processes
Article
Electrothermal Desiccant Regeneration Technique for
Air Dehumidification
Chih-Hao Chen * , Yu-Hao Kang, Jing-Hung Lu






Citation: Chen, C.-H.; Kang, Y.-H.;
Lu, J.-H.; Hung, M.-L.; Perng, J.-C.;
Chen, J.-J. Electrothermal Desiccant
Regeneration Technique for Air
Dehumidification. Processes 2021, 9,
1082. https://doi.org/10.3390/
pr9071082
Academic Editor: Evangelos Tsotsas
Received: 29 May 2021
Accepted: 20 June 2021
Published: 22 June 2021
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Processes 2021, 9, 1082. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9071082
, Ming-Lang Hung, Jyi-Ching Perng and Jiun-Jen Chen
Green Energy and Environment Research Laboratories, Industrial Technology Research Institute,
Hsinchu 310401, Taiwan; derekkang@itri.org.tw (Y.-H.K.); jinghunglu@itri.org.tw (J.-H.L.);
MLHung@itri.org.tw (M.-L.H.); pengcc@itri.org.tw (J.-C.P.); JiunJenChen@itri.org.tw (J.-J.C.)
* Correspondence: itriA50019@itri.org.tw; Tel.: +886-3-5917956
Abstract: Adsorption dehumidification and drying equipment is essential general equipment for
domestic and industrial use. The most commonly used type in industry is the compressed air
adsorption dryer. The analysis results show that the heat loss of the traditional heat air regeneration
system of the compressor dryer is 39.4%, and the exhaust waste heat is 32.4%. The actual use
of heat energy for desiccant regeneration is only 28.2%. Therefore, this study uses an innovative
electrothermal adsorbent unit (ETAU) to regenerate the desiccant. By directly heating the adsorbent,
heat loss can be effectively improved. On the other hand, the composite arrangement of zeolite
and activated alumina is used. The inlet compressed air is firstly treated by the activated alumina,
which has a high adsorption capacity in the high relative humidity condition, then a zeolite is used
as a second part to make the dew point reach –40 ◦ C. In the regeneration step, the airflow direction
is reversed, whereby the zeolite is regenerated by the ETAU, and the waste heat of the exhaust
air is used to regenerate the activated alumina, which reduces the temperature of the exhaust air.
Compared with the traditional heat air compressed air system, the two technologies can save about
27% energy in total.
Keywords: electrothermal adsorbent unit; compressed air dryer; desiccant regeneration
1. Introduction
Dry compressed air, one of the four primary dynamic sources in industrial plants, is
used for various industrial applications, such as in high-tech cleaning processes, drying
and cleanliness control, car panel beating and painting processes, food manufacturing,
pharmaceutical manufacturing, and energy storage [1–4]. These applications require
high-quality and low-moisture dry compressed air with a dew point in the −20 ◦ C to
−70 ◦ C range to maintain process stability and prevent corrosion. Therefore, the process
of drying compressed air is essential. In the refrigeration dehumidification method, the
operating temperature cannot be less than 0 ◦ C; hence, an adsorption dehumidification
method unaffected by temperature constraints is necessary for compressed air drying
processes. For example, Yin et al. [5] and Senanayake et al. [6] have used a pressurized
liquid desiccant and activated carbon, respectively, to dehumidify compressed air. A new
type of desiccant, called metal-organic framework (MOF), was also used by Guo et al. [7]
in compressed air dryers. However, all desiccants tend to saturate after adsorption, and
therefore air with low relative humidity [8] or high temperature [9] must generally be used
to regenerate adsorbents.
A typical heatless compressed air dryer extracts 30–50% dry compressed air from a
compressed air system outlet. It drops to atmospheric pressure, creating an environment
with a low relative humidity that regenerates desiccants. This process entails very a high
energy consumption (approximately 2.0 kW/CMMcompressed air ). Heated-air regeneration
methods, compared with heatless dryers, enhance the regeneration efficiency of desiccants
and divide them into two major types: regenerated source switching [10] and desiccant
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 Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 18

Processes 2021, 9, 1082 2 of 18

methods, compared with heatless dryers, enhance the regeneration efficiency of desic-
cants and divide them into two major types: regenerated source switching [10] and desic-
cant switching (e.g., desiccant wheel [11] and fluidized bed methods [12]). The regenera-
switching (e.g., desiccant wheel [11] and fluidized bed methods [12]). The regeneration
tion procedure
procedure principle
principle of theof the compressed
compressed air and
air dryer dryerthe and the atmospheric
atmospheric dryer is dryer is the
the same.
same.
In bothInheated-air
both heated-air regeneration
regeneration types, types,
the airthe
mustair must
first befirst be heated,
heated, following
following which which
the
the heated air is used to heat the adsorbents. Such indirect heating methods
heated air is used to heat the adsorbents. Such indirect heating methods entail excessive entail exces-
sive losses.
heat heat losses.
FigureFigure 1 shows
1 shows the the energy
energy analysis
analysis of of
thethe traditionalcompressed
traditional compressedair airdryer
dryer
by the Industrial Technology Research Institute in Taiwan. Only
by the Industrial Technology Research Institute in Taiwan. Only 28.2% of the heat was28.2% of the heat was
used for adsorbent regeneration. The pipe and container heat loss of
used for adsorbent regeneration. The pipe and container heat loss of the heated-air-flow the heated-air-flow
compressedair
compressed airdryer
dryerwaswasapproximately
approximately39.4%.39.4%.Moreover,
Moreover,because
becauseof ofthe
thepressure
pressuredropdrop
and nonuniform distribution in the adsorbent packed-bed, overheating
and nonuniform distribution in the adsorbent packed-bed, overheating (to 200 C) was (to 200◦ °C) was
necessary to ensure that each portion of the packed-bed could achieve
necessary to ensure that each portion of the packed-bed could achieve the regeneration the regeneration
temperatureof
temperature of140
140◦°C (thedesiccant
C (the desiccantisiszeolite).
zeolite).Therefore,
Therefore,the theheat
heatwaste
wastewaswasas ashigh
highasas
32.4%. The heat loss and the heat waste of exhaust air are two leading
32.4%. The heat loss and the heat waste of exhaust air are two leading causes of energy causes of energy
consumptionin
consumption incompressed
compressedair airdryers.
dryers.

Figure1.1.Energy
Figure Energyanalysis
analysisof
ofheated-air-flow
heated-air-flowcompressed
compressedair
airdryer.
dryer.

For solving the heat loss problem in the desiccant regeneration process, the direct
For solving the heat loss problem in the desiccant regeneration process, the direct
electrothermal regeneration technique, illustrated in Figure 2, was invented. The adsorbent
electrothermal regeneration technique, illustrated in Figure 2, was invented. The adsor-
(desiccant) is attached to an electrothermal metal, so it is directly heated through solid
bent (desiccant) is attached to an electrothermal metal, so it is directly heated through
thermal conductivity, which reduces the time required for heating and the heat loss in
solid thermal conductivity, which reduces the time required for heating and the heat loss
the system. Through a low-cost roll-to-roll process, the adsorbent and metal were curled
in the system. Through a low-cost roll-to-roll process, the adsorbent and metal were
into a wheel form. With an innovative parallel channel design, corrugated metal sheets
curled into a wheel form. With an innovative parallel channel design, corrugated metal
curled with the adsorbent automatically produce airflow channels in the wheel. This
sheets curled with the adsorbent automatically produce airflow channels in the wheel.
structure reduced the pressure drop by approximately 80%, enhancing the heat and mass
This structure reduced the pressure drop by approximately 80%, enhancing the heat and
transfer and ensuring uniform heating. Any solid desiccant, such as zeolite and silica
mass transfer and ensuring uniform heating. Any solid desiccant, such as zeolite and silica
gel, can be used in this process to produce appropriate electrothermal adsorbent units
gel, can suitable
(ETAUs) be usedfor
in various
this process to produce appropriate
air dehumidification electrothermal
applications, adsorbent
including industrial units
drying,
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW(ETAUs) suitable for various air dehumidification applications, including industrial 3 ofdry-
18
domestic dehumidification and cooling [13–15], and even waste gas treatment [16], which
ing, ETAUs
uses domestic dehumidification
replace and cooling
the original desiccant [13–15], and even waste gas treatment [16],
wheels.
which uses ETAUs replace the original desiccant wheels.

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Structure of the
Structure of themain
maincomponents
componentsin in
thethe proposed
proposed direct
direct electrothermal
electrothermal regeneration
regeneration technique.
technique.

The other energy consumption problem of compressed air dryers is that exhaust air
temperature is too high. This can be alleviated by replacing a portion of the zeolite desic-
cant packed-bed with activated alumina desiccants. Every desiccant has its own particular
Processes 2021, 9, 1082 3 of 18
Figure 2. Structure of the main components in the proposed direct electrothermal regeneration
technique.

The other energy consumption

The other problem of compressed
energy consumption problem ofair dryers is that
compressed exhaust
air dryers is air
that exhaust air
temperature is too high. This can be alleviated by replacing a portion of the zeolite desic-
temperature is too high. This can be alleviated by replacing a portion of the zeolite desiccant
cant packed-bed with activated
packed-bed alumina desiccants.
with activated Every desiccant
alumina desiccants. Everyhas its own particular
desiccant has its own particular
isothermal adsorption
isothermal curve. For example,
adsorption Figure
curve. For 3 shows
example, different
Figure isothermalcurves
3 shows for
different isothermalcurves for
MOFs and zeolites
MOFscollected by Karmakar
and zeolites collected by et al. [17]. By et
Karmakar arranging packed-beds
al. [17]. By arranging with two
packed-beds with two
kinds of desiccant,
kinds ofthedesiccant,
dehumidification performance performance
the dehumidification can increase. canFor increase.
example, Forin the
example, in the
high relative humidity condition, UIO-66 (a type of MOF desiccant) or activated alumina
high relative humidity condition, UIO-66 (a type of MOF desiccant) or activated alumina
have a higherhave
adsorption
a higher capacity, so they
adsorption are suitable
capacity, so theytoare
dehumidify
suitable towet compressed
dehumidify wetaircompressed air
first and make theand
first dewmake
pointthe
compressed
dew pointair reach −20 toair−30
compressed °C. The
reach −20 second ◦ C. The
to −30 part of thesecond part of
desiccant could
thebe the zeolite,
desiccant having
could a higher
be the zeolite,capacity
having ainhigher
the low relativeinhumidity
capacity con-
the low relative humidity
dition, for dehumidifying
condition, forcompressed
dehumidifyingair tocompressed
get lower dew point
air to of −40dew
get lower to −70 °C. of −40 to −70 ◦ C.
point

(a)

(b)
Figure 3. (a) Isotherm adsorption
Figure 3. curve
(a) Isotherm of different
adsorption desiccants,
curve and desiccants,
of different (b) Adsorption
and capacity of the capacity of the
(b) Adsorption
composite desiccant construction system.
composite desiccant construction system.

By combining two kinds of desiccants, the adsorption capacity of the total system
can increase. As shown in Figure 4, the regenerated flow had the opposite direction as
the dehumidification flow in the regeneration stage, so the exhaust air from the second
part with zeolite at a temperature of 140 ◦ C could be used to regenerate the first part
containing activated alumina, whose regeneration temperature is about 80 ◦ C. Then, the
final temperature of exhaust air can be reduced.
 By combining two kinds of desiccants, the adsorption capacity of the total system
can increase. As shown in Figure 4, the regenerated flow had the opposite direction as
the dehumidification flow in the regeneration stage, so the exhaust air from the second
part with zeolite at a temperature of 140 °C could be used to regenerate the first part
Processes 2021, 9, 1082 4 of 18
containing activated alumina, whose regeneration temperature is about 80 °C. Then, the
final temperature of exhaust air can be reduced.

Operationprinciple
Figure4.4.Operation
Figure principleof
ofthe
thecomposite
compositesystem.
system.

Through these
Through these two
two techniques,
techniques, thethe direct
direct electrothermal
electrothermal regeneration
regeneration technique
technique
(ETAU) and the composite desiccant construction, the energy consumption of
(ETAU) and the composite desiccant construction, the energy consumption of compressed compressed
airdryers
air dryerscan
canbe
bereduced.
reduced.TheTheheat
heatloss
lossin
inthe
theregeneration
regenerationstage
stagecan
canreduce
reducefrom
from 39.4%
39.4%
to 22.6%
to 22.6% by
by ETAU,
ETAU, and
and the
the composite
composite desiccant
desiccant construction
construction decreases
decreases the
the exhaust
exhaust airair
temperature from 130–140 ◦ C to 70–80 ◦ C. Therefore, the total energy used ratio in desiccant
temperature from 130–140 °C to 70–80 °C. Therefore, the total energy used ratio in desic-
regeneration
cant increased
regeneration fromfrom
increased 28.2% to 55.3%.
28.2% As aAs
to 55.3%. result, the the
a result, composite
compositeETAU
ETAUprototype
proto-
system, compared with the traditional compressed air adsorption dryer, can
type system, compared with the traditional compressed air adsorption dryer, can save save 20–30%
20–
energy
30% consumption.
energy consumption.
2. Theoretical Analysis
2. Theoretical Analysis
2.1. Electrothermal Adsorbent Unit (ETAU) Regeneration Method
2.1. Electrothermal Adsorbent Unit (ETAU) Regeneration Method
Figure 5 presents a comparison of indirect and direct heating systems. In the indirect
heatingFigure 5 presents
method (Figurea comparison
5a), air flows of indirect
over anand direct heating
electrically heatedsystems. In the indirect
plate maintained at a
heating
constantmethodtemperature(Figure(Tm5a), air flows
). First, the air over an electrically
is heated to a temperature heated(Tplate
air ), maintained
following which at ait
constant
flows over temperature (Tm). First,
a layer of adsorbent the air iswhose
granules, heated to a temperature
temperature is denoted(Tairas
), following
Tad . In thewhich
direct
itheating
flows overmethod a layer of adsorbent
(Figure 5b), a layergranules,
of adsorbent whose temperature
granules is attachedis denoted as Tadusing
to the plate . In thean
direct heating method (Figure 5b), a layer of adsorbent granules
adhesive. Electrical heat is transferred from the plate to the adsorbent through conduction. is attached to the plate
using an adhesive.
As indicated by the Electrical
thermalheat is transferred
resistance diagrams, frominthe theplate to the
indirect adsorbent
heating through
method, the
conduction.
transfer pathAsofindicatedelectrical by heatthe thermal
toward theresistance
adsorbentdiagrams,
comprisesintwo theforced
indirect heating
convective
method,
resistances, theone
transfer
between paththeofplate
electrical
and air,heat(1/(htoward
conv Athe adsorbent
surface comprises
)), and another betweentwo airforced
and
convective
the adsorbent, resistances,
(1/(hconv one between
Agrain theisplate
)). hconv a heat and air, (1/(h
transfer conv Asurface
coefficient of)),the
and another
airflow at Tbe-
air ,
tween
whereas air A and the
surface adsorbent,
and A grain (1/(h
are the A
areas
conv of
grain )). h
the is
plate
conv a heat
and transfer
adsorbent coefficient
granules of
in the air-
contact
flow
withat Tairrespectively.
air, , whereas Asurface and Agraininare
By contrast, thethe areasheating
direct of the plate
method, and the
adsorbent granules in
only impedance is
the conductive
contact with air,resistance
respectively. between the plate
By contrast, anddirect
in the the adsorbent (d/(kad the
heating method, Acontact
only)).imped-
d, kad ,
and A
ance theare
iscon the granule
conductive diameter,
resistance the thermal
between the plateconductivity of the adsorbent,
and the adsorbent and )).
(d/(kad Acontact total
d,
kcontact
ad, and A area of the
con are theadsorbent between the
granule diameter, the thermal
plate and adhesive, respectively.
conductivity of the adsorbent, To compare
and totalthe
performance
contact area ofofthe theadsorbent
two methods, betweenconsider
the platean example in which
and adhesive, a plate of aTo
respectively. known
compare size
the × d) is used to
(5d performance of heat
the twofive methods,
granules usingconsider both anmethods.
example The overall
in which resistance
a plate in each
of a known
method
size (5d ×isd) derived
is usedbased
to heaton the
fivefollowing
granules assumptions:
using both methods. The overall resistance in
each
(1) method is derived
The adsorbent based with
is zeolite on the d= following
3 mm and assumptions:
kad = 0.20 W⁄mK.
(2) In the indirect heating method, the plate heats the air through one of its surfaces
(Asurface = 5d2 ), whereas the adsorbent granules are completely exposed to air
(Agrain = 5d2 π). The forced convective coefficient for the low-speed airflow over
a solid surface [18] is used: hconv ∼ = 10 W⁄(m2 K).
(3) The thick of the adhesive layer is 0.16~0.2 mm, and the adsorbent’s diameter is
0.5~0.9 mm. Therefore In the direct heating method, the granules are in contact
 [18] is used: hconv ≅ 10 W⁄(m2 K).
(3) The thick of the adhesive layer is 0.16~0.2 mm, and the adsorbent’s diameter is 0.5~0.9
mm. Therefore In the direct heating method, the granules are in contact with the plate
through the adhesive across 1/10 of the surface area of the adsorbent: Acontact = 1/10
Agrain.
Processes 2021, 9, 1082 5 of 18
(4) The desiccant conducts a pressed procession after it adheres to the electrothermal
metal, so the thermal resistance between the two is minimal and can be ignored.
In this setup, the overall thermal resistance between the plate and adsorbent is 1061
with the plate through the adhesive across 1/10 of the surface area of the adsorbent:
K/W and 2930 K/W for the direct and indirect methods, respectively. Given the same tem-
Acontact = 1/10 Agrain .
perature difference between the plate and the adsorbent, the direct method has 0.36 times
(4) The desiccant conducts a pressed procession after it adheres to the electrothermal
lower resistance and, therefore, an approximately three times higher heating rate than the
metal, so the thermal resistance between the two is minimal and can be ignored.
indirect method, meaning that the direct method is more energy efficient.

(a)

(b)
Figure 5. Comparison
Figure 5.ofComparison
(a) indirect and (b)indirect
of (a) direct heating
and (b) systems.
direct heating systems.

In Alumina
2.2. The Length of the this setup, the overall
Packed-Bed thermalSystem
in Composite resistance between the plate and adsorbent is
1061 K/W and 2930 K/W for the direct
Using the exhaust air from ETAUs to regenerate the andactivated
indirect alumina
methods,packed-bed,
respectively. Given the
same temperature difference between the plate and the adsorbent,
the airflow at the activated alumina packed-bed outlet has a suggested temperature the direct
not method has
below 80 °C. 0.36 times lower
Therefore, there resistance and,
is a limit for therefore,
the length ofanthe
approximately
packing bed three times
section higher heating
in the
composite setup system. This limit value is desired for the maximum amount of adsorbent efficient.
rate than the indirect method, meaning that the direct method is more energy
in the tank. To estimate
2.2. it, the
The Length of authors usedPacked-Bed
the Alumina a simple thermal analysis,
in Composite as depicted in Fig-
System
ure 6. It assumes the packing bed as a cylinder of porous medium with known dimensions
Using the exhaust air from ETAUs to regenerate the activated alumina packed-bed, the
and physical properties. The bed is subjected to an axial, hot airflow over a period of time,
airflow at the activated alumina packed-bed outlet has a suggested temperature not below
during which the velocity and temperature of the air at the inlet are known. The axial air
80 ◦ C. Therefore, there is a limit for the length of the packing bed section in the composite
setup system. This limit value is desired for the maximum amount of adsorbent in the
tank. To estimate it, the authors used a simple thermal analysis, as depicted in Figure 6.
It assumes the packing bed as a cylinder of porous medium with known dimensions and
physical properties. The bed is subjected to an axial, hot airflow over a period of time,
during which the velocity and temperature of the air at the inlet are known. The axial air
temperature distribution in the bed at a different time is then be calculated. The packed-
bed and airflow parameters used in the analysis are listed in Tables 1 and 2, respectively,
corresponding to our current setup and test measurements. The regenerated temperature
of zeolite is 140 ◦ C, and the regeneration flow was controlled at a minimum for saving
energy. When the regeneration temperature is reached, the authors keep it for 30 min to
ensure that all adsorbents can be completely regenerated. The total regeneration time is
about 5460 s.
 and s indicate air and adsorbent. Symbol hloss (kW/m2K) is the heat transfer coefficient of
heat loss, Di is the diameter of the packed bed, and T∞ is the temperature of the environ-
ment. The results are shown in Figure 7. It can be seen that at the end of the regeneration
process, the air temperature drops to 86 °C at a position 30 cm downstream from the bed
Processes 2021, 9, 1082 6 of 18
inlet, which indicates the limit length of the activated alumina packed-bed in our hybrid
system.

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Depiction
Depiction of
of the
the adsorbent
adsorbent packing
packing bed
bed section
section subjected
subjected to airflow.

Table 1. Design parameters of material used for the packed-bed section.

Packing Bed
Diameter (mm) 610
Length (mm) 300
Packing porosity 0.27
Initial temperature (◦ C) 40
Activated alumina adsorbent
Particle diameter (mm) 4
Density (kg/m3 ) 1053
Specific heat capacity (J/kgK) 880

Table 2. Design parameters of regeneration airflow.

Step 1 2 3 4 5
Duration (s) 0–60 60–160 160–4160 4160–4260 4260–5460
Inlet temperature (◦ C) 140
Velocity (10−3 m/s) 39.6 34.2 78.4 22.9 34.2

Furthermore, to calculate the heat transfer rate between air and bed, the heat transfer
coefficient should be known. This analysis adopts an empirical correlation for the volu-
metric heat transfer coefficient hvol (W/m3 K) of airflow and a pellet packing bed [19]. The
thermal resistance between the desiccant and the electrothermal metal is minimal and can
be ignored.
hvol = 700(G/d)0.76 (1)
where G is the mass flux of the airflow in kg/m2 s, and d is the average diameter of the
pellets in m. Other assumptions include that all properties are uniform over the cross-
section area of the bed at any axial position. The heat capacity of tank walls and heat
transfer between adsorbent pellets are neglected. The authors then calculated the air
temperature with the following energy balance equations [4]:

∂T f ∂T f   .
 
ερ f c p f = − Gc p f − hvol T f − Ts + (1 − ε)ρs wc pw T f − Ts (2)
∂t ∂z

  i 4h
∂Ts ∂ ∂Ts .
  h 
(1 − ε)ρs c ps = −hvol Ts − T f + ks + (1 − ε)ρs w Hads + c pw Ts − T f − loss ( Ts − T∞ ) (3)
∂t ∂z ∂z Di

where T, u, ρ, c, k, and e denote the temperature, velocity, density, specific heat capacity,
thermal conductivity, and packing bed porosity, respectively. The symbol z is the distance
 Activated alumina adsorbent
Particle diameter (mm)
Density (kg/m3)
Processes 2021, 9, 1082
Specific heat capacity (J/kgK) 7 of 18

Table 2. Design parameters of regeneration airflow.

.
(m) with a direction that follows the regeneration airflow. Symbol w (kg/kg s) is the
Step 1 2 3 4
moisture content increase rate of alumina, and H (kJ/kg) is the adsorption heat. Subscripts
f andDuration
s indicate (s) 0–60Symbol hloss 60–160
air and adsorbent. (kW/m2 K) is the160–4160 4160–4260
heat transfer coefficient
ofInlet
heattemperature
loss, Di is the diameter of the packed bed, and T ∞ is the temperature of the
environment. 140
(°C) The results are shown in Figure 7. It ◦can be seen that at the end of the
regeneration process, the air temperature drops to 86 C at a position 30 cm downstream
from theVelocity
bed inlet, which indicates
39.6the limit length34.2
of the activated alumina
78.4 packed-bed22.9 in
(10−3 system.
our hybrid m/s)

Figure 7. Air temperature distribution in the adsorbent packing bed at the end of the regenera-
Figure 7. Air temperature distribution in the adsorbent packing bed at the end of the
tion process.
process.
3. Electrothermal Adsorbent Unit (ETAU) Manufacture
3.1. Desiccant Coating Method
3. Electrothermal Adsorbent
Figure 8 depicts the morphologyUnit (ETAU)
of ETAU and theManufacture
structure of the unique adhesive.
The electrothermal metal in an ETAU is iron–chrome–aluminum of thickness 0.03 mm,
3.1. Desiccant Coating Method
and both sides of the metal are coated with a double-sided adhesive of thickness 0.16 mm.
Figure
Finally, 8 depicts
4Å zeolite particlesthe morphology
with diameters in theof 0.5–0.9
ETAUmm and theare
range structure
coated onof thethe uniq
adhesive to produce the primary sandwich structure of the ETAU. The regeneration tem-
The electrothermal metal in an ETAU◦ is iron–chrome–aluminum of thickn
perature of zeolite particles is higher than 140 C; thus, the adhesive must withstand
and both sides
temperatures of the140
exceeding metal are
◦ C. An coateddouble-sided
inorganic with a double-sided adhesive
adhesive, silicone, bonds theof thickn
Finally,
inorganic4Å zeolite
adsorbent andparticles with diameters
the electrothermal metal. The in the layer
middle 0.5–0.9 mm
in the range
silicone is anare coat
organic adhesive, called polyimide, which buffers the upward and downward migration of
hesive to produce the primary sandwich structure of the ETAU. The regener
heat to prevent structural collapse. Figure 9a depicts the adsorbent-coated electrothermal
ature of zeolite
metal sheet. particles
The maximum is higher
durability of thethan
unit at140 °C; thus,upthe
temperatures adhesive
to 200 must
◦ C satisfied the withs
atures exceeding
operational 140As°C.
requirements. Anininorganic
shown Figure 9b, the double-sided adhesive,
adsorbent remained intact even silicone,
after bo
the sheet was curled into the wheel. Adsorbent shedding did not occur
ganic adsorbent and the electrothermal metal. The middle layer in the silic even after several
repeated heating and cooling experiments, proving the unique adhesive worked.
ganic adhesive, called polyimide, which buffers the upward and downward
heat to prevent structural collapse. Figure 9a depicts the adsorbent-coated e
metal sheet. The maximum durability of the unit at temperatures up to 20
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18

the operational requirements. As shown in Figure 9b, the adsorbent remained intact eve
Processes 2021, 9, 1082 thethe
after operational
sheet wasrequirements.
curled intoAs theshown in Figure
wheel. 9b, theshedding
Adsorbent adsorbentdid
remained intact
not occur evenafte
even
8 of 18
after the sheet was curled into the wheel. Adsorbent shedding did not occur
several repeated heating and cooling experiments, proving the unique adhesive workedeven after
several repeated heating and cooling experiments, proving the unique adhesive worked.

Figure
Figure 8.Special
8. 8.
Figure Special
Special adhesive
adhesive
adhesive inin
in anan
an ETAU.
ETAU.
ETAU.

(a) (b)
(a)
Figure 9. Adsorbent-coated (b) curling.
electrothermal metal sheet (a) before and (b) after

Figure 9. 9.
Figure Adsorbent-coated electrothermal
Adsorbent-coated electrothermal metal
metal sheet
sheet (a) before
(a) before and (b)and
after(b) after curling.
curling.
3.2. Air Channel
3.2. Air
The Channel
final morphology of the proposed ETAU is a wheel; therefore, if the metal sheet
3.2. Air Channel
The final
is curled morphology
without of the proposed
an appropriate gap, the ETAUETAU is a is
wheel; therefore,
distorted by the if the metal sheet
upward is
and down-
The movement
curled
ward final morphology
without an appropriate of gap,
of heat (Figure the proposed
the
10).ETAU isETAU
An uneven distorted is abywheel;
ETAU the upward
shape therefore, if airflow
and downward
can disrupt the metal uni-she
is curled
formitywithout
movement andof heat an
decrease appropriate
(Figure
the10). An unevengap, the
dehumidification ETAU ETAU
shape is
performance. candistorted
disrupt by the
airflow
A corrugated upward
uniformity
metal sheet and
and down
is em-
warddecrease
movement
ployed the dehumidification
of heat technique
in the proposed performance.
(Figure 10). to form A
An uneven corrugated
air channels ETAU metal
and shapesheet is
gaps between employed
can disrupt
the twoin the
airflow
curled un
proposed technique to form air channels and gaps between the two curled layers in the
formity
layersandin thedecrease
wheel. theWhen dehumidification
the corrugated metal performance.
sheet is placed A corrugated metal sheet is em
on the adsorbent-coated
wheel. When the corrugated metal sheet is placed on the adsorbent-coated electrothermal
electrothermal
ployed in the proposed metal sheet and curled
technique together,
to form air channels
air channels and andgaps gaps are formed
between thebecause
two curle
metal sheet and curled together, air channels and gaps are formed because of the shape
of
layers the shape
incorrugated of the
the wheel.sheet. corrugated
When sheet. If a wheel has a huge gap, it loses structural support,
of the If athe
wheel corrugated
has a huge metal
gap, itsheet
loses is placed support,
structural on the adsorbent-coate
whereas
whereas
electrothermal if a wheel
metal has
sheet a minimal
and curledgap, it deforms;
together, air therefore,
channels
if a wheel has a minimal gap, it deforms; therefore, a specific sheet with a thickness a specific
and gaps sheet
are with
formed a thick-
becaus
ness
of 0.05
of the of
shape 0.05
mmofand mm and a
theacorrugated width
width 80 mm 80 mm
was If
sheet. was
selectedselected
a wheel forhas for use.
use.a huge After
After gap,
shaping shaping with adsorbent-
with structural
it loses adsorbent- suppor
coated electrothermal
coated electrothermalmetal metalsheets,
sheets, the thegap gap(air (air channel)
channel) between
between two two electrothermal
electrothermal
whereas if a wheel has a minimal gap, it deforms; therefore, a specific sheet with a thick
metalsheet
metal sheetlayerslayerswas wasabout
about 2.52.5mm mm (Figure
(Figure 11).11).
TheThe distance
distance between
between the two-channel
the two-channel
nesscenters
of 0.05 mm
wasabout
and5.0
about5.0
a mm.
width 80measured
mm waserror
The measured
selectedandthe
forproduct
use. After
theproduct
shaping
toleranceare
withthan
areless
lessthan
adsorben
1%.
centers was mm. The error and tolerance
coated
1%. electrothermal
According
According to [20–22], metal
to [20–22],the the sheets,
Reynolds
Reynolds the
number gap
number (Re)(air channel)
number
(Re) number in in between
the theairair
channeltwoofelectrotherm
channel thethe
of ETAU
metal
ETAU sheet
is less isthanlayers
less thanwas
2300, 2300,
so about
the so the2.5
flow isflowmm (Figure
is laminar.
laminar. 11). The
Therefore,
Therefore, distance
the Nusselt
the Nusselt between
and the numbers
and Sherwood
Sherwood two-chann
centers
numbers
dependwason about
depend 5.0
the shape mm.
on the The
ofshape
the airofmeasured
the air channel,
channel, errorratio,
aspect and the
aspect product
ratio,
and tolerance
and thickness
thickness ratio inratioare
this in less
this than 1%
condition,
condition,
and theirtoand
According their calculated
[20–22],
calculated the Reynolds
values values
are are
and3.34
3.34 number 1.46,and
(Re) 1.46, respectively.
number
respectively. in theCompared
Compared air channel withdesiccant
with the ofthethe ETA
desiccant
is less thanbed,
packed packed
2300, bed, the
thesoparallel
the flowparallel channel
is laminar.
channel design
design Therefore, in
in the ETAU the ETAU reduced
thereduced
Nusseltthe the
and pressure
Sherwood
pressure drop
dropnumbe
and
and achieved
achieved temperatureuniformity
temperature uniformitywithin within the the ETAU.
ETAU. Moreover,
Moreover, corrugated
corrugated metal sheets
metal sheets
depend on the shape of the air channel, aspect ratio, and thickness ratio in this condition
can withstand the tension strains due to expansion and shrinkage caused by heat and cold
can
andshock. withstand
their calculated the tension
values strains
arethe dueand
3.34 to expansion
1.46, and shrinkage
respectively. caused by heatthe
Compared and cold
According to [23], when pressure drop in the compressed air systemwith is reduceddesiccan
shock.bed,
packed According
2the to [23], channel
when thedesign pressureindrop inETAU
the compressed air
thesystem is reduced
by 1 kg/cm , theparallel
power consumption of the totalthe system will reduced
reduce 4~8%. pressure
Thus, ETAUdrop an
by 1 kg/cm2, the power consumption of the total system will reduce 4~8%. Thus, ETAU
achieved temperature
with a low-pressure dropuniformity
benefits thewithin the ETAU.
energy-saving of the Moreover,
entire system. corrugated metal shee
with a low-pressure drop benefits the energy-saving of the entire system.
can withstand the tension strains due to expansion and shrinkage caused by heat and col
shock. According to [23], when the pressure drop in the compressed air system is reduce
by 1 kg/cm2, the power consumption of the total system will reduce 4~8%. Thus, ETA
with a low-pressure drop benefits the energy-saving of the entire system.
 Processes
Processes
Processes 2021,9,9,x 1082
2021,
2021, xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 9 of918
9ofof1818

Figure
Figure 10.
Figure10. ETAU
ETAUwithout
10.ETAU without
withoutair
airchannel
channel
air and
and
channel gaps.
gaps.
and gaps.

11. ETAU with

Figure 11.
Figure parallel channel design.
Figure 11.ETAU
ETAUwith
withparallel
parallelchannel
channeldesign.
design.
3.3. Continuous and Rapid Roll-to-Roll Production
3.3.
3.3.Continuous
Continuousand
andRapid
RapidRoll-to-Roll
Roll-to-RollProduction
Production
An affordable and rapid continuous roll-to-roll procedure was used to produce the
ETAU.AnAn affordable
Thisaffordable and
and
procedure, rapid
rapid
which iscontinuous
continuousto
conducive roll-to-roll
roll-to-rollprocedure
procedurewas
being commercialized, wasused
used
entails toto
the produce
producethe
following the
ETAU.
ETAU.
steps: This
This
(a) procedure,
procedure,
metal which
sheet cleaning, isisconducive
which(b) conducive
adhesive totobeing
(c)commercialized,
being
coating, commercialized, entails
adsorbent coating,entails the
and (d) thefollowing
following
curling
steps:
with (a)
the
steps: metal
metalsheet
(a)corrugated
sheet cleaning,
metal sheet(b)
cleaning, (b)adhesive
(Figure 12). coating,
adhesive coating,(c)
(c)adsorbent
adsorbentcoating,
coating,andand(d)
(d)curling
curling
with Athe
withthe metal sheet cleaning
corrugated
corrugated metal process
metalsheet was employed
sheet(Figure
(Figure12).
12). to remove the lubricating oil film from
the metal sheet in order to ensure adherence of the adhesive. The metal sheet was cleaned,
following which both of its sides were coated with double-sided adhesive layers; then,
the sheet was subjected to the adsorbent coating process. Finally, the adsorbent-coated
structure was curled to form a wheel. The upper and lower parts of the frame, which
supports the ETAU, were fabricated from nonconductive Teflon. After electrode assembly,
the side of the ETAU was filled with cotton insulation and covered with iron support
frames. The ETAU was subjected to a voltage resistance test of 2.5 kV/60 s to ensure its
stability. The diameter of ETAU is designed to be 385 mm to match the size of pressure
buckets presently used in compressed dry air systems, and the height of the proposed
ETAU product is 113 mm. Figure 13 illustrates a structural schematic of the ETAU. The
desiccant weight in an ETAU is about 3.8 kg. No problems were noted while the ETAU
was operated for over 2000 h.
Processes 2021,9,9,1082
Processes2021, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18
10 18

Figure 12. Continuous roll-to-roll ETAU manufacturing procedure.

A metal sheet cleaning process was employed to remove the lubricating oil film from
the metal sheet in order to ensure adherence of the adhesive. The metal sheet was cleaned,
following which both of its sides were coated with double-sided adhesive layers; then, the
sheet was subjected to the adsorbent coating process. Finally, the adsorbent-coated struc-
ture was curled to form a wheel. The upper and lower parts of the frame, which supports
the ETAU, were fabricated from nonconductive Teflon. After electrode assembly, the side
of the ETAU was filled with cotton insulation and covered with iron support frames. The
ETAU was subjected to a voltage resistance test of 2.5 kV/60 s to ensure its stability. The
diameter of ETAU is designed to be 385 mm to match the size of pressure buckets pres-
ently used in compressed dry air systems, and the height of the proposed ETAU product
is 113 mm. Figure 13 illustrates a structural schematic of the ETAU. The desiccant weight
in an ETAU is about 3.8 kg. No problems were noted while the ETAU was operated for
over Figure
2000 h.
Figure 12. Continuous
12. Continuous roll-to-roll
roll-to-rollETAU
ETAUmanufacturing
manufacturingprocedure.
procedure.

A metal sheet cleaning process was employed to remove the lubricating oil film from
the metal sheet in order to ensure adherence of the adhesive. The metal sheet was cleaned,
following which both of its sides were coated with double-sided adhesive layers; then, the
sheet was subjected to the adsorbent coating process. Finally, the adsorbent-coated struc-
ture was curled to form a wheel. The upper and lower parts of the frame, which supports
the ETAU, were fabricated from nonconductive Teflon. After electrode assembly, the side
of the ETAU was filled with cotton insulation and covered with iron support frames. The
ETAU was subjected to a voltage resistance test of 2.5 kV/60 s to ensure its stability. The
diameter of ETAU is designed to be 385 mm to match the size of pressure buckets pres-
ently used in compressed dry air systems, and the height of the proposed ETAU product
is 113 mm. Figure 13 illustrates a structural schematic of the ETAU. The desiccant weight
in an ETAU is about 3.8 kg. No problems were noted while the ETAU was operated for
over 2000 h.

Figure 13. Structural schematic of the proposed ETAU.

4. Performance Test Result and Discussion

Table 3 characterizes the measurement devices used in the experiment. ETAUs were
installed in pressure buckets, and the temperature was measured at numerous points by
using K-type thermocouples. After adjustment, the measurement accuracy was ±0.5 ◦ C.
Mirror dew point meters with an accuracy of ±0.2 ◦ C were utilized at the inlets and outlets
of the compressed air dryers. The flowmeter measurement ranged from 8 to 80 m/s, with
an accuracy of ±1%. The pressure gauge measurement range was −101 to 2944 kPa, with
an accuracy of ±2 kPa. The accuracy of the electricity meter measurements was ±0.1%.
Processes 2021, 9, 1082 11 of 18

In this study, the experimental error was identical to the instrumental error. The energy
efficiency index is defined as follows:

Energy consumption (kW )

Energy e f f iciency index = . (4)
Supply compressed air (CMM )

Table 3. Measurement devices used in the experiment.

Equipment Range Error

K-type thermocouples 0~260 ◦C ±0.5 ◦ C
Inlet mirror dew point meters −35 to −10 ◦ C ±0.2 ◦ C
Outlet mirror dew point meters −65 to −25 ◦ C ±0.2 ◦ C
Vortex Flowmeter 8 to 80 m/s ±1%
Pressure gauge −101 to 2944 kPa ±2 kPa
Electricity meter Maximum current 80 A ±0.1%

The temperature measuring point tightly adheres to the adsorbent, and the position is
in the middle of the radius of each ETAU. The height of the temperature sensor is in the
middle of the thickness in each ETAU. This temperature measurement point represents the
entire ETAU’s temperature. The pressure gauges are installed at the inlet and outlet of the
test systems.

4.1. ETAU Basic Test

The horizontal temperature distribution of the ETAU was obtained through infrared
temperature measurement tests (Figure 11). Unlike a conventional packed-bed system, the
proposed ETAU has air channels and uses a unique heating method—direct conductive
heat transfer—which guarantees uniform horizontal temperature distribution. Regarding
vertical temperature distribution, the compared test result with a 90 cm tall system was
shown in Figure 14. The diameter of them is 385 mm. The nine colored curves in the two
diagrams indicate the temperature at each 10 cm height in the system. A conventional
heated-air-flow system must exhibit a temperature gradient in the vertical direction, as
shown in Figure 14a. Even after 140 min of heating, the last three layers of the conventional
system did not achieve the setup temperature of 140 ◦ C, and 70 min were required to in-
crease the temperature of the first layer to 140◦ C. By contrast, the ETAU system (Figure 14b)
only needed 15 min to reach the setup temperature; moreover, the power supply to each
ETAU could be controlled individually, meaning that a uniform vertical temperature dis-
tribution could be achieved easily. Consequently, the required regeneration time of the
ETAU system was reduced, and the uniformity was increased by approximately 78% and
42%, respectively. The packed bed’s pressure drop and the ETAU are 678 Pa and 208 Pa,
respectively, when the airflow is 1 m3 /min. (CMM) at atmospheric pressure.

4.2. ETAUs Compressed Air Dryer

Table 4 lists the pressure, temperature, relative humidity, and dew point measure-
ments for the procedure of the compressed air drying system. Air was compressed using a
compressor; consequently, considerable heat was released, which increased the air temper-
ature to 43 ◦ C. Moreover, the water content in the air decreased because of the compression.
After the compressed air was dehumidified through a refrigeration chiller, the compressed
air temperature was reduced to approximately 8 ◦ C, and the dew point of it drops to
about −18 ◦ C. This low temperature and high relative humidity condition are beneficial
for adsorption drying, so the dew point of compressed air was reduced to less than −40 ◦ C
after through the adsorption dryer.
R PEER REVIEW
Processes 2021, 9, 1082 12 of 18 12 of 18

(a)

(b)
Figure14.14.
Figure Temperatures
Temperatures at different
at different heights inheights in (a) a conventional
(a) a conventional heated-air-flow
heated-air-flow system systemETAU
and (b) the proposed and (b)
system.
the proposed ETAU system.
Table 4. The procedure of the compressed air drying system.

4.2. ETAUs Compressed Air Dryer

Atmosphere After Compressed Air Storage Barrel Refrigeration Dryer Adsorption Dryer
Pressure (kPa) 101 885 876 865 836
Table 4 lists the pressure, temperature, relative humidity, and dew point measure-
Temperature (◦ C) 30 43 25 8 25
ments for the procedure of the compressed air drying system. Air was compressed using
Relative humidity (%RH)
a compressor; -
consequently, 100%
considerable 100%
heat was released, 100%
which increased 2.6%
the air tem-
(High pressure)
perature
Relative to 43 °C. Moreover,
humidity (%RH)
80%
the water
12%
content in the 11.5%
air decreased11.3%
because of the com- 0.3%
(Atmosphere)
pression. After the compressed air was dehumidified through a refrigeration chiller, the
Pressure dew point (◦ C) - 43 25 8 −22.2
compressed air temperature was reduced to approximately 8 °C, and the dew point of it
Dew point (◦ C) 26.1 7.5 −6.1 −18.3 −42
drops to about −18 °C. This low temperature and high relative humidity condition are
beneficial for adsorption drying, so the dew point of compressed air was reduced to less
The refrigeration chiller can reduce a lot of dehumidification load of adsorption dryers.
than −40 °C after through However,theifadsorption
the compresseddryer.
air goes directly through the adsorption without refrigeration
The refrigeration chiller
dryers, thecan reducetime
adsorption a lot of dehumidification
must load of adsorption
decrease when the regeneration condition isdry-
the same.
ers. However, if the compressed Figure 15 illustrates
air goes the configuration
directly through of the
the3-CMM ETAU compressed
adsorption air dryer that
without refrig-
features a twin-tower structure. This commercial system uses a timer to switch between
eration dryers, the adsorption time must decrease when the regeneration condition is the
adsorption and desorption modes. Nine 10 cm thick of ETAUs were used in each tower
same. to ensure adequate system performance. Figure 15a depicts the regeneration step for
tower A, in which the ETAU is powered and is heated. Simultaneously, in tower B, the
Table 4. The procedure of the compressed
adsorption air drying
step sets the dew the compressed air of the outlet lower than −40 ◦ C.
system.
point of

Adsorption
Atmosphere After Compressed Air Storage Barrel Refrigeration Dryer
Dryer
) 101 885 876 865 836
 Dew point (°C) 26.1 7.5 −6.1 −18.3 −42

Figure 15 illustrates the configuration of the 3-CMM ETAU compressed air dryer that
features a twin-tower structure. This commercial system uses a timer to switch between
Processes 2021, 9, 1082 adsorption and desorption modes. Nine 10 cm thick of ETAUs were used in each tower 13 of 18
to ensure adequate system performance. Figure 15a depicts the regeneration step for
tower A, in which the ETAU is powered and is heated. Simultaneously, in tower B, the
adsorption step sets the dew point of the compressed air of the outlet lower than −40 °C.
After completing the regeneration step in tower A, the valve is switched, and the cooling
After completing the regeneration step in tower A, the valve is switched, and the cooling
step is executed. Figure 15b indicates that 5~10% of the dry compressed air from the tower
step is executed. Figure 15b indicates that 5~10% of the dry compressed air from the tower
B outlet is diverted back to tower A for cooling the adsorbent. The temperature of zeolite
B outlet is diverted back to tower A for cooling the adsorbent. The temperature of zeolite
must be lower than 80 ◦ C so that the proper adsorption performance can be shown. The
must
humidity of the atmospherethat
be lower than 80 °C so air isthe
tooproper adsorptionifperformance
high. Therefore, the atmosphere canair
beisshown.
used toThe
cool
humidity of the atmosphere air is too high. Therefore, if the atmosphere
the zeolite, the dehumidification process will happen in the cooling step. The situation air is used to cool
the
is zeolite, the dehumidification
not expected, so the dry air from process will happen inair
the high-pressure theoutlet
cooling step.
must beThe
usedsituation is
for cooling.
not expected, so the dry air from the high-pressure air outlet must be
After the adsorbent is cooled, the outlet of tower A is closed, and pressure is generated used for cooling.
After the adsorbent
in tower is cooled, the
A and maintained outlet When
constant. of towertheAdew
is closed,
pointand pressure
of tower is generated
B outlet increasesinto
tower A and maintained
◦ constant. When the dew point of tower
more than −40 C, the system undergoes a short period of parallel adsorption, B outlet increases to during
more
than −40 °C, the system undergoes a short period of parallel adsorption,
which adsorption occurs in both towers A and B. Finally, the valve is switched to start during which
adsorption occurs in
the regeneration both
step in towers
tower BAand andadsorption
B. Finally, the valveA
in tower is (Figure
switched to start
15c). the regen-
Repeated cycles
eration
enable the ETAU double-tower system to continually produce dry compressed air at athe
step in tower B and adsorption in tower A (Figure 15c). Repeated cycles enable dew
ETAU
pointdouble-tower
of −40 ◦ C. system to continually produce dry compressed air at a dew point of
−40 °C.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 15. System configuration of an ETAU compressed air dryer: (a) regeneration, (b) cooling,
(c) and adsorption steps in tower A.

In contrast to conventional heating practices, the ETAU directly heats the adsorbent
by using an electrothermal metal; therefore, if the system uses copious regeneration flow,
the adsorbent is cooled. However, desorption vapors from the adsorbent cannot move
out without regeneration flow, so the regeneration flow was controlled at a minimum
for saving energy. The airflow used was listed in Table 2. The first ETAU is marked #1
 the adsorbent is cooled. However, desorption vapors from the adsorbent cannot m
without regeneration flow, so the regeneration flow was controlled at a minimum
ing energy. The airflow used was listed in Table 2. The first ETAU is marked #1 (r
ation inlet), the second #2, and so on (Figure 15). Though on-off controller, the re
Processes 2021, 9, 1082 tion temperature of all ETAUs reached 140 °C in 30 min., as shown in14Figure of 18 16. B
the exhausted air from #1 must be preheated the #2, the on-off control frequenc
must lower than #1. The first ETAU had the largest temperature-increasing load
(regeneration inlet),
temperature thegoal
setting second of#2,
#1andwassoslower
on (Figureand15). Though
step on-offThe
by step. controller, the
total regeneratio
regeneration temperature of all ETAUs reached 140 ◦ C in 30 min., as shown in Figure 16.
was 1.5 h to make sure all desiccants can total regenerated. After transfer to the
Because the exhausted air from #1 must be preheated the #2, the on-off control frequency at
step,
#2 mustthelower
cooling
than rate of first
#1. The the ETAU
ETAUs hadwere also temperature-increasing
the largest faster due to the airload, channels.
so the The te
ture of all ETAUs
temperature canoflower
setting goal #1 wasthan
slower 60and
°Cstep
in 1byhstep.
when Thethe
totalcooling flowtime
regeneration is about
was 0.21 m
1.5 h to make
(CMM), which sureisall7.3%
desiccants
of the cansupply
total regenerated. After transferair.
of dry compressed to the cooling
Both thestep,
regenerati
the cooling rate of the ETAUs were also faster due to the air channels. The temperature of
cooling flows used in the ETAU system were less than traditional heat-air-flow
all ETAUs can lower than 60 ◦ C in 1 h when the cooling flow is about 0.21 m3 /min. (CMM),
pressed air dryers
which is 7.3% benefiting
of the supply the energy-saving
of dry compressed air. Both theofregeneration
the total system. Theflows
and cooling adsorption
ended
used in when
the ETAU thesystem
dew point
were lessof outlet compressed
than traditional air wascompressed
heat-air-flow higher than −40 °C, and
air dryers
thors defined this as the adsorption time. The parameters of the system the
benefiting the energy-saving of the total system. The adsorption period ended when can be va
dew pointto
cording of the
outlet compressedenvironmental
operating air was higher than −40 ◦ C, andand
conditions the authors defined this asof the a
the requirements
the adsorption time. The parameters of the system can be varied according to the operating
tion. Table 5 compiles the test results of the ETAU compressed air dryer in differ
environmental conditions and the requirements of the application. Table 5 compiles the test
conditions. The dehumidification
results of the ETAU compressed air dryer load decreased
in different when the
test conditions. The compressed
dehumidification air flow
point of inlet compressed
load decreased air is reduced,
when the compressed air flow orsodew
the adsorption
point of inlet time of ETAU
compressed air iscompres
reduced, so the adsorption time of ETAU compressed air dryer
dryer can increase. Moreover, the dew point of outlet compressed air was lower w can increase. Moreover,
the dew point of outlet compressed air was lower when the air volume or dew point of
air volume or dew point of inlet air was drop off, which means the moisture re
inlet air was drop off, which means the moisture retention time subtle increased. However,
time subtle increased.
the adsorption time was not However, the adsorption
in a proportional time was
increase relationship not
with thisinalteration,
a proportional
as i
relationship
shown in Table 5. with this alteration, as shown in Table 5.

Figure 16. Temperature curves of the ETAU system.

Figure 16. Temperature curves of the ETAU system.
Table 5. ETAU compressed air dryer test results.
Table 5. ETAU compressed air dryer test results.
The Adsorption Time
Supply Air (Before the Dew Point of Outlet Air Was Higher
TheThan −40 ◦ C)
Adsorption Time
(m3 /min., CMM)
The Dew Point ofAir
Supply Inlet Compressed Air:
(Before the DewThePoint
Dew Point of InletAir
of Outlet Compressed Air: Than −40 °C
Was Higher
−8~−10 ◦ C −18~−20 ◦ C
(m /min., CMM)
3
The Dew Point of Inlet Compressed The Dew Point of Inlet Com
3 3 hours 4 hours
Air: −8~−10 °C Air: −18~−20 °C
1.8 3 3.5 hours 3 hours 5 hours 4 hours
1.8 3.5 hours 5 hours
 4.3. Composite ETAUs Compressed Air Dryer
Another disadvantage of the traditional compressed air dryer is the high temp
Processes 2021, 9, 1082 of the exhaust air. The authors used a 30 cm thick alumina packed-bed to18replace
15 of
three ETAUs in the nine ETAUs compressed air dryer, and the exhaust air from the
can be used for the regeneration process of the activated alumina, which regen
temperature
4.3. Composite ETAUs is 80 Compressed
°C. As shown Air Dryerin Figure 17, the final exhaust air temperature
about 80 °C.disadvantage
Another The result isofathe little different
traditional from our
compressed airprediction
dryer is the highbecause the thermal c
temperature
of
of the tank wall
the exhaust wasauthors
air. The ignoredusedina 30 ourcmprediction.
thick alumina The heat source
packed-bed comes
to replace the from
top the E
three ETAUs in the nine ETAUs compressed air dryer, and the
so the heat loss of the container is less compared with traditional heated-air regen exhaust air from the ETAUs
can be used for the regeneration process of the activated alumina, which regeneration
systems. However, the activated alumina regeneration process just like a conve
temperature is 80 ◦ C. As shown in Figure 17, the final exhaust air temperature is only about
method of
80 ◦ C. The result heating by exhaust
is a little different air,
fromso ourthe last 10 cm
prediction alumina
because packed-bed,
the thermal capacity marked
of #
had the highest
the tank wall was temperature, 80 °C. Alumina
ignored in our prediction. The heat #1source
had acomes
temperature of 130 °C,
from the ETAUs, so and A
thereached
#2 heat loss 100 of the°C.container
The lower is lessregeneration
compared with traditional heated-air
temperature regeneration
makes activated alumina
systems. However, the activated alumina regeneration
mediate dehumidification performance, but the zeolite loses its dehumidification process just like a conventional
method of heating by exhaust air, so the last 10 cm alumina packed-bed, marked #3,
mance if the regeneration temperature is as low as 80~100 °C. The 30 cm activated a
only had the highest temperature, 80 ◦ C. Alumina #1 had a temperature of 130 ◦ C, and
packed-bed
Alumina #2 reached makes 100the◦ C. dew point
The lower of compressed
regeneration temperatureair reduce to −20~−30
makes activated alumina°C. It me
dehumidification load of zeolite in the ETAU is diminished. The dew point of comp
have a mediate dehumidification performance, but the zeolite loses its dehumidification
performance ◦ C. The 30 cm activated
air is finallyifunder the regeneration
-40 °C due temperature is as low
to the zeolite, as 80~100
which is wholly regenerated at 140 °C
alumina packed-bed makes the dew point of compressed air reduce to −20~−30 ◦ C. It
ETAUs. During the cooling stage of the composite ETAUs system, the activated a
means the dehumidification load of zeolite in the ETAU is diminished. The dew point
above will continue
of compressed to be
air is finally heated
under -40 ◦because
C due to thethezeolite,
hot airwhichblowing upwards
is wholly from below
regenerated
fore, ◦
at 140afterC inthe thefinal
ETAUs. cooling
Duringstage is completed,
the cooling stage of the temperature
the composite ETAUs of the last the
system, layer of ac
activated alumina above will continue to be heated because
alumina will be about 80 °C, which can ensure that all activated alumina is com the hot air blowing upwards
from below. Therefore,
regenerated. after the finalresults
The experimental coolingare stage is completed,
shown in Figure the18.temperature
At the sameof theinlet dew
◦
last layer of activated alumina will be about 80 C, which can ensure that all activated
of −8~−10
alumina °C and the
is completely outlet dew
regenerated. Thepoint of −40 results
experimental °C, thearecomposite
shown in Figure system has a lon
18. At
sorption
the same inlet time. dewThepoint regeneration
of −8~−10 ◦ C time and the isoutlet
90 min, and the
dew point of −40 cooling
◦ C, the time is 60 min
composite
systems.
system hasThe composite
a longer adsorption system
time. Thehasregeneration
higher dehumidification
time is 90 min, andperformance
the cooling time due to th
is 60 min in both systems. The composite system has higher
ence of the activated alumina. The adsorption capacity of activated alumina is high dehumidification performance
due to the presence of the activated alumina. The adsorption capacity of activated alumina
that of zeolite, so a load of zeolite is significantly reduced. The adsorption time
is higher than that of zeolite, so a load of zeolite is significantly reduced. The adsorption
extended
time can beby 1 h compared
extended with the
by 1 h compared withnine ETAUs
the nine ETAUs system.
system.The The regeneration
regeneration ener
sumption
energy consumptionis also reduced due due
is also reduced to only
to only 6 6ETAUs
ETAUs in inthethe composite
composite ETAUs ETAUs
system,system
so the energy
energy consumption
consumption indexreduces
index reduces aboutabout10%, 10%,down downto 0.86
to kW/CMM
0.86 kW/CMM compressed air .
compressed air.

Figure 17. Temperature curves of the composite ETAU system.

Figure 17. Temperature curves of the composite ETAU system.
Processes 2021, 9, 1082 16 of 18
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 18

(a) (b)
Figure18.
Figure 18.Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagramofof(a)
(a)ETAU
ETAUsystem
systemand
and (b)
(b) composite
composite ETAU
ETAU system.
system.

Table6 compares
Table 6 compares thethe performance
performance of commercial
of commercial adsorption
adsorption dryersdryers
and the and the pro-
proposed
posedprototype
ETAU ETAU prototypesystems.systems. The heatless
The heatless adsorptionadsorption
system systemexhibitedexhibited
an energy an energy
efficiency effi-
index
ciencyof approximately
index of approximately2.31 kW/CMM 2.31 compressed
kW/CMM . Moreover,
compressed
air air . the compressed
Moreover, the air consump-
compressed air
tion ratio in the cooling
consumption ratio in(regeneration)
the cooling step was approximately
(regeneration) step was 30.1%. The heated-air-flow
approximately 30.1%. ad- The
sorption system exhibited
heated-air-flow adsorption an energy
systemefficiency
exhibitedindex of roughly
an energy 1.19 kW/CMM
efficiency index of compressed
roughly 1.19 air .
The compressed
kW/CMM airair.consumption
compressed The compressed ratioair inconsumption
the cooling step ratioisinone theofcooling
the critical
step is factors
one of
affecting thefactors
the critical energyaffecting
consumption in the
the energy adsorption in
consumption dryer. Efficient regeneration
the adsorption dryer. Efficient and re-
cooling methods
generation can considerably
and cooling methods can reduce the energy
considerably use ofthe
reduce compressed
energy useair. of The ETAU
compressed
system
air. Theexhibited
ETAU system the best performance
exhibited the best because of the direct
performance because heating
of the adsorbent.
direct heating Further-
adsor-
more, the uniform air channels made the compressed air consumption
bent. Furthermore, the uniform air channels made the compressed air consumption ratio ratio of the ETAU
only 7.3%
of the ETAUin theonlycooling
7.3% step.
in theThe compressor
cooling step. The used 7.7 kW toused
compressor produce
7.7 kW onetocompressed
produce one
air unit (m 3 /min., CMM), yielding an air consumption energy index in the cooling step
compressed air unit (m /min., CMM), yielding an air consumption energy index in the
3

ofcooling
0.56 kW/CMM
step of 0.56 kW/CMM
compressed in all the
air compressed ETAU systems. The regeneration energy and
air in all the ETAU systems. The regeneration energy
total energy efficiency indices of
and total energy efficiency indices of the ETAUthe ETAU system werewere
system 0.41 kW/CMM
0.41 kW/CMM compressed and
air air
compressed and
0.91 kW/CMM , respectively. In terms of the composite
0.91 kW/CMMcompressed air, respectively. In terms of the composite ETAU system, the regen-
compressed air ETAU system, the regen-
eration
erationenergy
energy andand total energy
total energy efficiency
efficiency indices were
indices 0.320.32
were andand 0.860.86
kW/CMM
kW/CMM compressed
compressedairair. .

Table 6. Performance of a commercial

Table 6. Performance of aadsorption
commercialdryer and thedryer
adsorption proposed ETAU
and the system.ETAU system.
proposed

Adsorption Dryer Type Heatless Heat-Air-Flow

Heat-Air- ETAU Composite ETAU
Composite
Adsorption Dryer Type Heatless ETAU
Outlet dew point (◦ C) −40 −40 Flow −40 −40ETAU
Outlet dew point (°C) −40 −40 −40 −40
Inlet air flow (m3 /min.,CMM) 3.11 2.86 3.01 3.00
Inlet air flow
Outlet air flow (m3 /min., CMM)
(m3/min.,CMM) 2.17 3.11 2.62 2.86 2.79 3.01 2.78 3.00
Compressed air consumption ratio in cooling
Outletstep (%)
air flow 30.1 8.1 7.3 7.3
2.17 2.62 2.79 2.78
Compressed air consumption energy (m /min.,
3
indexCMM)
2.31 0.62 0.56 0.56
(kW/CMMcompressed air )Compressed air
consumption ratio in
Regeneration energy index (kW/CMM cooling — 30.1 0.57 8.1 0.41 7.3 0.32 7.3
compressed air )
step (%)
Total energy efficiency index (kW/CMMcompressed air ) 2.31 1.19 0.97 0.86
Compressed air
consumption energy index 2.31 0.62 0.56 0.56
(kW/CMMcompressed air)
5. Conclusions
Regeneration energy index
Figure 19 presents the energy ---analysis of the
0.57proposed composite
0.41 ETAU 0.32
system.
(kW/CMMcompressed air)
Because there is insulating cotton around each ETAU, and no heating on the pipe, the
Total
heat energy
losses efficiency
of pipes andindex the container
2.31 were 0% and
1.19 22.6%, respectively.
0.97 Moreover,
0.86 the
(kW/CMM compressed air)
uniform pressure drop and temperature distributions of the ETAU system are achieved
without any overheating. The exhaust heat waste in the composite ETAU system was as
5. Conclusions
low as 22.1%. The adsorbent regeneration process used 55.3% of the total energy, indicating
Figure
that the ETAU19system
presents the energy
is relatively analysis
more of the
efficient. proposedwith
Compared composite ETAU system.
commercially Be-
available
cause there is insulating cotton around each ETAU, and no heating on the pipe, the heat
losses of pipes and the container were 0% and 22.6%, respectively. Moreover, the uniform
 bution because the ETAU design had air channels. Experimental results revealed
temperature uniformity and regeneration time of the ETAU dryers were twice a
third that of the heated-air-flow dryers, respectively. The energy consumption
the ETAU compressed air dryer prototype was 0.97 kW/CMMcompressed air, and the
Processes 2021, 9, 1082 17 of 18
site ETAU one was 0.86 kW/CMMcompressed air, indicating energy savings of more t
compared with conventional adsorption dryers. This innovative adsorbent rege
method for compressed air dryers yielded remarkable results and is suitable for o
heated-air adsorption dryers, the composite ETAU system saves energy consumption by
sorbent
27% applications.
through electrothermal regeneration technic and composite system configuration.

Figure 19. Energy analysis of the composite ETAU system.

Figure 19. Energy analysis of the composite ETAU system.
In the proposed and successfully developed ETAU, the proposed adsorbent (zeolite)
Author
was Contributions:
attached Conceptualization,
to the electrothermal metal by using Y.-H.K. and C.-H.C.;
a heat-resistant methodology,
adhesive. Y.-H.K.; so
Wheel-shaped
units were manufactured through a high-efficiency, low-cost, roll-to-roll process.
H.L.; validation, J.-C.P., C.-H.C. and Y.-H.K.; formal analysis, J.-H.L.; investigation, C. The
manufactured ETAUs
sources, M.-L.H.; exhibited
data low-pressure
curation, drop and uniform draft
J.-C.P.; writing—original temperature distribution
preparation, C.-H.C.; wr
because
view andthe editing,
ETAU design had visualization,
C.-H.C.; air channels. Experimental results revealed
M.-L.H.; supervision, that
J.-J.C.; the tem-
project administr
perature uniformity and regeneration time of the ETAU dryers were twice
H.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. and one-third
that of the heated-air-flow dryers, respectively. The energy consumption index of the
Funding:
ETAU This research
compressed air dryerreceived nowas
prototype external funding.compressed air , and the composite
0.97 kW/CMM
ETAU one was 0.86 kW/CMMcompressed air , indicating energy savings of more than 25%
Data Availability
compared Statement:
with conventional Restrictions
adsorption dryers.apply
Thisto the availability
innovative of these
adsorbent data. Data was
regeneration
from Ministry
method of Economics
for compressed Affairs,
air dryers Taiwan
yielded and areresults
remarkable available
andfrom the authors
is suitable with the pe
for other
of Ministry of
adsorbent applications. Economics Affairs, Taiwan. (https://www.moeaboe.gov.tw/EC
lace/home/Home.aspx, accessed on 21 June 2021)
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.-H.K. and C.-H.C.; methodology, Y.-H.K.; software,
Acknowledgments:
J.-H.L.; validation, J.-C.P.,The authors
C.-H.C. wouldformal
and Y.-H.K.; like to acknowledge
analysis, the supportC.-H.C.;
J.-H.L.; investigation, from the
re- Energy
Ministry of Economics Affairs, Taiwan. Moreover, we extend our appreciation to Chang-Y
sources, M.-L.H.; data curation, J.-C.P.; writing—original draft preparation, C.-H.C.; writing—review
and editing, C.-H.C.;
generating visualization,
the figures. M.-L.H.; supervision,
This manuscript was editedJ.-J.C.;
byproject administration,
Wallace AcademicY.-H.K. All
Editing.
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Restrictions apply to the availability of these data. Data was obtained
from Ministry of Economics Affairs, Taiwan and are available from the authors with the permission
of Ministry of Economics Affairs, Taiwan. (https://www.moeaboe.gov.tw/ECW/populace/home/
Home.aspx, accessed on 21 June 2021).
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the support from the Energy Fund of
Ministry of Economics Affairs, Taiwan. Moreover, we extend our appreciation to Chang-Yi Shen for
generating the figures. This manuscript was edited by Wallace Academic Editing.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Processes 2021, 9, 1082 18 of 18

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