Chapter 8

The Determinants of Morality

According to St. Thomas Aquinas a thing is good with the
perfection of its parts and evil from any defect. In other words, you can
only say that the thing is good if all its essential elements are presents
and functioning well. Any little defect or wrong to a thing you can no
longer say, it is good.

Therefore, in the same manner, as a human act, to be morally

acceptable, it must be morally perfect in all its aspects. Thus the
determinants of morality are employed as the basis for judging whether
an act is good or evil, moral or immoral.

The following are three determinants of the morality of human

acts, namely; 1. The end of the act itself, 2. The end of the doer, and 3.
The circumstances of the act.

I – The End of the Act Itself

The end of the act is the natural termination or completion of an

act. And it determines whether an act is intrinsically good or evil and
extrinsically good or evil.
1. An intrinsic good act is an act that is consistent with the natural tendencies of
human nature. Example; loving, caring, giving, sharing, nurturing, and
etcetera.
 2. An intrinsic evil act is an act which is contrary to reason. These are human
actions as being contrary to the natural law. Examples; murder, abortion,
kidnapping, rape, and robbery.
3. Extrinsic good nor evil acts are actions that are neutral to the norm of morality.
These actions are either good or bad, not on account of their nature, but
because of factors or circumstances in concomitant to them.

For example; talking is a person’s natural tendency. But if it causes

disturbance to others it’s no longer good.
Take note that intrinsically evil actions are prohibited at all times. But
extrinsically evil actions may be permitted when the factors which render
them evil are removed or corrected.
Note; Pain or pleasure does not define whether an act is moral or
immoral. For example, a sexual act could be moral or immoral regardless of
whether it is a painful or pleasurable experience.

II – The End of the Doer

The end of the doer is the purpose or motive which the doer wishes to
accomplish by his action. Thus, without a motive, an act is accidental or
involuntary. A good motive is truthful, prudent (wise), temperate, and just.
“This is the most loving of all in a given situation.”

1. The fundamental moral principle

The end does not justify the means is the fundamental moral principle.
It affirms that one should not do wrong to attain a good purpose. This means
 that the motive of a person no matter how noble it is, it does not excuse an
intrinsically evil act. For example, the desire to pass a subject does not justify
a student cheating in the examination. In some manner, the need to feed a
family does not justify stealing. The desire to know the truth does not justify
the torture of a suspect by the police officer. The fundamental rule is – don’t
do wrong even if, it will result in something good.

2. Motive and Action

The correlation between motive and act is defined in the following principles.
1. An evil act that is done on account of an evil motive is grievously wrong. For
example, stealing money to buy shabu.
2. A good action done on account of an evil motive becomes evil itself. Example,
hypocrisy. (double standard, insincerity, pretense)
3. A good action done on account of a good purpose acquires additional merit.
For example, a student who gives his best in his study to get an excellent
grade.
4. The indifferent acts may either become good or bad depending on the motive
of the doer. Example; singing, sleeping, resting

III – Circumstance of the act

This is the historical elements surrounding the commission of an act,

such as the status of the doer, the place, the time, and the intensity of an act.
These circumstances are hinted by the interrogative pronouns – who, what,
where, with whom, why, how, and when.
The morally Good Act

A morally good act is that which sounds in all aspects – in its nature,
motive, and circumstances. In the scripture, the morally upright is a just man,
one who weighs his actions concerning what the law demands, to what the
circumstances would allow, and to what fits his nature as a rational being. A
morally good action, therefore, is a just act. – makatarongan, makata-o, at
maka-Diyos.

The Relevance of the Law TO HUMAN ACTS

Laws mandate some actions as prohibited and others as permitted and
required. In this manner, laws are considered as determinants of human
behavior. Thus some people do not do what is good unless they are forced to.
Laws are made for those who are weak in character – St. Thomas Aquinas.
The society adopts laws to protect its members from themselves or from
those who might want to hurt them. By prescribing punishment for
transgressions, laws encourage and compel people to act for the good of all.
Therefore, everyone should obey the law or risk of being punished. As
authorities would put it – “dura lex, sed lex’ the law is harsh, but it is the law”
so everyone must obey.
The Definition of Law

Law is an ordinance of reason, promulgated for the common good by

one who has charge of society (S.t Thomas Aquinas).
It is an Ordinance of Reason in the sense that they are results of serious
study, deliberation, or public debate.
It is promulgated in the sense that they are made known to the people
who are bound to observe them.
It is for the common good in the sense that the purpose of the law is the
general welfare of the people.
They are enacted by who has charge of society in the sense that only
those who have legitimate authority to govern may pass laws.

Kinds of Law

1. Divine Positive Law

These are those made known to men by God. Such as the Decalogue
(ten commandments), this is also called moral laws because they are
concerned with moral acts. Violation of these laws constitutes a sin.

2. Human positive law

These are laws made by legitimate human authority, such as the laws
enacted by the State or the Church. Human positive laws are intended to
preserve peace and order and to direct members to work towards the common
good. They may also have as their direct object the moral acts. Violation of
these laws constitutes an illegal act. The constitution and civil Code embody
 the laws of the Philippines. Canon law embodies the laws of the Catholic
Church.

3. Affirmative and Negative Laws

Both divine and human positive laws are either affirmative or negative.
1. Affirmative laws are those that require the performance of an act.
Example, honoring God and Parents, paying taxes, etc.
2. Negative laws are those that prohibit the performance of an act.
For example, thou shall not kill, no smoking, etc.

Moral laws and Conscience

Moral laws are those derived from natural law. They are the inherent
and essential tendencies of human nature so that they are thought of as being
written in the hearts of men. They regulate thoughts and feelings.
Moral laws are enforced by personal commitment in the absence of a
threat of corporal punishments or sanctions. Moral laws are said to bind in
conscience because they impose upon the person a moral obligation to accept
the law and comply with it. Moral laws then are enforced by personal
convictions rather than by the threat of corporal punishment.
On the other hand, human laws regulate only external acts when these
are manifested and observed. They do not regulate their thoughts and feelings.
Thus a person may not be arrested for wanting to murder until such time when
he attempts it. Hence; human laws do not bind conscience and are purely
penal, that is, they are enforced by police powers and justice is served when
the culprit suffers the punishment.
Properties of a Just Law
A human law, to be accepted as just, must have the following properties:
1. Human law must conform to divine laws. This is because all legitimate
authority comes from God. Therefore, no human authority may contradict
God’s will as manifested in natural law or divine positive laws.
2. Human law must promote the common good. The common good is the
communal benefit, material and spiritual, necessary for the promotion of
human life. The common good consist of economic prosperity, peace and
order, health, education, and moral instruction of the members of society.
3. Human law must not discriminate against certain individuals or groups. It
must apply proportionately to all members of society so the needs of each one
are served.
4. Human law must be practicable. A law that imposed undue hardships and
sacrifices in its compliance is not just.
5. Human law must be flexible. It must provide limits and define the basis for
exemption.
6. A law must be amendable. The conditions and reasons for law do change.
Therefore, a law should be amendable and changeable.
 Chapter 9
The Norms of Morality

The norms of morality are the criteria for judgment about the sorts of persons
we ought to be and the sorts of actions we ought to perform.
The moral norms are the criteria for judging the quality of the character, to
what sort of person one ought to become, and the quality of an act, to what sort of
action one ought to be done.
Hence, the quality of character takes precedence over the quality of actions,
because actions are only the product of character. Thus, the kind of person we are
determines the kind of action we do. This means action reflects character.
The word “ought” in the definition implies a duty or obligation. It means that
a person’s action should possess a certain quality, or it falls short of the standard.
The phrase “criteria for judgment” implies the use of reason in determining the
quality being measured. In this manner the norm of morality is not a blueprint for
action, nor a set of laws, rather it is a rational assessment of the worthiness or
unworthiness of a person or an act based on the given standard or criteria.

Basis of moral judgment

Moral judgment is based on the norms of morality, namely; the eternal law, natural
law, and reason
- Eternal law is the ultimate norm of morality
- Natural law is the remote norm of morality
- Conscience (reason) is the proximate norm of morality
Note; Since both natural law and reason are derived from the eternal law, therefore,
there is only one and ultimate basis of morality – GOD.

1. The Eternal Law

Eternal law is the divine wisdom directing all actions and movements of all created
beings. This concept of an eternal law is inferred from the order and harmony in the
created universe. The ancient Greeks referred to the universe as “cosmos” and spoke
of “cosmic order”. Thus the term natural order is referred to the harmony present in
the material universe. In the natural order, every creature acts and reacts according
to the demands of its nature.

2. The Natural Law

Natural law refers to the operational tendencies of human nature. This means the
chemical, biological, physiological, and rational properties of man as an organism.
According to St. Thomas Aquinas, the natural law is the rational participation of the
creatures/created beings to the eternal law and provides the possibilities and
potentialities which the human person can use to the human life truly human.

Therefore, natural law is the tendency of human nature towards growth and self-
fulfillment. Thus anything contributing to the actualization of man’s potential is
morally good; and anything that contradicts the self-realization of a person as a
person is morally evil. The morally good act contributes to the integration of a
person, while the morally evil act causes its disintegration.
Characteristics of Natural Law
1. It is universal – because it is human nature which is shared by all men, though
realized differently according to their respective cultures.
2. It is obligatory – because the tendencies of our human nature are the laws of
our desires and actuations which we cannot ignore without dire consequences.
3. It is recognizable – because man being self-reflexive, is aware of his nature,
of what he is and he is capable of and what is expected to him by his kind.
4. It is immutable and unchangeable – because, although change is a rule of life,
human nature in its essentiality and substantiality remains permanent and
unchangeable.

3. Conscience
While natural law is the tendency towards good in general, conscience is the choice
of a particular good in a given situation. People refer to conscience as “the voice of
God” a whisper of admonition.
Conscience is the practical judgment of reason telling us what should be done
because it is good, or what should be avoided because it is evil. The judgment is
practical because it leads to a course of action.
Conscience is “judgment of reason” because it derives from our understanding of
what ought to be done as good and what ought to be avoided as evil. This how actions
are said to be under the dictate of reason.
Moral decisions may sometimes require serious study and deliberation, but the
urging of conscience is often spontaneous and instantaneous. Thus conscience is
considered as the “voice of God”.
Conscience has two functions, before the commission of an act, conscience directs
towards what is good. After the commission of an act, conscience either approves or
reproves the act. A reproaching conscience punishes the doer with remorse. An
approving conscience rewards the doer with peace of mind.

NB: Action flows from a character like water flows from the spring. If the spring is
contaminated, the water coming from it is also polluted. If a man has an evil
character, his actions are likewise evil.
 Chapter 10
The Human Value

The ultimate good man consists of an aggregate of goods that would help him
attain happiness in this life. Thus anything which contributes to man’s development,
comfort, and well-being is a value.

The meaning of values

A value is anything that satisfies a human need. It is identical to the “good”
of Aristotle. This means that anything which enriches our experiences of life is a
value, such as a person, a relationship, a feeling, an object, a place, an event, an
opportunity, a profession, a work, travel, or a state of being. Therefore, one’s life
and beliefs are values.

The significance of Values

Our ultimate happiness in this life consists in the sum of earthly goods
essential to us. In this manner, values relate to our ultimate purpose, to that which
would make us completely happy. In this respect, our actions are significant because
they are how we attain happiness. Good actions are those that bring happiness. Evil
actions are those that bring unhappiness.
Morally good actions are authentic values, while immoral actions are apparent
(deceptive) values, which mean evil in disguise as good. These evil acts often
promise pleasure or profit; however, they lead to pain and misery. Remember that
immoral actions do not fit human nature, in this sense immoral actions are contrary
to natural law.
To sum up: values enrich our experience of life and bring us happiness.
: Actions are values because they are the means we employ to attain
happiness
: Morally good actions bring happiness, while immoral actions bring
unhappiness.

Kinds of Values

1. Biological Values
These values are necessary for the physical survival and growth of man, such as;
food, shelter, pleasure, sex, sports, career, health, and medicines.

2. Psychological Values
These values are necessary to the psychological maturation of man, such as;
companionship, friendship, marriage, family life, and social interaction.

3. Intellectual Values
These values are necessary to the mental fulfillment of man, such as truth, science,
art, and religion.

4. Moral Values
These values are necessary for the development of character.
More so, we also speak of cultural values – those that are shared in a community
such as, ideals, laws, customs, beliefs, rituals, and ceremonies. Some values are
described as religious, economic, or aesthetic.
The Hierarchy of Values

Values are not equal in their respective worth. Since from the time of the
Greek philosophers to the present, moral values are held as more important than the
others. The hierarchy of values refers to the ranking of values from lowest to
highest.

MORAL VALUES
The moral values corresponding to spiritual development and the highest in the
hierarchy. These values constitute moral integrity.

INTELLECTUAL VALUES
The intellectual values corresponding to our mental growth are the higher middle
values. In this category, the most fundamental value is the Truth. The value of
science, arts, technology, and experience is a means of acquiring
knowledge.

PSYCHOLOGICAL VALUES
The psychological values corresponding to our psychological growth are the lower
middle values. The fundamental value is the category is Love, which is the
foundation of friendship, marriage, family, or community.

BIOLOGICAL VALUES
The biological values, which correspond to our survival and procreation, are the
lowest in rank. The most fundamental value in this category is self-
preservation/health. The other values such as food, exercise, work, pleasure, and sex,
are the means of sustaining and promoting physical life.
Social Dimension of Values

The authenticity of values consists in their being shared with others.

The higher a value goes up the ranking the more it becomes altruistic.
The lower values are seen as competitive and egotistic because they tend towards
the accumulation of material possession which man finds difficult to share with
others. Thus, men would not easily share food and would wage war to defend or
acquire the source of food. On the other hand, the psychological value of love lends
itself to sharing with others. Friendship, for instance, is possible only with mutual
respect and care.
The nature of intellectual value is also altruistic. People find it easy to
talk, to communicate, and to share the news. Knowledge lends itself to sharing. Thus,
tinkers share their thoughts, inventors share their inventions, teachers share their
skills, and artists share their artworks.
Moral values are even more meaningful because it allows man to live
with others in peace and harmony. The virtue of charity and justice are the
foundation of society. No society would be possible where men do not have goodwill
towards one another.
Just as a child grows up with the parents, a human being grows and
becomes an authentic person only in the community with others. This is what God
means when He said “It is not good for man to alone; I will give him a helper who
will be like him”. Gen. 2:18.
Moral Values
 Moral values are those about the functions of the intellect and the will
– our choices, decisions, actions, and habits. Moral values relate to our spiritual
growth.
Strictly speaking, only those related to spiritual growth are moral
values. But in the context of integral perfection, all values whether biological or
social, acquire moral significance. For instance, eating becomes the object of
temperance, so that overindulgence in food is gluttony. Again while eating is a
necessity, the act of fasting is also required for a medical, political, religious, or
moral purpose. In this sense, every human activity has a moral dimension and,
depending on one’s motive, an innocent act like working or playing may be moral
or immoral.

Characteristics of Moral Values

Moral values have the following characteristics:

1. They have intrinsic worth.
This means that moral values are in themselves good independent of our opinion of
them.
2. They are universally accepted by all people.
In this manner, no one would find fault in helping the needy, or testifying the truth
of something, or working honestly for a living. Thus the Bill of Rights is accepted
by the community of nations.
3. They are obligatory.
This means that a person, when so capacitated, is duty-bound to do what is
good when the situation demands it. Thus, one is duty-bound to return its rightful
owner a lost-and-found property. Likewise, one is duty-bound to help accident
victims. This also means that every person is obliged to be honest, to be respectful
of 0thers, to be diligent, and to avoid doing what harms others.

Choosing Values

Since values have relative worth, a person has to choose those which
are relevant to him. These guidelines serve a purpose:
1. Permanent or lasting values must be preferred temporary or perishable ones.
For example, education is objectively better than leisure; moral habit better than
physical strength.
2. Values favored by the majority must be preferred over those appealing only
to a few.
For example, marriage is better than staying single; wealth is better than staying
poor.
3. Essential values must be preferred over accidental values.
For example, a good reputation is better than being pretty; attending to parental
duties better than involvement in social gatherings or parties.
4. Moral values must be preferred over physical values.
For example, the practice of religion is better than sports; feeding the orphans is
better than spending money luxuriously.

Moral habits
 Moral character is the sum of man’s good habits. Habit comes from the Latin
word “habere” which means -to have or to possess. Man’s habits are either entitative
or operative.
Entitative habits predispose a man to acquire a certain nature or quality, like
being healthy, being beautiful, being intelligent, or being rich.
Operative habits predispose a man to act readily towards a purpose, like
singing, dancing, playing basketball, or helping others. The operative habit of doing
well is called virtue, but that of doing evil is vice.
Virtues about the mental or intellectual operation are called intellectual virtue;
those about the will are called moral virtues.

Moral Virtues
There are four kinds of moral virtues, namely; prudence, justice,
fortitude, and temperance.
1. Prudence enables a person to know the best means to employ in attaining a
purpose. A prudent person weighs the pros and cons of the situation and acts
with reasonable caution.
2. Justice inclines a person to give to everyone what is due. A just person pays
his legal debts, honors his elders, observes the laws of society, and worship
God.
3. Fortitude gives a person the strength of the will to face dangers and problems
in life. A person of fortitude is not easily discouraged and is ready to stand by
what is right.
4. Temperance moderates a person’s instincts and emotions. A temperate person
is not given to inordinate anger, jealousy, desire, or love.
Intellectual Virtues

There are four kinds of intellectual virtues namely; understanding, science,

art, and wisdom.
1. Understanding is the habit or intuition of the first principles, such as “the
whole is greater than the sum of any of its parts.” Another example, that doing
well is better than doing bad. In other words, this is what we called common
sense or initiative.
2. Science is the habit of proximate causes, why things are such because of their
nature or natural properties. Thus we have different sciences in different fields
of study.
3. Art is the habit of making beautiful things, such as in literature, architecture,
and fine arts.
4. Wisdom is the habit of the ultimate causes, such as the interdependence of
created things in the eco-system; or how the negative emotions of man – like
hatred, anger, or sadness are not signs of weakness but are instincts for self-
preservation and growth.

To sum it up, we say that Moral integrity is man’s true worth. With it,
you distinguish or called a Good person, or (mabuting tao).
Without it, you are called a bad person ( masamang tao)
 Chapter 11
Filipino Values

Filipino values are our cultural values. They sum up our responses to
the meaning of human life in the context of the cultural setting. They show our
strengths and weaknesses as people.

Filipino Cultural Values

Cultural values are “ our distinctive way of becoming human in this particular
place and time (Vitaliano Gorospe, Filipino Values Revisited, 104). The concept of
“becoming human” means “pagpapakatao.

Filipino values spring from our peculiar way of viewing life – its origin, its
meaning, and its purpose. Foremost among our values is pananalig sa Maykapal.
The Filipino puts his trust entirely in God’s hand. He believes that his destiny, or
suwerte, depends on God’s wishes.

The Filipino calls to God when things are bad, when there is a calamity or an
epidemic, or when a friend or relative is sick. He praises God for a good harvest, for
passing Board exams, for the return of the stolen property, for surviving an illness
or an accident, and for living a long life. He attributes his misfortunes to his
sinfulness and he vows to endure physical suffering in the atonement of his sins. He
entrusts to God any unresolved issues or suffered injustice – “ipapasa-diyos na
lamang”. And he swears to God to prove his honesty, swearing – Sumpa man sa
Diyos.
 The Filipino expresses concerns to others through pakikipagkapua,
pagmamahal, sa familia, and pagmamahal sa bayan. He believes in himself and his
abilities.

Filipino Moral Ideal

The Filipino believes moral integrity is the essentiality of “becoming human”.

It is above the desire for material enrichment – “Di baling mahirap, basta’t may
dangal”.

The Filipino moral ideal coincides with what other people of any culture
regards as the greatest attribute of a human being. A person must be caring, honest,
hardworking, and respectful of others. He must have an impeccable character.
Failing the moral standard makes a person masamang tao, and is looked down on as
hayop, or walang hiya, a shameless beast.

Characteristics of a Responsible person

1. A responsible person differentiates between what is essential from what is

accidental.
The Filipino must cultivate his sensibility so he can discern what is good or
bad in a situation. He must be able to see through the actuations of do-gooders so
that he is not deceived by false promises or pretenses.
 2. A responsible person internalizes his values.
Values must be ingested and digested, so to speak, so that they become part
of your character. An act of kindness, for example, must come from the heart. And
when we say we love God, it is loving God – with all our mind and with all our soul.

3. A responsible person accepts the consequences of his actions.

When the Filipino wishes to guarantee the truth of anything, he swears by his
life, declaring “ mamatay man ako”. Filipino needs more than just rhetorical words.
He needs to show deeper maturity, accepting his mistakes instead of attributing them
to others.

Core Values of the Filipino

Moral maturity is a process of change. It means a new way of thinking, a new
perception of realities. For Filipino, this growth begins with a fresh view of human
dignity. While the significance of human dignity has always been part of the Filipino
tradition, somehow its true meaning has been lost in the national consciousness of
the people.. Today, for example, people rarely act based on “delicadeza”

The education of the Filipinos should center on these values, namely – Truth,
Love, and Faith; Integrity, Industry, and Social Justice.
1. Truth, Love, and Faith:
One should seek the truth relevant to his circumstances. Applying oneself to
research or seeking the counsel of prudent men leads to proper instruction. On the
other hand, listening to rumors and gossips is always risky.
 Love for the good should be the basis of decisions and choices. One should
be ready to choose not based on what is pleasant or unpleasant, convenient, or
inconvenient, but solely based on what is objectively good under the circumstances.
Religious faith is needed too. Reason and good intentions are not enough.
There are many riddles in life which only faith can answer.
2.Integrity
The word stands for completeness. It connotes perfection, adhering to what
is truth and committing oneself to what is good. It means condemning deceit,
cheating, stealing, fraud, hypocrisy, and dishonesty in all forms, such as “lagay,
padulas, areglo, palusot, kaplastikan, and palakasan.
3.Industry
Filipinos believe in honest work and have qualms about feeding their families
through ill-gotten money. The desire to improve his life and that of the family drives
the Filipino to work any place in the world, and where he goes he is recognized for
his competence, diligence, and honesty.
On the other hand, an inordinate desire to get rich quickly and to accumulate
too much is dangerous to the soul. When a materialistic goal becomes the primary
and sole reason for working, work becomes an excuse for greed and contention.

4.Social Justice
Social justice is more than just the act of charity. It is founded on the truths
which hold all earthly goods as belonging to all men and to be distributed equally by
them, (nb; not in the mathematical sense of equality but prudential sense), so that
everyone has access to a decent life.
On a personal level, social justice urges one to help the poor in every way
possible, not because it is the pious thing to do, but because every capable individual
has to do so. Social justice demands that we share our good fortune with the less
fortunate.

Indeed, the Filipino must stand against poverty, for poverty is neither an
option nor a choice, but it is a social evil that needs to be eradicated by those who
are exercising power in the government. This is the basis of the land reform program
of the Philippines which, however, remains ineffective, causing endless conflict
between landowners and tenants.

Conclusion
We Filipinos have our strengths and weaknesses. But, like all other
people in the world, we possess a beautiful soul. We are religious, helpful, diligent,
truthful, and honest.
Anywhere in the world today, a Filipino is admired for his honesty, competence, and
dedication to work. Be one of them, but first you should FORM YOUR
CHARACTER. And it will become your best asset wherever you go. YOU MAY
FORGET ME AS YOUR TEACHER, BUT DO NOT FORGET TO GOOD
ALWAYS.