60 Recent Patents on Anti-Infective Drug Discovery, 2012, 7, 60-65

Recent Patents on Antibacterial, Antifungal and Antiviral Properties of

Tea

Eugenia Ch. Yiannakopoulou*

Department of Basic Medical Lessons Faculty of Health and Caring Professions Technological Educational Institute of
Athens, Athens, Greece

Received: December 12, 2011; Accepted: January 2, 2012; Revised: January 30, 2012

Abstract: Teas have beneficial effects on human health including cardioprotective, anticarcinogenic, antibacterial, antivi-
ral and antifungal activity. The precise antimicrobial spectrum of tea is difficult to be defined due to variation in the meth-
ods of testing that have been used. Antibacterial effects of tea have been demonstrated against a number of microorgan-
isms including Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio cholerae, Escherichia coli, Shigella spp., Salmonella spp., Bacillus spp.,
Klebsiella spp. and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Teas and tea ingredients seem to have both bactericidal and bacteriostatic
actions. In addition, tea catechins have been shown to modify the antibiotic sensitivity of bacteria and to alter the expres-
sion of factors that determine bacterial virulence. Antiviral effects of green tea have been demonstrated against the influ-
enza virus, as well as against the Herpes simplex virus, tobacco mosaic virus, enterovirus, rotavirus, Epstein Barr virus,
HIV virus. Yet, green tea catechins have been shown to have antiviral activities against HIV infection. Antifungal effects
of tea have been reported against Candida albicans, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, and Trichophyton rubrum. The present
paper describes recent patents on antimicrobial effect of teas and tea ingredients.
Keywords: Antibacterial, antifungal activity, anti-infective properties, antiviral, tea.

INTRODUCTION thearubigins constitute the main flavonoid component of

Tea is the most commonly consumed drink in the world
after water. Teas are classified into three major types de-
pending on the manufacturing process. Non-fermented green
tea is produced by drying and steaming the fresh leaves to
inactivate the polyphenol oxidase and thus, oxidation does
not occur. Semi-fermented oolong tea is produced when the
fresh leaves are subjected to a partial fermentation stage be-
fore drying. Fermented black and red (Pu-Erh) teas undergo
a post-harvest fermentation stage before drying and steam-
ing. However, the manufacturing process of black and red
teas is not identical, since the fermentation of black tea is
due to an oxidation catalyzed by polyphenol oxidase, while
the fermentation of red tea is attained by using microorgan-
isms [1, 2].
Polyphenols, particularly flavonoids constitute the most
interesting component of green tea leaves. The main flavon-
oids present in green tea include catechins (flavan-3-oils).
The four major catechins are (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate
(EGCG), that represents approximately 59% of the total of
catechins; (-)-epigallocatechin(EGC) (approximately 19%);
()-epicatechin-3-gallate (ECG) (approximately 13.6%); and
()-epicatechin (EC) (approximately 6.4% ) [2] In addition,
green tea also contains gallic acid (GA) and other phenolic
acids such as chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid and flavonols
such as kaempferol, myricetin and quercetin [1]. On the con-
trary, the polymerized catechins such as theaflavins and
*Address correspondence to this author at the Eleutheriou Benizelou 106
Kallithea 17676, Athens, Greece; Tel: 0030 2109563791;
0030 210-9563761; E-mail: nyiannak@teiath.gr; egian@med.uoa.gr
black tea. Black and green teas contain similar amount of
flavonoids, however they differ in their chemical structure;
green tea contains more catechins that are simple flavonoids,
while simple flavonoids are converted to theaflavins and
thearubigins through the oxidation undergone by the leaves
in the manufacturing process of black tea.
Recent data suggest that teas have beneficial effects on
human health including cardioprotective, anticarcinogenetic,
antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal activity [1]. Antibacterial
property of tea was first reported from Japan where Japanese
tea was applied as a treatment agent against various diar-
rhoeal pathogens [2]. Tea powder is still used in rural India
as chemoprophylaxis in wounds against suppuration. In addi-
tion, the leaves of tea discarded after preparation of the infu-
sion are used in the treatment of chronic eczema. This paper
reviews evidence on antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal
activity of teas focusing on recent relevant patents.
TEAS AND ANTIBACTERIAL EFFECT
The antimicrobial effect of tea was first demonstrated
almost a century ago, in 1906, in the laboratory by
McNaught, who showed that brewed black tea killed Salmo-
nella typhi and Brucella melitensis [3]. Thus, he recom-
mended that the water bottles of troops should be filled with
tea in order to prevent outbreaks of infections due to these
agents. The precise antimicrobial spectrum of tea is difficult
to be defined due to variation in definitions of ‘susceptible’
and ‘resistant’ as well as due to variation in the methods of
testing, that have been used.

2212-4071/12 $100.00+.00 © 2012 Bentham Science Publishers

Tea and Anti-infective Properties Recent Patents on Anti-Infective Drug Discovery, 2012, Vol. 7, No. 1 61

Table 1. Patents on antibacterial action of tea.

Patent
Main Point of the Invention

US20100035979 A1 Reduction of the minimum inhibitory concentration of oxacillin in methicillin resistant strain of Staphylococcus aureus by
exposure of Staphylococcus aureus to a non-galloylated catechin

US7700646 New amide derivatives, analogues of epigallocatechin gallate or epicatechin galate, that are beta-lactam resistant modulators,
useful for the treatment of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection.

EP0761226B1 Increasing activity of antibiotics against MRSA by addition of a synergistic polyphenolic chroman derivative which is a
catechin or theaflavin

US5879683 Antibacterial agent comprising tea extract and beta-lactam antibiotic for treating methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus
infections.

US20100298244A1 A composition for the prevention and treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection. comprising at least 128 mg/L catechin and
its derivatives, 32mg/L sialic acid and water.

US20100330001A1 Trihydroxybenzoate derivatives including ECGC useful for the treatment of gum diseases i.e. gingivitis and periodontitis

US20090082429A1 Modified catechin with increased lipophilicity for reducing bacterial growth in a body compartment

US7288270 A therapeutic composition including green tea extract for the prevention and treatment of mucositis and mucosal disorders

US20080038370A1 Nutraceutical composition containing catechins and extracts of green tea for treating the effects of diseases of the upper
digestive tract

US20060134286A1 A composition containing tea leaf extract, or gallocatechin gallate and catechin, to increase the antimicrobial effect for food-
stuffs, beverages and oral hygiene, to control tooth decay and periodontal disease

Nowadays, it is known that green tea inhibits the repro-
duction and growth of many bacteria, including Salmonella
spp., Clostridium spp. and Bacillus spp., Vibrio cholerae O1,
Listeria monocytogenes, Streptococcus mutans, Stenotro-
phomonas, Acinetobacter species [4-11]. Tea catechins have
been shown to inactivate cholera toxin in Vibrio and to inac-
tivate isolated bacterial glycosyltransferases in Streptococus
mutans. The antibacterial activity of Turkish tea against
Campylobacter spp. has also been reported [12]. The anti-
bacterial activity of tea has been demonstrated both in vitro
and in vivo. Thus, in a relevant study, the methanolic extract
of leaves of Camellia sinensis (L.) was screened for antimi-
crobial property against 2 genera of Gram-positive and 7
genera of Gram-negative bacteria: Staphylococcus aureus,
Vibrio cholerae, Escherichia coli, Shigella spp., Salmonella
spp., Bacillus spp., Klebsiella spp. and Pseudomonas aeru-
ginosa. Most of these strains were inhibited by the extract at
10-50 mg/ml level while few strains were sensitive even at
lower concentrations (5 mg/ml) [13]. An in vitro study re-
ported that a green tea extract strongly inhibited Escherichia
coli, Streptococcus salivarius, and Streptococcus mutans
[14]. In the same study, it was demonstrated that the antibac-
terial effects of green and black tea extracts were comparable
with those of amoxicillin, cephradine, and eugenol [14].
The antibacterial activity of the methanolic extract of tea
leaves was also confirmed in vivo. When it was given to
Swiss strain of white mice at different dosages (30, 60
mg/mouse), it protected the animals challenged with Salmo-
nella typhimurium [13]. In addition, it has been shown that,
when conventional rats were fed a diet containing 0.1% tea
catechins, fissure caries (caused by S.mutans) was reduced
by 40%.
Furthermore, a relatively weak direct in vitro antibacte-
rial activity of green tea extracts on Helicobacter pylori and

-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. has been reported [15-17].
Yet, it has been demonstrated that methicillin resistant
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is inhibited in vitro by the
addition of 1:10 dilution of cup of tea [18]. Moreover, in this
context, it is interesting to note that the bactericidal action of
catechins against MRSA can be markedly, improved by sub-
stitution of the gallate moiety of ECg with 3-O-acyl chains
of various lengths [19]. It has also been shown that green tea
has no effect over intestinal flora, which is a great advantage
against other bactericidal agents.
Human epidemiological data also support the antibacte-
rial action of tea. Thus, it has been reported that daily con-
sumption of green tea can kill Staphylococcus aureus. In
addition, it has been reported that the drinking of green tea
protects against dental caries, as well as increasing the num-
ber of beneficial bacteria, such as lactobacilli and bifidobac-
teria, in the gut flora [20-22]. The commercially available
green tea extracts Sunphenon and Polyphenon E have been
formulated as antiseptic creams and mouthwashes and incor-
porated into facemasks in order to prevent infections [1, 23].
They have also been introduced into vacuum cleaner filters
in order to reduce airborne contamination with microorgan-
isms [23]. Catechin-mediated photo-protection of human
skin against bacterial infection has also been suggested and it
has been found that topical tea ointment was as effective for
the treatment of impetigo as a topical antibiotic mixture
(framycetin and gramicidin) or an oral cephalexin [24, 25].
Apart from their bactericidal and bacteriostatic effects,
tea catechins have been shown to modify antibiotic sensitiv-
ity of bacteria and to alter the expression of factors that de-
62 Recent Patents on Anti-Infective Drug Discovery, 2012, Vol. 7, No. 1
termine bacterial virulence [19, 26-28]. Thus, it has been
reported that methicillin resistance of MRSA can be reversed
by green tea extracts at concentrations much lower that those
needed for inhibition of bacterial growth. Tea catechins have
also been shown to lower the minimum inhibitory concentra-
tion (MIC) of methicillin, oxacillin and
-lactams in clinical
isolates of MRSA [19, 26].
Recent evidence suggests the synergistic action of tea
components with conventional antibiotics against Gram
negative bacteria [29-31,]. Thus, it has been demonstrated
that mice fed extracts of C. sinensis leaves in combination
with levofloxacin were protected against oral challenge with
enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157 [29]. In context
with this, synergistic action of green tea catechins with
ciprofloxacin has been demonstrated in a chronic bacterial
prostatitis model in the rat [32].
The mechanisms of the antibacterial action of tea and tea
ingredients have not been elucidated. Damage of bacterial
membranes by tea catechins has been suggested, with cate-
chins in the nanomole range being able to modulate the
structure and function of model membranes, due to their ca-
pacity to partition into the phospholipid bilayer [32-35]. In
particular, the EGCg-induced damage of the cell wall and
interference with its biosynthesis through direct binding with
peptidoglycan are the major reasons for the susceptibility of
Staphylococcus to EGCg [36]. It has also been suggested that
the antibacterial action of tea catechins against Stenotropho-
monas maltophila, a Gram-negative opportunistic pathogen
of growing importance, is due to its capacity to inhibit the
cytoplasmic enzyme dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) [10].
The catechin has been shown to inhibit DHFR purified from
both trimethoprim-susceptible and trimethoprim-resistant S.
maltophila clinical isolates [10]. In addition, it has been
shown, that Gram-negative bacteria are more resistant to
bactericidal catechins than Gram-positive bacteria, an obser-
vation that can be explained to some extent by the presence
of negatively charged lipopolysaccharide in Gram-negative
bacteria [32].
Recent Patents
Patent US20100035979 A1 refers to the reduction of the
minimum inhibitory concentration of the antibiotic drug in
methicillin resistant strain of Staphylococcus aureus [37]. In
particular the patent presents compositions and methods for
sensitizing methicillin resistant staphylococcus to oxacillin.
According to the patent, methicillin resistant Staphylococcus
aureus is already sensitized with a galloylated catechin (e.g.,
ECG), and further sensitization is achieved by exposure to a
non-galloylated catechin (e.g., EC), and most preferably the
corresponding non-galloylated catechin [37].
Patent US7700646 concerns new amide derivatives, that
are beta-lactams resistant modulators, useful for the treat-
ment of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection
[38]. These amide compounds are analogues of epigallocate-
chin gallate or epicatechin gallate, with an amide bond in
place of the natural ester bond, with resistance to hydrolysis
by esterase enzymes. The ester compounds have a different
hydroxylation pattern on the B ring as compared to the natu-
ral products. The compounds may be used to modulate the
resistance to
-lactam antibiotics of various infections, espe-
Eugenia Ch. Yiannakopoulou
cially methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).
In addition, this invention describes pharmaceutical compo-
sitions containing the novel compounds and combinations of
the novel compounds with
-lactam antibiotics [38].
Patent EP0761226B1 concerns composition and method
of increasing activity of antibiotics against MRSA by addi-
tion of a synergistic polyphenolic chroman derivative which
is a catechin or theaflavin [39]. In particular, the invention
presents a method of increasing the activity of an antibiotic
against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a pa-
tient by administering to the patient the antibiotic in combi-
nation with a catechin and/or a theaflavin.
Patent US5879683 concerns an antibacterial agent com-
prising tea extract and beta-lactam antibiotic for treating me-
thicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. The in-
vention provides a method of inhibiting production of bacte-
ria which constitutively express PBP2' or bacteria which
inducibly express PBP2' in the presence of a
-lactam antibi-
otic, by administering an effective amount of an extract of
tea to the bacteria. The tea extract contains at least one active
principle of dried tea and being extractable from processed
dried tea with, hot water and this active principle is capable,
on administration, of restoring the activity against MRSA of
a
-lactam antibiotic. Preferably, the extract of tea can be
administered to a human or animal subject together with a
-
lactam antibiotic [40].
Patent US20100298244A1 presents a composition for the
prevention and treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection
[41]. An objective of this invention is to provide a composi-
tion for the prevention of Helicobacter pylori infection com-
prising at least 128 mg/L catechin and its derivatives, 32
mg/L sialic acid and water. Another objective of this inven-
tion is to provide a composition for the treatment of Helico-
bacter pylori infection comprising at least 128 mg/L to 640
mg/L catechin and its derivatives, from 32 mg/L to 160
mg/L sialic acid and water. The Helicobacter pylori infec-
tion can be inhibited or eradicated by this composition. Ac-
cording to the inventors, this composition increases the anti-
oxidant activity of the infected cell through reducing the
production of oxygen radicals, H2O2 and NO and decreasing
the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in the in-
fected cell. In addition, the composition reduces the damage
of the stomach through upregulation of autophagy and down-
regulation of apoptosis. Thus, according to the inventors, this
composition inhibits the interaction of Helicobacter pylori
with the gastric epithelial cells and at the same time kills the
bacteria without affecting gastric epithelial cells [41].
Patent US20100330001A1 relates to oral antibacterial
compositions comprising trihydroxybenzoate derivatives,
useful for the treatment of gum diseases i.e. gingivitis and
periodontitis [42]. The inventors have found that an impor-
tant pharmacophore in these compounds is trihydroxybenzo-
ate. Compounds having trihydroxybenzoate moieties are
effective primarily not by any direct antimicrobial action, but
by potently stimulating the production of endogenous antim-
icrobial peptides, particularly LL-37 peptide from epithelial
cells. Trihydroxybenzoates stimulate LL-37 production by
binding to the DEAD box polypeptide-5 (DDX5). According
to the inventors, trihydroxybenzoate derivatives of this in-
vention induce endogenous antibiotic peptide production
Tea and Anti-infective Properties
without inducing the expression of host pro-inflammatory
cytokines, eicosanoids and leucotrienes, that are known to
elicit inflammatory responses. Trihydroxybenzoate deriva-
tives investigated in the invention include among others 3-4-
5-trihydroxybenzoic acid, 2-3-4 trihydroxybenzoic acid,
EGCG and mixtures thereof in free or salt form [42].
Patent US20090082429A1 concerns a composition useful
for reducing bacterial growth, e.g. growth of Gram-positive
bacteria, in a body compartment [43]. The composition com-
prises modified catechin. According to the invention, a cate-
chin is modified in at least one position (most preferably in
the 3-position of the C-ring) to increase its lipophilicity.
Contemplated catechins are demonstrated to have signifi-
cantly improved antibacterial properties, likely due to the
catastrophic membrane damage [43].
Patent US7288270 concerns a therapeutic composition
for the prevention and treatment of mucositis and mucosal
disorders [44]. This composition consists of deglycyrrizi-
nated Glycyrrhiza extract, Centella extract, Angelica root
extract, Green tea extract, stilbene compound and Aloe ex-
tract [44].
Patent US20080038370A1 concerns a composition and
method for treating the effects of diseases of the upper diges-
tive tract [45]. The present invention relates to a nutraceuti-
cal composition for supporting body structures and functions
in the upper digestive tract. The nutraceutical composition
contains an effective amount of (a) an antioxidant having
gastric proton pump inhibiting effects, (b) an acid neutral-
izer; and (c) an antibacterial agent effective against Helico-
bacter pylori. Concerning antioxidants, this invention in-
cludes all classes of antioxidants that are safe for human
consumption and which can be administered as a dietary
supplement or as a nutraceutical i.e. catechins and the ex-
tracts of herbs such as green tea containing catechins. The
inventors claim that this invention can be used as compli-
mentary therapy with all acid reducing natural substances
and pharmaceuticals. Yet, according to the inventors, this
unique formulation compliments any attempts to reduce the
damaging effects of gastric acid and reduce the damaging
effects of H. pylori infection of the upper digestive tract [45].
Patent US20060134286A1 concerns a composition con-
taining tea leaf extract, or gallocatechin gallate and catechin,
to increase the antimicrobial effect for foodstuffs, beverages
and oral hygiene, to control tooth decay and periodontal dis-
ease [45]. The composition according to the present inven-
tion contains gallocatechin gallate as an agent for enhancing
the activity of antibacterial catechins in which the antibacte-
rial activity of the antibacterial catechins against Streptococ-
cus mutans is particularly enhanced. The composition ac-
cording to the present invention can be produced by mixing
the antibacterial catechins with gallocatechin gallate. Alter-
natively, it can be produced as a composition comprising a
synthetic adsorbent-adsorbed fraction as the main compo-
nent, which is obtained by subjecting a solvent-extract from
tea leaves to an adsorption treatment with the use of a syn-
thetic adsorbent selected from among aromatic and
methacrylic compound-based synthetic adsorbents [45].
Recent Patents on Anti-Infective Drug Discovery, 2012, Vol. 7, No. 1 63
TEAS AND ANTIVIRAL EFFECT
A recently published epidemiological study suggested
that green tea consumption is inversely related with influ-
enza virus infection among schoolchildren in a tea plantation
area in Japan [46]. Evidence suggests effects of green tea
against the influenza virus, especially in its earliest stage, as
well as against the Herpes simplex virus, tobacco mosaic
virus, enterovirus, rotavirus, Epstein Barr virus, HIV virus
[47-49]. Although the mechanism is not known, it has been
suggested that green tea catechins inhibit viral proteases.
Thus, antienzymatic activities of EGCG have been observed
against -lactamases, reverse transcriptase of HIV, colla-
genase, fatty acid lipase and other enzymes. EGCG inhibits
viruses and enzymes by direct binding to biological mole-
cules. In addition, EGCG induces agglutination of influenza
virus, preventing thus their adsorption to target cells.
In addition, it has been observed that adenovirus infec-
tion is inhibited in vitro by green tea catechins. Weber et al.
[50] investigated the effect of EGCG on adenovirus infection
and viral protease adenain in cell culture. They demonstrated
that adding EGCG (100micro) to the medium of infected
cells, virus yield was reduced by two orders of magnitude.
Based on the experimental data of this study, the investiga-
tors suggested that the antiviral effect of EGCG is mediated
through inhibition of virus assembly or through inhibition of
maturation cleavages carried out by adenain [50].
Green tea EGCG has been reported to have antiviral ef-
fects against HIV-1 infection. Several mechanisms have
been proposed for the antiviral effects of EGCG on HIV-1.
EGCG inhibits HIV-1 replication in human PBMCs in vitro
by inhibiting the biochemical activity of HIV-1 reverse tran-
scriptase, with subsequent decrease in HIV p24 antigen con-
centration. Other studies have shown that EGCG interferes
with HIV-1 viral infection by virion destruction and HIV-1
reverse transcriptase inhibition. In addition, it has been dem-
onstrated that EGCG induces virion destruction in vitro by
deformation of phospholipids via binding to the surface of
the viral envelope. Furthermore, it has been shown that green
tea EGCG prevents the attachment of the HIV-1 virion,
gp120, to CD4 molecules on T-helper cells, suggesting that
direct binding of EGCG to viral receptors on cell surfaces
may be another antiviral mechanism of EGCG [51].
In addition, recent investigations have demonstrated anti-
viral effects of EGCG against hepatitis C virus (HCV). In
particular, relevant experimental data have shown that
EGCG inhibits HCV entry into hepatoma cell lines as well as
into primary human hepatocytes. Yet, pretreatment of these
cells with EGCG before HCV inoculation does not reduce
HCV infection, whereas the application of EGCG during
inoculation strongly inhibits HCV infectivity. Moreover,
treatment with EGCG directly during inoculation strongly
inhibits HCV infectivity [52]. The interference of EGCG
with HCV was hypothesized due to the close link between
HCV cycle and lipid metabolism. It has been suggested that
EGCG acts at an early step of the viral cycle, more likely
preventing attachment of the virus to the cell surface, prob-
able by acting directly on the particle [53].
64 Recent Patents on Anti-Infective Drug Discovery, 2012, Vol. 7, No. 1
Clinical Applications
Green tea sinecatechin polyphenol E formulated as 15%
ointment is a botanical extract made from green tea leaves,
that has been recently approved by Food and Drug Admini-
stration (FDA) for the treatment of external genital and peri-
anal warts caused by human papilloma virus (HPV). Poly-
phenol E is a mixture of different polyphenols/catechins
from green tea extracts (Camellia sinensis), which are
known to have antioxidative, antiinflammatory, antiprolif-
erative and anticancer activities. In 3 placebo-controlled
clinical studies safety and efficacy of Polyphenol E 15%
ointment was studied in a total of 1400 patients with genital
warts from Europe, North and South America as well as
South Africa [54]. Complete responses with total healing of
genital warts were seen in 54.9% of the patients in contrast
to 35.4% of patients receiving placebo (p > 0.001). The re-
currence rate was 6.2%. Systemic adverse reactions were
unlikely. Mild to moderate local reactions of short duration
have been detected [54]. In addition, preliminary trials sug-
gest a possible role for sinecatechins, alone or in combina-
tion with an oral extract, in treating cervical lesions caused
by HPV [55].
Recent Patent
US patent US20110052727A1 presents a pharmaceutical
composition used for treating or preventing infection with
influenza virus H1N1 [56]. The nutritional supplement in-
cludes a combination of all or some of the following ingredi-
ents: glycyrrhizic acid, quercetin, green, tea, epigallocatechin
gallate, cinnamon, cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic acid, sele-
nium, and propolis [56].
TEAS AND ANTIFUNGAL EFFECT
It has been demonstrated that green tea catechins exert
antifungal activity against Candida albicans [57-59]. Conse-
quently, a combined treatment with catechins and lower
doses of antimycotics has been suggested, limiting thus, the
side effects of antimycotics. However, data are conflicting.
Thus, other investigators have shown that tea inhibited
Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Trichophyton rubrum, but
neither Candida albicans nor Cryptococcus neoformans,
were inhibited by tea [60].
CURRENT & FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
Available data support the antimicrobial action of tea and
tea ingredients against a great number of microorganisms.
Described patents present helpful examples of clinical appli-
cation of the antimicrobial effects of teas. However, most
data come from in vitro studies. Future research efforts
should focus on the design of animal and human studies for
investigating the antimicrobial effect of teas and tea ingredi-
ents. Toxicity studies should also be designed. In addition
methods of extraction and methods of in vitro testing should
be standardized facilitating interpretation of results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Dr. Sumaiya Azhar for providing
me information for the patents.
Eugenia Ch. Yiannakopoulou
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
Authors have no conflict of interest to declare.
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