access to the common
(neutral) winding connection, the three, temperature-corrected, terminal-to-terminal resistance values
and the following formulae should be used to determine the resistance values of the individual winding
circuits:
M AB − M BC + MCA
• RAN =
2
M CA − M AB + MBC
• RCN =
2
• Where MAB is the measured resistance from terminal A to terminal B, M BC is the measured resistance
from terminal B to terminal C, and M CA is the measured resistance from terminal C to terminal A.
4.
f the circuit tested is a winding circuit that has a closed-delta connection, the three, temperature-corrected,
terminal-to-terminal resistance values and the following formulae should be used to determine the
resistance values of the individual winding circuits:
• RAB =
[
2MABMBC + 2MBC MCA + 2M CAMAB − (M AB ) + ((M BC ) + (M CA )
2 2 2
]
−2MAB + 2MBC + 2M CA
• RBC =
[
2MABMBC + 2MBCM CA + 2M CAMAB − (MAB ) + ((MBC ) + (M CA )
2 2 2
]
2M AB − 2MBC + 2MCA
• RCA =
[
2M ABM BC + 2MBCMCA + 2MCAM AB − (M AB ) + ((MBC ) + (MCA )
2 2 2
]
2M AB + 2MBC − 2MCA
• Where MAB is the measured resistance from terminal A to terminal B, M BC is the measured resistance
from terminal B to terminal C, and M CA is the measured resistance from terminal C to terminal A.
5. If the values of resistance measured at the factory or measured at the time of commissioning are
terminal-to-terminal resistance values, determine the individual winding resistance values using the
formulae of step 3 for a wye connection or using step 4 for a delta connection.
6. Compare the three individual winding resistance values calculated in step 3 or step 4 to the values
measured at the factory or at the time of commissioning. If the resistance of any winding has changed
by more than 1%, a set of additional electrical tests should be recommended to determine the nature of
the winding fault.
Note: The purpose of calculating individual winding resistance values is to identify which winding
contains a fault. The faulted winding cannot be identified using the terminal-to-terminal resistance
values alone because a single fault causes all of the terminal-to-terminal resistance values to change.
Work Aid 4A: Non-Mandatory Test Report P-013, Grounding System (Handout 15)
For the contents of Test Report Form P-013, refer to Handout 14.
1. If the measured earth resistance of a single electrode of a grounding system is greater than 25 ohms,
then the installation of an extra ground electrode should be recommended. The National Electrical
Code (NEC) states in its article 250-84, “A single electrode consisting of a rod, plate, or pipe that does
not have a resistance to ground of 25 ohms or less shall be augmented by one additional electrode of
any of the types specified in section 250-81 or 250-83.”
2. If the earth-resistance measurement was made on a grounding system after its installation or after
modification, and the grounding system is associated with a power circuit greater than 600 volts, the
earth-resistance should not be greater than 2 ohms. An earth resistance greater than 2 ohms represents
a conflict with Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-P-111 and, therefore, should be resolved by
the Saudi Aramco Chief Engineer.
3. If the earth resistance of a grounding system of a communication facility central office is more than 5
ohms, a deviation exists with SADP-P-111. A report of this deviation should be made to the manager
of the Consulting Services Department.
4. If the earth resistance of a grounding system of a communication facility remote repeater is more than
25 ohms, a deviation exists with SADP-P-111. A report of this deviation should be made to the
manager of the Consulting Services Department.
5. If the measured earth resistance of a grounding system is greater than a site-specific criteria, a report of
this deviation should be made to the manager of the Consulting Services Department.
Note: The development of site-specific earth-resistance criteria is beyond the scope of this training.
Site-specific criteria, when they exist, are based on SAES-P-111 paragraph 4.1.4 which states that
ground resistance shall not exceed 2 ohms and shall be determined in accordance with touch and step
potentials as defined in ANSI/IEEE standard 80.
GLOSSARY
derived neutral The point of connection of a power distribution
circuit’s neutral conductor to the winding circuit
of a source-of-power transformer or generator.
primary circuit (circuit breaker) The circuit of a circuit breaker that comprises all
of the conductive components that carry load
current.