Practical Yacht Navigator

yacht
practical
navigator
Kenneth
SI2-50
This is a complete manual on how to

navigate any type of small vessel
coastwise and across the sea in today's
circumstances. It is a modern book for
modern boating people who want to
learn fast by means of clear diagrams and
photographs, which are supported by a
comprehensive text. Two-color
illustrations are used throughout to give
numerous examples of fixing the yacht's
position, emphasizing the essential
knowledge needed on tides, coping with
fog, understanding the all-important
steering compass and a host of other
facets of the small craft navigator's
activities.
How to use small radar sets is dealt with,

as are techniques with the almost
universal echo sounder and transistorized
logs and sailing computers for those that
have them. More basic means of
calculating where the boat is and where
to head for next are not forgotten. The
author keeps in mind that the type of
boat and the method of propulsion may
van widely, but there is a clear
-
explanation of the pilotage problem

encountered by the cruising yacht when
she is beating to windward.
The book is ideal when studying

navigation. But the reader who has not
the time or inclination to attend special
instruction, will find here the knowledge
to go to sea without getting lost.
BOSTON
PUBLIC
LIBRARY
yacht
practical
navigator
yacht
practical
navigator
Kenneth
Wilkes
DAVID McKAY COMPANY, INC.

NEW YORK
Practical Yacht Navigator
Copyright © 1 978 by H. Kenneth Wilkes M. R.I.N.

All rights reserved, including the right
to reproduce this book, or parts thereof,
in any form, except for the inclusion of
brief quotations in a review.
First American edition, 1 978
Congress Catalog Card Number: 77-75995

Library of
ISBN: 0-679-50807-4
J 97?/- /
Printed in Great Britain

Contents
1 Lost on the water 9
2. The mariner's map 16
3. Equipment to find the way 36
4. More on instruments 66
5. North, south, east, west 73
6. To shape a course 82
7. Plotting the course 92
8. How high is the tide ? 96
9. This is the position 1 1 4
10. How the radio helps 134

11. Radar for some 144
1 2. Sailing to windward 155
1 3. Log books 1 63
14. Off to sea 167
1 5. Coastal passage 175
16. Blinded but not lost : fog ! 182

17. Traverse tables 191
18. Celestial navigation 197
Index 204
^^~
Publisher's note
Practical Yacht Navigator has had world wide sales since
being first published in 1 973. The author. Kenneth Wilkes,
lives in England and some of his examples, although the
practice of coastal navigation is similar everywhere,
borrowed considerably from European usage. This edition
has been extensively rewritten by Roger Marshall. It
preserves the attractive format and approach of the earlier
edition, but makes the contents of immediate application
to all who sail the coasts of the United States and Canada.
Line illustrations:
Bill Streets
Log book examples:

Peter Milne
Photographs:
Peter Johnson except for
U.S. Coastguard 25. 26, 150.
Roger Marshall 26 (left). 28, 29
Kelvin Hughes 151. 152.
J. R. House 67. EMI Marine 149, 152
Simrad 141
1 . Lost on the Water
Boating is great fun until you are lost. Sailing There are all sorts of things you would do, even
along in sunshine and a spanking breeze, or with though the hijackers had kept no record of what
the engine purring sweetly, is what many sailors they had been doing up to that instant. You
expect to do on a Sunday afternoon. It is one would look for certain things around the horizon,
thing to do this with the shore half a mile off and you would look at your watch to see what time
landmarks, perhaps houses and fields moving had elapsed, you would look at the compass and
slowly past, but it can be quite frightening to have you would look at the charts. Then two or three
the same fine sun and reliable engine, but with courses of action would suggest themselves. You
only water in sight all round and no indication of would be choosing one of them away you go :
where to go next. navigating your yacht.

Imagine yourself in a boat which is hijacked. Let's hope this sort of dramatic situation never
Just before you were going ashore on Sunday happens, but the circumstances are not unlike
evening after a fine weekend, along came some those the yacht navigator —
and he may be the
escaped criminals, bound up your hands and tied —
owner or the skipper deals with at times during
a handkerchief around your eyes and confined you the season.
with your head up the quarter berth. You heard My own first attempt at a passage out of sight
the engine start and the sails hoisted and away of land did not involve hijackers ! It was just the
they went. Six hours later they woke you up: sort of run that scores of yachts make for the first
they were feeling slightly seasick and had not the time every season a simple run
: of about 20 miles
faintest idea where they were. If you would across Long Island Sound from Port Jefferson to
navigate them, so they said, they would strike New Haven. I penciled a line on the chart joining
some sort of bargain. Well, what do you do next? these two places. This gave me a course to steer
If you had only used your boat for afternoon on the boat's compass. The distance seemed
sailing and always very close to familiar landmarks rather difficult to calculate because the chart did
then you would be just as frightened as the not have a scale of miles to the inch like a road
hijackers. On the other hand there is no need to map. Someone in the yacht club said that it was
be a super mathematician or a puzzle solver to be best to sail by night because lighthouses flashed
able to take quick charge of this situation and out, making it easy to find where you were. I
learn to navigate. You only need to be a practical memorized the characteristics of two prominent
yacht navigator. lighthouses.
^^^™ ^™
practical yacht navigator
Off we went on a reach. Later than had expected

I by all, and at worst disaster may strike. Many
a flashing light appeared dead ahead, which took I rescues by lifeboat are a result of navigation
to be New Haven lighthouse. The only problem was which has gone haywire.
that the flashes were a bit more than the four The yachtsman does not have to learn
seconds apart they were supposed to be. Behind the navigation like a merchant marine officer, but his
lighthouse could see a pattern of red and white
I navigational problems are basically the same.
4 sec. flashing buoys. So using a dim flashlight I Courses of study and examinations suitable for the
searched on the chart around the entrance to New yachtsman are discussed in Chapter 19. But it is
Haven harbor and found a series of buoys that seemed not at all necessary to take these to gain a grasp of
to correspond to what lay ahead. felt sure we
I navigational matters. It is practical ability that he
were approaching the entrance to the channel needs.
correctly. Almost at once heard the sound of
I A cursory glance at a text book on navigation
breaking water on all sides. then did probably
I may give the impression that the subject is
the only sensible thing had done all night:

I and calls for a lot of mathematics and
difficult
Istood out to sea and hove-to. By daylight I complex calculations. In fact, navigation is based
could clearly see the light at Branford reef which on common sense and a little very elementary
I had mistaken for the New Haven lighthouse. We geometry. Early sailors managed to navigate
were several miles east of our destination. During without the advantage of study —
they were" able
the night we had stood into the reefs around to do so by observation of the results of wind and
the Thimble Islands, and the broken water had I tide, by deductions based on what they saw, and
heard was the fast east-going tide rushing over by amassing experience. All that a text book can
shoal rocks. Fortunately, the rocks had been well do is to point out the problems, and indicate
below the surface and we had come to no harm. With solutions: this reduces the time required to amass
the weather remaining fair, we reached New Haven experience.
with no further problems. But had the seas Now here is an important point. Most people
turned rough or the visibility deteriorated we soon master the principles in any navigation
might have been in serious trouble. problem quite quickly, but fail to reach the correct
Shortly after, met a man who told me of a trip
I answer. It is because they are inaccurate. They
he made from Oyster Bay to Saybrook. Mistaking make mistakes in simple addition or subtraction,
a buoy on the western end of Long Sand Shoal for one add when they should subtract, or pick up the
on the eastern end, he almost sailed into the Hen wrong figure from a table. More students fail
and Chickens. Fortunately, he realized his error examinations by making silly, simple mistakes
upon seeing the lighthouse at Saybrook breakwater. than by not knowing the principles involved. The
He, too, came to no harm, but if the weather trouble is that this happens more often at sea,
had turned bad it may have been otherwise. than when practicing on land.
Incidents of this sort probably happen many It may be argued that a degree or so error in a
times every season. With fine weather —

and a bit course does not matter as one can seldom steer to
of luck —
no damage is done but a lot of time may that accuracy. This is true. But if one is careless
be wasted. But if the weather turns foul, then the an error is just as likely to be 1 0° as 1 ° and it —
trouble starts. At best a very anxious time is had then becomes serious if not dangerous. It is
10
lost on the water
particularly important to ensure that signs are There is no reason why you should not use your
right — plus or minus — since an error in the sign own abbreviations, provided you know exactly
produces an error of double the figure. If a what they mean, "wake co. 21 0°
e.g. T." Many a
variation of 1 0° W
is applied the wrong way the mistake has been made by the wrong figure being
course will be 20° wrong —
which makes 20 miles picked up, or misunderstood.
error on a 60 mile passage. When writing some figures down which need
The golden rule which it is most strongly subtraction or addition, ensure they are written
recommended should be followed in every plumb under each other. Again this speeds the
navigation problem is: work and helps accuracy.
These may seem obvious or trivial points, but
Check every figure, and every sign ( + or —),
experience shows that they pay handsome
every —
"name" N or S, E or W.
dividends. Good navigation calls for meticulous
Check every addition and subtraction (check attention to detail and neat, accurate writing more
subtraction by "adding back"). than any high degree of technical ability.
Tick every sign and figure when checked.

Pilotage
Do not USE any answer till every figure has been Pilotage is a name given to such things as
ticked as checked. directing a vessel into or out of a harbor,
estuary or river. Position and direction are
This procedure should be followed when ascertained by eye using local knowledge or
working out exercises at home or at sea, and chart, coupled with use of the compass,
when working "for real." It is a temptation to press particularly in poor visibility or by night. There is
—
on with calculations particularly at sea to get a — no time for, and little necessity for, plotting the
speedy answer, without "wasting time" checking. ship's course on the chart, the operation calling
But if the checking is done while the table-book for knowledge of the position in relation to the
or tidal atlas, or whatever, is open and to hand, channel, of buoys and other navigational marks,
it only takes a moment, and will save a lot of and for the ability to identify these objects as seen.
unnecessary work in re-calculating if the first In many designated "Pilotage" areas regulations
answer is obviously wrong. If it is not obviously require commercial vessels (or vessels over a
all
wrong, possibly hours of unnecessary sailing may stated tonnage) to employ a certificated pilot.
be involved, and even danger incurred, all through Yachts are not obliged to carry pilots (except in a
omitting to check at each stage. very few specific places).
So right from the start, make it routine to check Ayachtsmansailing on Long Island Soundsayfrom
and tick every figure and calculation. Stamford to Mystic, Connecticut would use pilotage,
Your work will be made easier, and the risk of determining his course by reference to buoys and
error reduced, if you write clearly and neatly, and landmarks. He would not require to pre-determine
do not omit captions. Do not overwrite a wrong courses to steer nor to plot his position on the
figure, but cross it out and put the new figure chart in daylight and normal weather. Nevertheless,
clearly.By "caption" is meant the meaning of what many of the features of navigation which are
has just been written — e.g. wake course 21 0° true. essential on a longer passage may be used, and in
11
^^—
Fig 1 . This is what meridians are. Known, too, as longitude. Fig 3. When these are combined, the result is a natural
They are by definition "great circles." system of reference over the seas of the world, in terms of
latitude and longitude.
Fig 2. Parallels of latitude.
12
lost on the water
poor visibility or at night may be necessary. A parallel of latitude is a line drawn parallel to
knowledge of the
Pilotage calls for thorough the equator and girding the earth. Any number of
buoyage systems, the proper use of the echo parallels of latitudecan be drawn, cutting every
sounder (or leadline). The direction of tidal meridian at right angles, and each passing
streams, the use of leading lights and marks, port through a given point on any meridian. The angular
entry signals and the recognition of navigational distance of any parallel of latitude is measured
marks by their lights at night is also necessary. along a meridian, or at the center of the earth,
These are all dealt with later from the equator towards either pole, and is
named north or south, and any angle up to 90°.
(Fig 2.)
Navigation as a general subject
The latitude of a position is therefore stated as
There are some words used over and over again
being a given number of degrees and minutes
and their explanation is as follows:
north or south of the equator, measured along the
Position. A position can be described in terms of meridian on which it lies. (Fig 3.)
its relation to a stated object, e.g. "position, Its longitude is given as the degrees and
1 miles east of Cape May lighthouse." When minutes which the meridian on which it lies is
not close to an easily identified object, it may be east or west of the prime meridian, 0° (Greenwich
more precisely described by its latitude and meridian).
longtitude of which more in a minute.
There are 360 degrees (360°) in a circle,
60 minutes (60') in a degree. Fractions of a Direction. A direction in the business of navigating

minute of arc are recorded in decimals, e.g. can be described as a line between the observer
50° 25i being written 50°25'.5. and an object, or between two objects or
The equator is a great circle girding the earth positions. The direction of an object is defined in
exactly midway between north and south terms of the angle between the object and some
geographic poles. A straight line which passes "datum" line. The direction of one object or
through both the north and south geographical position from another position, or from the
pole is a meridian. It cuts the equator at right observer, is therefore the commonly used
angles, and is half a great circle (a circle which "bearing."
cuts the center of the earth). The meridian which The meridians on a chart all run true north and
passes through Greenwich is termed the prime south — they join the two poles. If the angle
meridian, and is named 0°. between the line representing a bearing and a
Any number of meridians can be drawn, at any meridian is measured, this is a true bearing.
desired angular distance from the prime meridian Bearings are normally measured in 360° notation,
measured either at the center of the earth, along measuring the angle from true north (the meridian,
(all give the same
the equator, or at either pole or a line parallel toclockwise round to the
it)
figure). Any named by this angle, in

meridian is bearing. A degrees may therefore be
bearing in
degrees and minutes, and is named east or west, anything from to 359 (always measured
and can be any angle up to 1 80° E or 1 80° W. clockwise), and may be designated true bearing
(Fig 1.) by the suffix T, e.g. 090° T. (Fig 4.) See page 1 5.
13
i^^^™™^"""""^"""
Fig 4. Bearings are given clockwise in degrees.
Fig 5. Relative bearings from ship's head: 45°

to port and 90° to starboard.
Fig 6. Relative bearings as given by the Navy:

45° and 260°.
If the bearing is measured in relation to the

direction of north as shown by
magnetic a
compass, then this will usually differ from the true
bearing because compass north usually differs
from true (geographic) north. A compass bearing
Fig 4. is always shown with the suffix C, e.g. 090° C.
(see Chapter 5).

A bearing which is related to the direction of
the yacht's head (the direction she is going) is
called a relative bearing. Used often to give a
quick indication of a general direction, it does not
require the observer to refer to true orcompass
north. "Vessel seen 45° on
bow," or "buoy seen
port
Fig 5.
90° abeam to starboard" are examples of relative
bearings. (Fig 5.) The United States Navy gives
relative bearings based on 360 degrees. For
instance, a relative bearing of 45 degrees indicates
45° from dead ahead to starboard, while a relative
bearing of 260 degrees indicates 1 00° from dead
ahead to port. (Fig 6.)
Distance. All distances are measured in nautical

(or sea) miles. The nautical mile is divided into
1 cables, normally shown as decimals of a mile,
Fig 6 ^ 2 miles 4 cables is The nautical
written 2.4 M.
mile is, be definition, the distance of one minute
of arc measured along the meridian. As the earth is
not a perfect sphere, this distance varies between
6 046 ft at the equator and 6 1 08 ft at the pole,
14
lost on the water
but for practical purposes the average is now
taken at a mean value of 6 080 ft. The cable is a
fraction over 200 yards.
Note that the nautical mile is appreciably
longer than the statute mile of 5 280 feet (over
1 5 per cent), which is an arbitrary measurement
fixed in the sixteenth century.
Speed
The unit used is always the knot, (abbreviations
kn or K), which is one nautical mile in one hour.
Depths
The old unit of depth is the fathom (fm), being
6 feet. Fractions are shown as fathoms and feet.
Thus 1 A represents 7 fms 4 ft.
The new unit of depth, used on most new charts

and new editions of older ones, is the meter (m).
Fractions are shown in decimeters or decimals
of a meter. Thus 8 7 indicates 8.7 meters.
Note: small m
denotes meters
M
denotes nautical miles.
capital
This may well apply to the same object when
navigating, for instance a lightship may be 21 m
high and visible 14 M away.
Bearings on charts and lists of lights

All bearings shown with no suffix (e.g. "lights in
line bearing 1
74°" are true bearings (from
seaward). All Admiralty charts show true
bearings, without the suffix T, but many
"yachtsman's" charts and pilot books show
bearings and courses magnetic (e.g. 095° mag).
To guard against error, it is advisable to put T
against all true bearings which you write down,
from those which may be
to distinguish clearly
magnetic or compass. This is explained more
fully in Chapter 5.
15
2. The Mariner's Map and only one meaning, and one
has to learn to be
extremely careful to recognize
the exact message
being conveyed. This applies
particularly to the
shape and color of buoys shown,
the precise
type of light of a given lighthouse,
and so on
This only comes with
practice, and the reader is
recommended to study a chart or charts
in detail
identifying every mark or
symbol and checking
with the list of symbols and
forms given in
A chart is a mariner's map. It publications such as:
shows him where it
Chart No. 1 Nautical Chart
is safe for him to sail— amd
more important- ,
Symbols and
shows where Abbreviations, National Oceanic
it is not. It shows the various ports and Atmospheric
and harbors and Administration.
their positions relative to
each Dutton's Navigation and Piloting,
other so that he can shape a U.S Naval
course from one to
Institute.
another. A mass of "signposts"
in the form of
landmarks are given so that he can Bowditch, American Practical
Navigator, U S Navy
fix his position
m relation to them. The shape of the coastal Hydrographic Office, Publication No.
9
hills Reed's Nautical Almanac (partial
cliffs, sand dunes and information only).
the general "picture" of the
coast are all shown. The depths
of water and even
the nature of the sea bed are Types of chart
given. So you can Charts may be broadly
see a chart is far more than simply classified between
a map, and Navigational charts for keeping a
1
enables the navigator to form an track of a ship's
accurate picture position and for determining
of the area shown. courses to be
steered.
Once the knack of "reading" a chart
acquired is
2.Non-Navigational charts
the yachtsman can visualize for special purposes
even a strange area such as
m advance. He knows what to expect before
he (a) Routing charts showing
gets there, knows where the details of winds
dangers lie, where weather, principal shipping routes.
the safe channels are, and
can navigate in
(b) Lattice charts for position
confidence. Like a good book, the finding by radio
more one reads aids.
it the more one
knows about the subject. But a
(c) Radio beacon charts.
chart contains so much
information that quite a
(d) Tidal stream charts and
lot of it has to be written atlases.
in a form of shorthand
(e) Charts of isogonic
Much of this takes the form of symbols variation and other
which specialized information.
indicate their meaning by their shapes. Other data
are given by abbreviations or initials, which are Navigational charts
easily remembered after a little practice. In the United States, navigational
A very clear understanding of
what a chart charts are
published by several different agencies.
shows is important for safe navigation. The
Each principle ones are the National
symbol and abbreviation has one Ocean Survey of
precise meaning the National Oceanicand
Atmospheric Administration
16 a
the mariner's map
:
(Department of Commerce), the Hydrographic Center
of the Defense Mapping Agency (Department of
Defense), the U.S. Coast Guard, and the U.S. Naval
Oceanographic Office. In most cases, the publishing
agency distributes the charts to local sales agents in
U.S. and foreign ports.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration produces complete catalogs of
charts, listing each by number and area covered.
Nautical Chart Catalog 1 covers the Atlantic and
Gulf coasts, while Catalog 2 covers the Pacific coast
and Catalog 3 covers Alaska. They are available
from any authorized distributors.
Other chart sources for boats sailing in American
waters are the U.S. Geological Survey (Department
of the Interior), the Mississippi River Commission,
and district offices of the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers for charts of many major lakes and rivers.
Although these agencies are less important chart

sources than those listed above, there may be times
when they are useful in fulfilling the yachtsman's
:
particular chart requirements.
Other countries also produce good charts,
especially large-scale charts of their local waters.
The British Admiralty charts, published by the
Hydrographic Department (British Ministry of
Defense), are very widely used. Over 6,000 are
published, covering the world. They are available
from official chart agents in most large ports.
Fig 7. For navigation we need a flat chart, but the earth is
Chart projections roughly spherical. So every attempt to make a chart is a

compromise.
The earth is an "oblate spheroid," that is, a sphere
slightly flattened at top and bottom. The
cartographer is faced with the problem of
reproducing the surface of this sphere, or a portion
ofit, on a flat piece of paper. (Fig 7.) It is
clearly impossible to flatten out an orange skin —

or a large piece of one — without either cutting it
or stretching it in some way. The same applies to

a section of the earth's surface. Whatever he does,
17
the cartographer is bound to distort the area them on the same scale towards the top of the
depicted in some ways. There are several methods chart. It will at once be apparent that the space
of "projecting" the earth's curved surface onto a between 1 0' on the chart towards the top is
flat plane. The principal projections used in greater than it was at the bottom, if the chart is of
navigation are Mercator's projection and the the northern hemisphere (or less if of the southern
gnomonic projection. hemisphere).
A straight linebetween two points on a
Mercator projection Mercator chart called a rhumb line. Although
is
On a sphere (the earth) the (horizontal) parallels not the shortest distance between the two points,
of latitude are lines all parallel to the equator and there is negligible difference between this and a
thus to each other, and are equally spaced. But Great Circle course if the distance is less than
the (vertical) meridians, though also straight and about 500 miles, in latitudes less than about 60°
cutting each parallel of latitude at right angles, all N or S, and can safely be disregarded for coastal
meet at the poles and are therefore tapering navigation. In practice, all coastal and short
together as they approach either pole. passages are laid off on the chart as rhumb lines
To represent globe on a flat
a section of the or straight lines on a Mercator chart. (Fig 9.)
surface, the cartographer draws his meridians all
vertical and parallel to each other, and spaced Gnomonic projection
equally apart. To prevent distortion of the shapes Charts on the Gnomonic Projection are only used
of the land, he expands the distance between for very high latitudes (polar charts), for plotting
parallels of latitude to correspond with the amount long-distance Great Circle tracks, and other special
he has pulled the meridians apart to make them purposes. The meridians radiate out from the
parallel. Thus, while the shape of each part of a nearer pole, and the parallels of latitude appear as
chart is correct, the scale varies gradually between circumferences or arcs of circles whose centers
top and bottom of the chart. (Fig 8.) The are at the nearer pole. On these charts a Great
practical effects of this are: Circle track appears as a straight line, cutting each
(a) A straight line on a Mercator chart cuts each meridian at a different angle, while a rhumb line
meridian at the same angle, so that true bearings would appear as a curved line, bowed from the
of the line will remain unchanged along its length. nearer pole. (Fig 10.)
(b) The shortest distance between two points on A shipmaster, requiring to shape a great circle
a sphere is a portion of a Great Circle (a circle course between two ports a more
thousand or
whose plane cuts the center of the earth). This miles apart so as to minimize his mileage would
will appear as a curved line on a Mercator chart, use a gnomonic chart. He would draw in a
bowed away from the equator. straight line between the ports, pick up the
(c) Distances on the chart must be scaled off latitude and longitude of a series of points along
from the latitude scale (on vertical edges of the this line, and transfer these points to a mercator
chart), and level with the part being measured as chart. Joining these points would produce a
the scale varies. Check this by placing the dividers bending round. He
series of short straight lines
on, say, 1 0' of latitude near the bottom of the could then determine the positions where an
chart. Then, without disturbing the dividers, place alteration of course should then be made to maintain
1
.
the mariner's map

Fig 8. Flat chart actually represents surface of sphere.
Fig 9. In Mercator projection, a course can be laid off as a

straight line but distances are distorted from north to south.
Curved line represents great circle. This is the projection of an
"ordinary chart."
Fig 10. Gnomonic projection: great circle is now represented

by straight line, but straight course on Mercator now becomes
curved
his position along the great circle line. A yacht on

a long passage, whether sail or power, seldom
sails a great circle course, preferring to pick a
course or series of courses to take advantage of
favorable winds and currents, and so avoid areas
of adverse conditions such as areas of fog, ice and
stormy weather.
Non-navigational charts
1 Routing charts are published for each of the
oceans. There is a separate chart for each month
in the year for each ocean. These show
Winds. The directions and strengths of the winds

likely to occur at a large number of positions over
the chart. At each position symbols indicate the
percentage of winds of varying directions and
strengths to be expected.
Ice Limits. Areas of fog, with percentage
incidence, sea temperatures, etc.
Main shipping routes (and distances) between a
number of ports. Ocean currents, directions and
rates of flow.
These charts are not suitable for plotting the
ship's position or track. They are essential for
trans-ocean passages.
2. Lattice charts. These are charts overprinted
with "lattices" of lines or curves which enable the
ship's position to be determined from radio signals
19
. :
received from certain specific navigational radio nearly 7 miles to the inch. (As the scale of a
stations.The message received indicates the Mercator chart varies according to the latitude of
intersecting lines on which a ship's position lies. the area being measured, this ratio is shown as at
There are a number of systems, each requiring a stated latitude).
use of the particular designed for that
lattice chart When selecting a chart the scale is more easily
system. These are discussed Chapter 1 0.
in visualized by noting how wide apart are the
3. Radio beacon charts show all radio beacons, degrees and minutes of latitude shown in the
some linking together those operating on a vertical borders, bearing inmind that 1 minute is
common frequency. They show which radio 1 nautical mile, and 1 degree is 60 miles.
beacons are best situated to use for position There are three main scales of chart.
finding in a given area. These are discussed in 1 Harbor plans. These are drawn to the largest
Chapter 10. scale and cover a single harbor or estuary,
4. Tidal stream charts and atlases. A description showing the greatest detail. They are drawn on
and instructions for use appear in Chapter 6. gnomonic projection, but this has no practical
5. Charts of isogonic variation. These show a significance for navigation. Scales are between 2
number each passing through all points
of lines and 1 inches (50 and 250 mm) to the mile.
having a given magnetic variation. Variation is 2. Coastal charts to various scales, for example
fully discussed in Chapter 5. Port approach charts covering 1 2 to 24 miles across.

6. Co-tidal and co-range lines charts. Tables are Large scale coastal charts covering about 50 M
available which predict the times of high water of coast.
and low water at a number of ports (see Chapter Medium scale coastal charts covering about
8). Co-tidal and co-range lines charts enable the 1 00 M of coast.
height of tide at positions well offshore to be Small scale coastal charts covering about 200 M
calculated. These are of use where it is desired to of coast.
correlate a depth found by echo-sounder with 3. Ocean charts to a very small scale spanning
depths shown on the chart at positions some 1-2,000 M or more.
miles from a port. The yachtsman will find a harbor plan helpful
for navigation in large harbors containing
Scale of charts sandbanks, shoals, or channels (such as Miami
The scale of a chart is the relationship of a harbor or Newport harbor), but in many cases
distance on the chart to the distance it represents port approach charts will provide quite sufficient
on the land (or sea) depicted. A large scale chart detail. He should have a few large scale coastal
shows, say, a river a mile wide very large on the charts covering his usual sailing area, and medium
chart, while a small scale chart would show the scale charts covering any proposed or likely
same river very small. The scale of a chart is passages he may make.
shown, usually near the title, as a ratio or fraction, The amount of detail shown on a chart
e.g. 1 500,000 or
1
This would indicate
naturally varies with the scale of the chart — the
A
:
500,000' larger the scale the more detail. small scale

that on this chart, a distance of1 inch on the coastal chart may not show all the buoys in
chart depicts a distance of 500,000 inches, or harbors and estuaries, and details of lighthouses
20
the mariner's map
(their exact characteristics and arcs of visibility coast, details should be found in the U.S. Coast
and sectors may be omitted or be
(if any) Guard Light List, the pilot for the area, and
incomplete). For this reason, medium or large the appropriate edition of Reed's Nautical Almanac.
scale charts must be used when closing the land Care is called for in reading the scales of
and to identify lights and objects. If no large latitude and longitude printed on the vertical
scale chart is available for a particular piece of and horizontal margins of the chart respectively.
The spacings, and the meanings of the graduations
vary with the different scales used. Refer to
Fig 1 1 On the small scale on the left, each
.
graduation marks one minute of latitude, each

five minutes being alternately with and without a
bar. On the medium scale shown, each one
minute is alternatively "plain" or "bar," and there are
five spaces marked within each minute. Each
art
small graduation therefore represents 0.2 of a
minute. On the large scale shown on the right,
each minute has been divided into ten parts, so
CSS
each small graduation represents one tenth of a
| minute.
Always read the degrees first, (taking the lower
20'
number of the two degrees which lie on each side
of the position), then the minute, noting carefully
I
the minute numbers printed. Note also what each
smallest graduation represents. A little practice is
necessary.
31
Depth of water on a chart
I:
The coastal areas of a chart show the height of
20' hills and peaks near the shoreline, with contour
lines connecting all points of a similar height.

This information enables the navigator to form
a mental picture of surrounding landforms. In
addition, the sea areas of a chart give the heights

of prominent ocean landmarks, such as lighthouses.
They also show a vast number of "soundings" (the
measured depths at various places on the ocean
4V floor which are permanently or nearly permanently
4tf 49*.
covered with water), as well as "drying heights"
Fig 1 1 . Latitude scales on charts. Small, medium, and large scale.
(the heights of all features of the seabed that are
Each minute of latitude isone mile. periodically uncovered at low tide).
21
1
Because the level of the sea is continually would actually be 1 00 feet above the water only
changing as the tide rises and falls, some common when the tide rose to the mean high water depth.
reference level must be used to measure land The rest of the time, the exact height of the
heights and sea depths. The reference level used to lighthouse lantern above sea level would be 1 00
record soundings (and drying heights) is called the feet PLUS or MINUS the vertical distance between
chart datum. On most current charts, the chart mean high water and the actual depth of the water
datum is some average lowest level to which the at that particular time.
tide falls. This low water average can be calculated Units of measurement vary among different
in several ways. Three of the most common charts. Many still current charts measure depths in
methods are mean low water, mean lower low fathoms and feet. But this system is now changing
water, and mean low water springs. Mean low as soundings on new charts are converted to meters
water (MLW), used on charts of the Atlantic and and decimeters. To avoid confusion, the depth unit
Gulf coasts, is the average height of all low tides at used on a particular chart is always specified. For
a particular place. Mean lower low water (MLLW), instance, "soundings in fathoms, depths under 1
used on charts of the Pacific coast, is the average fathoms in fathoms and feet" might be written
height of the lower of the two daily tides at a under the title of an older chart. And on a newer
particular place. And mean low water springs chart, the unit of measurement used for soundings
(MLWS), used on most British Admiralty charts, is is also printed in purple along the border.
the average height of low water at the time of spring The heights of land objects as well as drying
tides (at the new and full moons when tides are at heights are always measured in feet when
their highest and lowest). soundings are given fathoms and feet. Drying
in
The actual depth of the water at a certain place heights are distinguished by an underline for —
and time is therefore seldom the same as the example, 6 means a drying height of 6 feet. When
sounding marked on the chart at that location. Most meters are used to specify soundings, heights are
of the time the actual depth is either equal to or also given in meters. Again drying heights are
higher than the sounding. But depending upon the underlines —
4 means 0.4 meters above chart
reference level used, tides can also fall occasionally datum.
below the charted depth. The actual depth of the On the sea areas of most charts, places of similar
water, then, is always the charted depth PLUS the depth are connected by depth contours (or fathom
height of the tide at that particular time. lines). In addition, a series of blue tints is usually
In contrast to the low water datum used to record used to indicate depth —
the darker the tint, the
soundings, the reference level used to measure the shallower the water. These tints are separated by
heights of land objects is generally a high water depth contours, which are either dashed or dotted
average. Like the chart datum, however, this depending upon the depth, or broken at intervals
average can be calculated in various ways. The one and the depth written in.
used on most charts of the United States is mean
high water (MHW), which is the average height of Movement of water on the chart
all high tides at a particular location. When is MHW A current is a movement of water always (or
the reference level for recording land heights, a generally) setting inone direction. This is found
lighthouse marked on the chart as 1 00 feet high in non-tidal rivers, and in oceans. The Gulf Stream
22
the mariner's map
isan example of an ocean current. It is before using a lighthouse for establishing one's
marked on old charts with a feathered arrow and position it is essential that the light's exact
on new charts by a wavy arrow. The rate may be characteristics are determined without any doubt.
shown in figures, beside the arrow. This involves counting the flashes and timing their
A tidal current runs alternately in one of two period, if necessary over several cycles. It is
directionsand at varying ratesof speed. Detailsoftidal best done with a stop watch. The period of a
currents are given in booklets published by the light is the time from the start of one series of
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, flashes (or eclipses) to the start of the next cycle.
National Ocean Survey, in Reed's Nautical Almanac, (Or from the finish of one cycle to the finish of
and in Eldridge Tide and Pilot Book. Eldridge the next.) wise to check several complete
It is
isprobably the most widely used source of information cycles. appears that the same characteristics
If it
on tidal currents along the Atlantic coast. It are not being repeated exactly, continue to check
includes current tables for a number of reference till consistent results are obtained. Never assume
locations which have particularly fast-moving a light is the one expected, always check
tides. These tables predict the times of current carefully. Many ships have come to grief through
change, the direction and average maximum velocity failure to identify a light or assuming that the one
for flood and ebb tides, and an indication of they see is the one they seek. See page 1 29.
the days on which the currents will be at their On large scale charts, if a lighthouse light does
strongest (spring tides) and their weakest (neap not shine round the horizon, the arcs of
all
tides). The direction and velocity of tidal currents visibility willbe shown by fine or pecked lines,
at over 300 other locations are listed separately, and the arc or arcs will be given in the "Pilot" or
and the times of current change at these places sailing directions. The arcs are given in degrees
can be extrapolated from one of the reference as seen from the ship (NOT from the lighthouse).
station tables. Eldridge also includes hourly (Fig 12.)
tidal current charts or simplified current diagrams A medium or small-scale chart may only show
for the major bays, sounds, and harbors along the abbreviated details of a light. If for example the
Atlantic seaboard. small scale chart states "Fl(2) 1 5 sec WR" it
indicates that over some arc or arcs the color

Navigational marks seen be white and over others red. If the arcs
will
Charts covering coastal waters and the approaches are not shown, then it is essential to consult a
to ports and harbors contain a large number of large-scale chart showing the respective arcs by
navigational marks and buoys. They are the pecked lines. If none is available, light lists give
mariner's "sign posts." But just as a road sign post the arcs of visibility of many such lighthouses.
must be read to be of any value, so must any On a small-scale chart may be written
navigational mark be identified, and its message Harbor of Refuge ft 20 M
Lt Fl 5 sec 72
read. but the light more detail:
lists give
The lighthouse is the mark usually seen at the Harbor of Refuge Light Fl W, 2R sector
greatest range. It tells us its name by the Red from 325° to 351° and 127° to 175°
characteristics of its light. No two lighthouses in covers Hen and Chicken and Brown Shoals.
the same area have the same characteristics, but If no large-scale chart showing these sectors is
23
available the arcs should be drawn on the chart.

The simplest way to do this is to place the Weems
protractor with its center on the lighthouse, and
oriented with the N point to south. Then, using
the outer figures on the protractor, mark off the
angles and describe arcs as in the diagram. Note
that the bearings are from seaward to the
lighthouse.
Some lights at entrances to rivers or harbors
show colored sectors to indicate the safe channel.
When in the channel the light seen will be white;
when too far to one side or the other the light
seen will turn to either red or green.
A pair of lighthouses (or lights) may be placed
so that when they are in line (in "transit") they
mark a safe approach. The nearer light is always
the lower; the back light is the higher.
By day a lighthouse shows no lights and can
only be identified by its general appearance and
the neighboring coast, its hills and silhouette.
This is where the ability to "read" the contours of
the hills is of value, though one would sometimes
be navigating by objects closer to the eye
Fig 1 2. A light with sectors of different colors, in this case (i.e. beacons, buoys and the shore line).
white and red. Yachts passing along the courses shown would Light vessels and light floats (which are
see red. then red and white together in a narrow sector, then
white. On charts and in books, sectors in degrees are given as basically unmanned light vessels) cannot,
seen from ship. In this case red might be from 255° (at right because they turn on their moorings, have
hand edge) to 45° (at bottom left edge). sectors but have their own individual light
characteristics in the same way as lighthouses.
Most have a name painted in bold letters on the
hull. All U.S. coastal lightships are painted red;
gradually these are being replaced by "Texas
towers" or large automatic navigation buoys.
There is no obligation for a yacht to sail only
in a channel —
indeed, it is frequently prudent to
proceed just outside the channel so as to be out
of the way of large commercial vessels, but the
chart should be studied to ensure there will be
sufficient depth and no other dangers. (In busy
waterways there may be laws prohibiting shoal
24
the mariner's map
The Ambrose Light located off New York harbor is a
good illustration of a modern "Texas tower." These
lighttowers have replaced traditional lightships in
many areas. For the navigator, a Texas tower provides
an unmistakable daylight identification.
2«*5
Execution Rock Light in Long Island Sound. This is one of

the few manned lighthouses still in operation.
frequently decide to leave a port or starboard hand

buoy on the "wrong" side.
Buoyage system
Buoys and many beacons indicate their meaning,
and their position in relation to channels, shoals
The Hillsboro Inlet Light near Fort Lauderdale. Florida.
and dangers by their appearance, namely,
This tower is an example of a lattice structure with a by their shapes
central stair cylinder.
by their colors
by their numbers (if any)
by their lights (if any), colors and characteristics
by their fog signals (if any)
draft vessels (such as yachts) from obstructing in accordance with internationally agreed systems.
the passage of vessels which, because of their The two principal systems are the lateral and
draft, must remain in the channels). The the cardinal. In a lateral system, the color, shape,
yachtsman still needs to be able to recognize the number, and light on a buoy indicate the side on
buoys to ensure a safe passage. But he will which a vessel should proceed when entering a
26
-
the mariner's map

harbor, or proceeding in the same direction as the
main flood stream. (When leaving a harbor, or
proceeding in the opposite direction to the main
fiood stream, this side is naturally reversed.) In a
cardinal system, the color, shape, and light on a
buoy indicate the direction of the buoy in relation to
the danger it marks.
Different countries use some version of either the
lateral or the cardinal system, or a combination of
the two. The United States uses the lateral system,
as does Canada. In Europe, Britain uses the lateral
system, although the colors that mark the two sides
of a channel are the reverse of those used in
America. A lateral system similar to Britain's is

found along most of the European continent, with
some minor differences. France, however, employs a
combination of the lateral and cardinal systems.
And the cardinal system is also used along other
Fig 1 3. A typical entrance to an estuary as depicted on a

chart. The yachtsman should be able to identify each buoy
and know its purpose.
Fig 1 4. What you see when approaching the same harbor at

Alt. Fl. W. andG- ^Qk.FI.W.
night. The boat's position is as shown in Fig 1 3. Some FI.W. 6 sec .- -FIR -FIR. 4 sec.
buoys are obscured by the land and there is no visible
FI.W. 4sec - Mo(A)W.
indication of distance. Pick three lights you are sure of,
get a fix. use the compass, and then check again as you HIGHOCC- Qk. FI.W.
draw nearer. Do not rely on your sense of direction. LOWOCC Qk. FIR.
27
BUOYAGE
Odd numbered bell buoy.
A bell buoy. The steel float carries a short skeleton

tower in which the bell is mounted. In open water
bell buoys are sounded by the motion of the waves:
when sited where smooth water prevails they are
operated by compressed gas or electric hammers.
Can buoy (port side), unlighted.
28
—
the mariner's map

A buoy is a navigational mark more closely
associated with a small vessel than with
commercial ships. While big craft are watching
their radar, or their bridge officers are relying on
shore marks easily visible to them, the
fisherman or yachtsman closes a buoy, reads its
name or checks its light flash and says "We are right
here." Officially, however, reliance should not be
placed on buoys, for they can drag moorings,
especially if in exposed positions. And since buoys
are unmanned, if a light goes out of order, some

time may go by before it is fixed.
In the U.S. lateral system of buoyage, red buoys
(nuns or lighted) indicate the starboard side of a

channel when a boat is inbound. An easy way to
remember this is the rule "red-right-returning" the :
An intracoastal marker
red channel markers should be kept to the right
when returning from a trip to sea. Red buoys have
A nun buoy with even number (starboard side), even numbers, which increase from seaward, and if
unlighted. These are constructed of steel plates, with
lighted the light is either red or white. Black buoys
the part above water shaped like a cone.
(cans or lighted) indicate the port or left side of a
channel when a boat is inbound. They carry odd
numbers, which also increase from seaward, and if
lighted the light is either green or white.
Another buoy in the U.S. lateral system is the
mid-channel marker, which has black and white
vertical stripes. In terms of shape, it may be a can, a
nun, or a lighted buoy, and it may also have a letter
painted on it. Boats may pass a mid-channel marker
on either side, but they should always stay close to
it. A red and black horizontally banded buoy marks
either a channel junction or an obstruction that may

be passed to port or starboard. The preferred side,
however, is indicated by the color of the top band
keep the buoy to port if the ton band is black and to
starboard if the top band is red. A red and black
banded marker may be a can, a nun, or a lighted
buoy, and it may be lettered.
29
^^B
Lateral System seen PORT SIDE

entering from seaward. ODD NUMBERED AIDS
FIXED
FLASHING
OCCULTING
QUICK FLASHING
LIGHTED BUOY CAN

WHITE OR GREEN
MID-CHANNEL
NO NUMBERS — MAY BE LETTERED
MORSE
CODE
WHITE ONLY CAN LIGHTED NUN
STARBOARD SIDE
EVENNUMBERED AIDS
FIXED
FLASHING
OCCULTING
QUICK FLASHING
LIGHTED NUN
WHITE OR RED
30
Lateral System JUNCTIONS AND OBSTRUCTIONS — NO NUMBERS — MAY BE LETTERED
INTERRUPTED QUICK
FLASHING LIGHTED CAN LIGHTED NUN
PREFERRED PREFERRED
CHANNEL CHANNEL
TO STARBOARD TO PORT
BUOYS HAVING NO LATERAL SIGNIFICANCE— ALL WATERS NO NUMBERS — MAY BE LETTERED
$ w $
5
(ORANGE)
SPECIAL
(YELLOW)
QUARANTINE
(WHITE)
ANCHORAGE
(BLACK/WHITE)
SPECIAL
(GREEN
WHITE)
AND
FIXED
PURPOSE AREA PURPOSE DREDGING
FLASHING
OCCULTING
ANY COLOR EXCEPT
GREEN AND RED
31
: . 5
European coastlines flanked by reefs or isolated the light is omitted — is it 3 flashes every 1
dangers. seconds or every 30 seconds? As this knowledge

To eliminate these disparities in European is essential for positive identification, either a
buoyage systems, over a three year period large-scale chart or a pilot book must be
beginning in 1 977 the countries of northern and consulted. The full characteristics might then be
western Europe are adopting a new combined found as "GpFI(3) 30 sees 1 80 ft 20 M" (1 80 ft
cardinal and lateral system. But in the meantime, high, visible 20 M from height of eye of 1 5 ft).
this gradual conversion may only add to the When transferring a position from one chart to
confusion for visiting American yachtsmen. So another (as when plotting a course which extends
before sailing in European waters, always study the over two charts, or when transferring from a small-
buoyage system currently being used in any given scale chart to a large-scale chart after making a
area. landfall) pick up the latitude and longitude of the
position to be transferred, on both charts. Check
Reading the chart this by relating the position to some object
The area covered by a chart is stated in the title shown on both charts such as a particular buoy.
in general terms, e.g. "Long Island Sound — eastern Before starting work on a chart, rub out all old
part." Before studying a chart in detail, get a pencil markings from earlier work (hence the use
broad idea of the scale of distances by studying of a soft pencil).
the latitude scale. From time to time the characteristics of
Next, note carefully whether depths are marked navigational lights (lighthouses and buoys) are
in fathoms, feet, or meters. This is stated clearly changed, fresh wrecks occur or are found, and so
below the chart's and on new charts "Depths
title, on. These and similar alterations are promulgated
in meters" is also printed in magenta color in the in "Notices to Mariners," issued daily and weekly,
margin. Check also what the various depth and it is important that charts are periodically
contour lines indicate, and what tinting is used to brought up to date ("corrected") by a chart agent.
denote shoal water of various depths. Get the Charts should be handed in for correction at least
"feel" of the area by noting once a year, and preferably before a passage is
(a) The type of coastline. Are there high hills undertaken.
near the coast? Or cliffs, sand dunes. Are there
off-lying rocks or shoals? Books and tables
(b) The general depths near the shore. Is the The following books will be found most useful,
shore steep-to (deep water close in) or shelving if not essential.
gradually? 1 Tide tables covering the whole area likely to be
(c) How much detail is shown. The smaller the sailed. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric
scale (the more area depicted) the less detail, and Administration, National Ocean Survey publishes
vice versa. Are the full characteristics of all tide tables and tidal charts for almost all the
navigational lights given? A small scale chart may coastal areas of the United States. Also,
not show any characteristics of the lights of Eldridge Tide and Pilot Book contains detailed
buoys, and may only give abbreviated ones of tide information for the eastern seacoast.
lighthouses, e.g. GpFI(3) 20 M— i.e. the period of 2. The U.S. Coast Guard Light List. Volume I
32
the mariner's map
;overs the Atlantic coast (from Maine to South folded. The charts should be divided into suitable
arolina). Volume II covers the Atlantic and groups of about sequence
six or so, possibly in the
3ulf coasts (from South Carolina to Texas). Volume in which they and each
are likely to be required,
!
II is the Pacific coast and Pacific Islands, chart arranged with its title and number on the
n be Volume IV the Great Lakes, and Volume V the near-side upper edge. Each group may be
90fl Vlississippi River system. conveniently stored in a "folio," using either a
3. books contain a
U.S. coast "pilots." These canvas, or preferably a flat, zip-up clear plastic
nass of sailing information on different areas case, now available for this purpose. List the
Df the country, but they are compiled principally charts in each and stick the list inside each
folio,
with commercial vessels in mind. Of greater value folio so that can be read without opening the
it
:o the yachtsman are the numerous sailing case. Any individual chart can then be found
directions, many written by famous and easily by leafing through the near-side edges, and
axperienced yachtsmen for areas frequented by can be withdrawn without disturbing the
/achts. remainder.
4. Reed's Nautical Almanac for American coasts. After use, a chart should be folded in the
5. Dutton's Navigation and Piloting is also a original creases and replaced, right way up, in its
jseful reference for celestial navigation work. proper folio.
Care of charts
Charts are not inexpensive. If well looked after,
and returned to the chart agent for correction
annually, a chart should last several seasons.
The chart in use should be kept as dry as
possible and when working in wet gear remove
headgear and spread a dry towel along the near-
side edge. Some navigators cover the chart in use
with a sheet of perspex and write in chinagraph.
This certainly protects the chart, but is inaccurate.
Flat zip-up cases are available in clear plastic.
They are a good idea for holding a chart in the
cockpit for pilotage. Indeed, two charts can be
inserted, back-to-back, so that both can be read
through the plastic.
A yacht's stock of charts may number from a
dozen or up to perhaps fifty. It is well worth
so,
arranging and indexing them to facilitate finding
the one required. All National Ocean Survey
charts fold naturally to about 1 6 in. x 24 in.
or less, and the area of water covered and the
chart number is printed on one edge, visible when
33
:
CHART MEANINGS
A chart shows the following things by means A light may be shown to have one of the
of special symbols and abbreviations. following "characteristics" (see also Fig 80)
1 . Dangers, including rocks, rocks awash at F. Fixed —
a steady light.
level of chart datum, wrecks, overfalls. Fl. Flashing — a single flash at
2. Lights, abbreviations indicating the type of regular intervals.
light flash(es), color, frequency and S-L Fl. Short and Long Flashing — a short
number of flashes. followed by a long flash.
3. Buoys and beacons. Symbols and Qk.FI. Quick flashing — a rate of 60 or
abbreviations indicating the shape, color more flashes a minute.
and lights. Occ. Occulting — or being eclipsed.
4. Fog signals: abbreviations for type of Light being interrupted by a
sound, number of blasts. period of darkness less than the
Harbor features. Anchorage, berth, period of light, at regular
dock etc. intervals.
6. Buildings: to distinguish appearance. Iso. Isophase — equal periods of light
7. Type of bottom: abbreviations for sand, and darkness, at regular intervals.
mud, rock etc. Alt. Alternating — successive flashes
8. Topographical features: hills, contours, (or eclipses) alternate in color
trees, rivers etc. (e.g. RG, or RW) at regular
Coast features: cliffs, sandhills, mudflats intervals.
etc. Gp.FI. Group Flashing — two or more
10. Radio and Radar: stations, beacons, buoys, flashes repeated at regular
masts etc. intervals.
Lights. The color of a light is its first Gp.Occ. Group Occulting — light
identifying feature. All lights are white unless two
interrupted by or more
symbol states a color: periods of darkness at regular
R Red B Blue intervals.
G Green Or Orange I. Qk.FI. Interrupted Quick Flashing — quick
W White (with other color) Vi Violet flashes interrupted by periods of
Y Yellow Am Amber darkness.
34
the mariner's map
Fog Signals. Many lighthouses, light vessels, Type of bottom. Information as to whether the
light floats,and some navigational buoys give bottom is sand, rock or shingle etc. is chiefly of
sound signals in fog (some buoys in clear interest when about to anchor or kedge. This
weather also). A fog signal can be identified by will give a guide to the holding one can expect.
the type of sound made and by its On rare occasions a position may be verified by
characteristics (number and frequency of the reference to the material on the bottom, but
sound). this requires the use of a leadline and a lead
(Abbreviations used on charts shown in "armed" with tallow or grease to which particles
brackets). will adhere. The principal abbreviations used
Siren (siren) Medium power high or low are:
note, or a combination of both. s Sand Sn Shingle
Uses compressed air. M Mud P Pebbles
Whistle Usually on offshore buoys. Ml Marl St Stones
(whis) CI Clay Sh Shells
Bell (B) If power-operated, a single Wd Seaweed Ck Chalk
stroke at regular intervals of Adjectives are used to qualify some of these
1 5-30 sees. materials, such as
If wave-actuated, irregular and fne fine
may not sound in flat calm. crs coarse
Diaphone Strong low note terminating in sft soft
(dia) distinctive "grunt." hrd hard
Horn (horn] Several types with different sm small
tones and pitches. Operate Fine sand would be shown as fneS.
by different mechanisms, Radio and Radar. The ability to locate on the
such as diaphragm or reed. chart the positions of radio beacons, Consol
Nautophone High note, like reed. Electric. stations, and (with radar) buoys fitted with
(nauto) radar reflectors, and racons will enable the
Gong (gong) Medium or low pitched maximum value to be obtained from the RDF
resounding tone. set (or radar). These are all marked on charts
Gun (gun) Explosive signal. with their respective abbreviations.
35
3. Equipment to find the Way
Certain equipment and instruments are necessary Again, if possible, arrange for reasonable seating —
for navigation, but these do not have to be costly you may spend a long time at it. In suitable cases
or elaborate. I recommend starting with the on a sailing yacht, try to arrange a strong strap
minimum, only adding as more experience which can be easily fixed, perhaps with a
suggests. Let us divide the instruments into two Swedish snap-shackle, so as to support you in
lists — instruments for the chart table and your seat when the yacht is heeled over. Make
instruments for the yacht. The former are required suitable provision for your instruments and books,
for "deskwork" aboard or ashore. so that they will be ready to hand and will not
keep sliding off the table. Good lighting is
important, with provision to reduce glare back

Instruments for the chart table
towards the helmsman. He wants all the night-
Chart table, with adequate lighting and storage
vision possible, and any glare will spoil this. A
for charts.
fitting consisting of a small bulb on a flexible
Note books, navigator's log book.
stalk is excellent. Some have a tiny shade fitted
Pencils 2B and HB, pencil sharpener.
which can be adjusted to eliminate unwanted
Compasses and dividers, 6 in. to 7 in. (1 50 mm light scatter. Convenient chart storage can be
to 180 mm).
provided by a shallow tray, about 2-3 inches
Parallel Rule, 1 5 in. to 1 8 in. (400 mm to deep, with the chart table forming the hinged lid.
460 mm).
Weems protractor, or other chart protractor.
Note books
Magnifying glass.
Without adequate note books there is a tendency
to rely on memory, or to use scraps of paper. If it
Chart table is worth writing down it is worth preserving to see
For use at home, recommend a piece of plywood

I what went wrong last time, or to refresh one's
about \ in. (1 2 mm) thick, about 30 in. x 24 in. memory next time. One book specially reserved
(750 mm x 600 mm), with fold-back clips or for navigational matters to enable the ship's
thumb tacks (drawing pins) to secure charts. position to be worked up at any time by dead
This avoids spoiling a table with compass- point holes. reckoning is essential. This is the yacht's log book.
Aboard, try to arrange a chart table of adequate Few navigators will agree on the ideal layout, but
size, at least 30 in. x 24 in., or larger if possible. in Chapter 1 3, one layout which has proved
36
Forward facing chart table (on Swan 37 class). Note ample
deep stowage for gear. Instrumentation fills almost all available
space on partial bulkhead.
effective in practice is described in detail. Pencils

Whatever layout you find most convenient to you Always use 2B (soft) pencils on your charts. Old
should be used consistently. most unlikely
It is entries can be rubbed out, but a hard pencil is
you will find exactly what you want in a ready- difficult to remove and permanently marks the
made printed book, so if not, rule your own, with chart — and good charts are not cheap. Buy a box
your columns and captions. Get a supply run off of 2B pencils while you are about it. HB or H
on a copier (preferably Xerox or similar) and pencils can be used for log entries and other
put them in a filing folder. Let no one use this —
work this should not require erasure, and a hard
but yourself — anyone else is quite likely to make pencil stays sharp longer. A small pencil
a mess of it. sharpener is a must — your 2B pencils soon blunt,
37
What can be achieved as a chart table on a small yacht (this is
a Nicholson 30). Note athwartships bookcase, pencil and
dividers rack, navigator's light and easy view of electronic
equipment.
Data such as tides, code flags and deviation are pinned up for
quick reference. From left to right these are log and speedo-
meter, depth sounder, radio and DF receiver. On the chart is a
Sestral-Luard chart protractor, which enables compass courses
and bearings to be read off. after setting variation and deviation
into the face of the protractor.
38
equipment
Athwartship's chart table on a 42 ft sloop {Morning Cloud II.

when owned by Rt. Hon. Edward Heath). Considerable chart
working area and stowage. Neon light depth sounder top right,
where it is visible from the cockpit. Wiring is behind panel.
39
•
and you want accurate lines and figures on the "chisel" point. A bit of sandpaper, or even a
chart. matchbox, is useful to fine-up the edge.
Compasses Parallel rules and plotters

These should be not less than six or seven inches This is the traditional instrument for transferring a
overall, and of good quality. It is well worth line from one position to another on the chart, for
getting those made of stainless steel — cheap ones transferring a course or bearing line to a compass
soon rust aboard a yacht. Do not get the rose to find its bearing or direction, for reading
draftsman's "bow" compasses which must be off or plotting the latitudeand longitude,
adjusted by turning a screw — they take too long and similar tasks. There are other methods of
to alter. The kind of compass that can be worked doing these, and some navigators dislike parallel
with one hand is easiest. Keep the pencil lead in rules on the grounds that there is a risk of the
—
compasses sharp preferably a wedge-shaped or rule slipping and giving a false result. However, a
Motor cruiser wheel house

with chart table
on starboard side.
40
equipment
Fig 16. To find true bearing of line AB, parallel rule is taken in
steps to compass rose.
Fig 15. Using a parallel rule to obtain a bearing (true only).

Rule has center point on meridian, is then closed to give 220'
reading of bearing on which it was first aligned.
41
long ruler is often wanted, and for this use alone rule cuts both the point and the vertical latitude
it is worth its place. scale on either side of the chart. Read the exact
A Weems and Plath parallel rule is an latitude engraved on the scale. Longitude is found
excellent type. This is engraved with degree marks in a similar manner, but the parallel rule is placed
along its edges, which enables the user to dispense vertically on the chart and first aligned on a
with a protractor, or the compass rose. One edge meridian —
the vertical lines on the chart. The rule is
of the parallel rule is placed along the line the then "stepped" across till one edge cuts the point
bearing of which is required. The rule is then and either the top or bottom horizontal scale on the
moved in steps ("walked") till the zero point on chart. The longitude is then read off the scale.
one edge is exactly on any meridian (vertical
graticule). The bearing is then read from the
point on the other edge cut by the same
meridian. The rule must be "closed" before
reading, otherwise a false reading will result.
(Fig 15 )
A type of parallel rule preferred by some is the

roller rule. This is a wide straight edge fitted with
a roller having non-skid knurling at each end.
These make it possible to slide the rule across the
chart so that it remains parallel to its original
position, thus enabling lines to be transferred
parallel from any position on the chart. A Weems
parallel plotter is one of the best of this type.
To obtain the bearing (or direction) of a line on
the chart by reference to a compass rose, place
one edge of the parallel rule accurately along the
line. Holding this edge firmly, open the other "leg"
of the rule in the direction of the nearest compass
rose on the chart. Move alternate "legs," keeping
the other "leg" firmly on the chart, till one edge of
the rule exactly cuts the center of the rose. Read
the bearing in degrees, from the point on the
outer ring of the rose cut by the same edge of the
rule. (Fig 16.)
To find the latitude of a point on the chart,

place one edge of the parallel rule accurately on
the parallel of latitude (the horizontal lines
printed across the chart) nearest to the point. (Fig
1 7.) Move alternate "legs" of the rule (keeping the Fig 1 7. Finding latitude of a point by starting at a parallel of
other leg firmly on the chart) till one edge of the latitude and using parallel rule.
42
equipment
Instead of using a parallel rule to plot a course,
some yachtsmen prefer to use two triangles. Weems
and Plath manufactures a pair of 45 degree triangles
with a protractor engraved along the longest edge
of each. To find a bearing using triangles,
place the edge of one triangle along the desired
course line. Then place the edge of the second
triangle against one of the edges of the first
so that the first can be slid along until it
reaches the center of the compass rose. Now read

the bearing (true or magnetic) where the triangle
cuts the outer part of the rose.
Another method of picking up latitude and
longitude quite quickly and easily is by using
the dividers. To find the latitude, place one

divider point on the position being measured, and
the other on the nearest parallel of latitude ruled
on the chart and as nearly as possible immediately
above or below the position. Without disturbing
the dividers, now place one leg on the same
parallel of latitude on the vertical scale on the
chart margin, and the other leg on the scale.
Read the point just found on the scale. (Fig 1 8.)
For longitude, repeat the process using the nearest
meridian (vertical line) to the position. (Fig 19.)
These are some of the instruments used to lay off
a course. Whichever you select, become familiar
with their use so that you can work quickly and
accurately even in the worst weather.
Dividers
If the distance being measured on the chart
exceeds the full opening of the dividers (Fig 20.),
pencil in a line between the two places. Then,
using that part of the latitude (vertical) scale
roughly parallel with the places, pick up a con- Reading
Fig 1 8. off latitude by using dividers and transferring
venient opening of the dividers, (say 1
0' = 1 to latitude scale at edge of chart.
nautical miles). Starting from one of the places,

count the number of (say) 1 0' steps of the dividers
it takes to (almost) reach the second point. Close Fig 19. Reading longitude by same technique as latitude.
43
Single-handed or English dividers: a real aid. but not The correct way to use single-handed dividers.
if used like this.
44
equipment
the dividers so as to pick up this small remaining
piece of the line, and by using the latitude scale
again, find this remaining distance. (Fig 21 .)
At 0200 on a wet, cold night the navigator

is not usually at his best. Anything which will
simplify his work or make it easier or quicker is
then important. Here is a small tip, when laying

off a course and distance on the chart from a
Large and small size single-handed dividers, brass with

stainless steel points. Also a draftsman's compass
OROTJIK DTJ COTJ

tit- I» P"B1I
DELA
^t= ALA ROCHXIJUE UOfM
porrois BRETON
li^T
Fig 20. Simple measurement. A to B. is found on latitude scale

roughly opposite place measured.
Fig 21 . When distance exceeds dividers, it is measured in

steps.
45
given position. There are two components to the

job:
(a) to rule in the line representing the direction
or bearing of the course, and
(b) from the first position to measure along this
line the required distance.
The natural sequence is first to pencil in the
line in the right direction by using the compass
rose on the chart or by other means, and then to
prick off along this line the required distance,
with dividers or compasses, by using the latitude
scale. Reverse the sequence. Using the compasses,
first open out the compasses to the required
distance by reference to the latitude scale (using)
that portion of the scale roughly level with the
two positions), then get the parallel rule (or other
rule) on the required direction and cutting the
first position, by the usual means, and hold the
rule down firmly. Then place the compass point
on the first position and describe a tiny arc to
touch the edge of the rule the required distance
along the rule. Finally, using the compasses as a
pencil, rule in the line between the first position
and the tiny arc marked.
Weems protractor Fig 22. Finding a bearing using a Weems protractor

A Weems Zweng course protractor is used by many
American yachtsmen. It has a clear acrylic circular
base plate 5^ inches in diameter. Around its
circumference is engraved a compass rose in degrees
(from 0°N to 359°) and quarter points (the points
of a compass being 1 1 ^° apart). The central area
of the base plate is engraved with a grid of
horizontal and vertical lines used to align the
protractor on the chart. Attached to the center of
the base plate is a clear acrylic movable arm
17 inches long, which is inscribed with various
nautical mile scales. Where the protractor arm
meets the base plate, there is also a scale for
reading magnetic courses and bearings.
46
equipment
A Weems protractor can be used in the conventional
nanner for finding or plotting the true bearing or
irection of a line on the chart. To find the true
earing of a line (for example, a course line or
line drawn between two places on the chart),
Dlace the center of the protractor along the line,
/vith north pointing upwards.The vertical lines on
:he grid of the protractor should coincide with or be
Darallel to the meridians on the chart, while the
Horizontal lines on the grid should coincide
/vith or be parallel to the parallels of latitude
}n the chart. Next move the arm of the protractor
o that it lies along the course line. You can
:hen easily read the true bearing where the arm
:uts the compass rose. If the nautical miles
>caleon the chart is the same as one of the scales
Dn the arm of the protractor, you can also use
he arm to read the distance from the center of
A popular alternative to parallel rules. On the Hurst
he protractor to the end of the bearing line. Plotter, the circular compass scale is clamped on to the square
[See Fig 22.) Note, too, that the design of a grid to show magnetic variation. When aligned with
the grid is
A/eems protractor makes it easy to take reciprocal meridians and latitudes, the swinging arm then reads off
magnetic courses and bearings without the need to convert
Dearings.
(deviation where it exists, must be applied).
tmmm
he Weems Zweng course protractor.
47
-
J^
Is ~—~ B -7
ti&' \
i
\ \ v-
\V '
--^~A_JSJ\\ B' '
'
\ '
' \ '
'A' \ /
B"
/
/
'
/
V\
48
:
equipment
To use a Weems protractor to lay off (or draw) line to be transferred. Next slide the protractor
a line on from a given position in a

a chart along the chart, without disturbing the arm, until
given direction, the procedure for finding the it reaches the location where the new line is to
bearing of a line is simply reversed. Set the arm be.Again align the protractor grid with the chart
at the desired bearing, and place the protractor meridians and parallels of latitude. The new line
on the chart so that the arm cuts the point from can now be drawn in. (See Figs 26 and 27.)
which the bearing is to be taken. Then adjust the Still another use for a Weems protractor is to
alignment of the base plate so that north points fix the ship's position on a chart by horizontal
upward and the vertical lines on the grid are sextant angles of fixed land objects. This
parallel to the chart meridians while the horizontal procedure is explained in detail in Chapter 9.
lines are parallel to the parallels of latitude.

Now draw in the course line. Magnifying glass
When you want to read a magnetic bearing or plot This will be found useful for verifying small
a magnetic course, you can use the variation scale figures on the chart. A glass with an in-built
on a Weems protractor. First note the variation torch light is handy for use at night.
between true and magnetic north, and then set

the variation scale accordingly. This adjusts the Instruments for the yacht
angle of the arm. The protractor can now be used The number of instruments to aid navigation can
as described previously. be as many as the depth of one's pocket allows.
A Weemsprotractor can also be used to transfer Some are essential for safe navigation, many are
a linefrom one part of a chart to another. This useful aids and give additional information, while
is done by aligning the protractor grid with the others are used by keen ocean racers or fun
chart meridians and parallels of latitude, and things for cruising.
then moving the arm so that it coincides with the Essential are:
Steering compass
Distance meter
Depth sounder (or leadline).
Those falling into the highly desirable category

are:
Hand bearing compass
Direction finding radio
Binoculars
Stopwatch
Into a slightly lower category of importance fall
Figs 23, 24, and 25. Transferring a line using two triangles. Clock
Triangle A is held stationary while triangle B is moved along Barometer
it in the direction of arrow 1 Then the procedure
. is
Deck watch or good timekeeper
reversed: triangle B is held stationary while A is slid
along the direction of arrow 2. Finally, triangle B
in is moved again Sextant
until the desired position is reached. Pelorus
__
49
Lastly, items considered essential by the ocean

racer, and nice to have but by no means essential
for cruising are:
Water speed indicator
Electronic log
Apparent wind direction indicator
Apparent wind speed indicator
Efficiency indicator (Vmg)
Sailing performance computer
Compass
A good magnetic compass is an essential part of
every yacht's equipment. There are many
varieties but work on the same principle. A
all
circular card, marked on its circumference, is

suspended on a pivot point in a bowl filled with
water and alcohol (2 1 ). The bowl is suspended
:
in gimbals. On the inside of the bowl a line the —

lubberline — is engraved or painted. Fixed to the
underside of the compass card are two or more
small bar magnets, aligned on the north-south
axis of the card so that the freely-suspended
compass card's north point will always seek to
point to the magnetic north pole.
The compass is mounted in some way so that,
no matter how the vessel heels, the compass bowl
(and card) will remain level. The object of the
water and alcohol in the bowl is to damp down
Figs 26 and 27. Transferring a line using a Weems protractor

equipment
oscillations caused by the ship's motion, and to shown. For example, against the 1 80° mark, 1 8 is
reduce friction on the pivot by almost floating the shown; against the 20° mark, 2 is shown, and so
card, alcohol being added as anti-freeze. A on. Smaller compasses may be marked only every
screw plug on one side of the bowl enables it to 10°, while large ones may be marked every 2° or
be topped up with distilled water if necessary. 1 °. Some compass show the cardinal
cards also
Modern compasses are graduated in degrees, and intercardinal points (N, NE, E, SE, S etc).
from north, 0°, round to 359°. As the compass (See page 53.)
must be clearly legible at some distance and Aboard some yachts, older types of steering
sometimes in a poor light, the degree markings compass may be found with different systems of
and figures must be well separated and bold. The markings. The oldest of these is the points system
number of markings and figures will depend on and since a point is 1 1 g°, it is not convenient for
the size of the compass card. A typical yacht navigation. Just remember that one point is
compass marked every 5°, each 1 0° mark being
is something completely different from 1 ° and if you
bolder and showing the number of degrees. The find a points compass on a boat which you have
last digit is omitted to permit a large figure being bought, throw it over the side. There is also
a system with limited uses called quadrantal
where degrees are marked from south as well as
from north and this is equally confusing for use
in a steering compass.
Some compasses have a transparent dome to

the compass bowl, which contains a gimballed
ring or "cage" in which the compass card and its
magnets are mounted, and which also has a
lubberline. The bowl can then be mounted
without any further provision of gimbals. The
domed bowl heels with the ship, but a cage in
which both the compass card and the lubberline
are mounted can tilt inside the bowl to remain
level at all times. This has the additional feature
that the Plexiglass dome magnifies the card,
enabling it to be read at some
distance and water
cannot lie on the glass. Some models have the
card "dished" which makes the far edge of the
card (adjacent to the lubberline) even more
easily read.
Another type (the Sestrel- Moore) is designed
on top of the coachroof
for fitting at eye-level, e.g.
Fig 28. Some old compasses
are marked only in points
or cabin hatch. The compass card has a tuned-
notation. One an awkward 11^°. but the reason is there
point is
are 8 in a 90° segment. Colored sectors here are one point, down circumferential edge, and one lubberline is
four points and then eight points. on the after side (unlike the more usual forward
51
side).The degree markings on the turned-down consist of a pair of parallel lines, or an arrow.
edge slewed round 1 80° from those on the
are The glass can be rotated and its outer edge is
upper surface which are read against another graduated. The "grid" is oriented on the north-south
lubberline on the forward side. The bowl is axis of the graduations. The compass card itself
suspended in gimbals. The compass can be fitted may or may not also have degree markings round
with sight vanes so that the compass bearings of it, but if not, will have a line or lines marked on
distant objects can be taken by aligning the sight its N-S axis. To steer a given course the glass
vanes on the object and reading the bearing on cover is rotated till the required course (say 1 20°)
the flat Compasses are also
surface of the card. is opposite a lubberline (fixed in line with the
available which can be mounted on a vertical ship's head). The vessel is then steered so that the
bulkhead and again, read on the aft-facing edge. N— S on the glass cover is over and exactly
line
A Grid Steering Compass has a top glass cover parallel with the N-S line on the compass card
plate engraved or painted with a "grid." This may (Fig 29.). Some compasses can be used both as a
normal compass and as a grid compass. To use
such a type as a normal compass, turn the mov-
able outer ring till the 0° mark is exactly opposite
the fixed white lubberline on the forward side of
the body of the bowl. The course being steered is
then read on the compass card against the black
(forward) lubberline marked in the bowl, the line
on the glass cover being disregarded. To use as
a grid compass, turn the movable outer ring till
the required course is opposite the fixed white
lubberline on the bowl. Then steer to cause the
arrow painted on the cover glass to lie over the 0°
(N) point on the compass card. The N— S axis of
the compass card should lie below, or parallel to,
the shaft of the arrow on the glass.
A grid compass is most useful when steering
on a set course for an appreciable length of time.
It is much easier on the eye to keep two lines
parallel to each other (grid line and compass

card), than to keep a lubberline to a required
degree-mark. This is particularly so at night. It is
rather less useful if a sailing vessel is not able to
hold a steady course (as when being sailed hard
on the wind, as close to the wind as possible). It
is then necessary to keep reading the compass

Fig 29. Grid steering compass. From left, compass is not set.
then grid frame is set to 1 20°. Helmsman brings grid parallel course and to decide at intervals what is the
with line on card and yacht begins to head at 1 20°. average course that has been steered. For this, a
52
Flush fitted Sestrel Minor compass. Sestrel Major compass binnacle marked at five degree
in
is not shown: when ordered to

intervals. For clarity last digit
steer 20 degrees bring "2" to lubberline. 20 on card means
200 degrees.
53
The Danforth Tell-Tale overhead compass. Can be mounted above

the skipper's or navigator's berth for easy reading between
watches. The compass is gimballed to compensate for
rolling and pitching of the boat.
Grid compass in cockpit well. The type with an ordinary

compass card in addition to the grid is useful when sailing to
windward.
54
equipment
normal compass, where one reads the actual Remote control compasses are also avail-
course steered against a fixed lubberline is to be able,which have certain advantages. Here, a
preferred. A combined Grid and Steering compass, master compass drives or controls electronically
being capable of use either way, has the best of one or more slaves or reading heads. The
both worlds.
Cockpit mounting on
Morning Cloud of
Danforth White
Constellation compass
for tiller steering.The
card of this type is
highly recommended.
55
Where siting a steering compass
is difficult, as in small tiller
steered yachts a pair of

bulkhead reading compasses
is practical. Care must be
taken about loose magnetic

objects inside the cabin.
Closer view of the Homologue. bulkhead steering compass.

Numbers under it are angle of heel.
56
equipment
advantages are that the master compass (rather lying near which happened to have a wire core
it,
bulky) can be sited anywhere in the yacht, where in it. If the compass is mounted on the after-face
it will be subject to the least movement and clear of the cabin bulkhead, guard against the presence
of any ferrous objects which might influence it, ofany ferrous or magnetic object which might be
and the reading heads can be quite small and close toit on the other side, inside the cabin,
located wherever required, in the most visible or perhaps on a shelf. A "Warning —

Compass" notice
useful position(s). Their disadvantages are that might be put up on the cabin side of the bulkhead.
they are expensive, and they depend on a reliable Wood or fiberglass does not shield from a magnetic
power supply.
(but small) electric influence.
Compasses are also designed specifically for Illumination of the steering compass is
high speed power craft. They are specially damped necessary. Some (not many) are sufficiently
to standup to the motion of this type of vessel. marked with luminous paint. If not, provision for
These too are available with or without grid electric (or oil) light should be made, care being
facilities. taken that any material used near the compass is
compass needs thought. Ideally, the

Siting the
position should be where it is most easily seen
and read by the helmsman in whatever position
he may take up. It should be where parallax is
least (parallax may occur when edge of compass
card is seen obliquely against the lubberline).
Again the compass should be sited well
ideally,
away from any which could
ferrous material
cause deviation (discussed Chapter 5).
in
Deviation of the compass north from the

direction of magnetic north may be caused by:
the engine, if within about 4 ft (say 1 \ meters)
Danforth White Corsair steering compass with guards over to
the keel, if of iron prevent damage in cockpit.
an outboard motor, which has a powerful magnet
in it
a radio loudspeaker, for the same reason

a camera exposure meter
and any ferrous objects such as tools, iron
bucket, fdod and fuel cans.
In this context, objects on the person have
been known to upset the compass if the wearer is

close to the compass, e.g. jack knife, steel buckle
on belt or life harness. once found my compass
I
had developed an error of over 1 0°. After much

searching it was found to be due to that most
innocent and non-metallic object, a life buoy
non-ferrous. The light must be no more than a

—
glimmer just sufficient and no more otherwise — 1
the helmsman's night vision will be impaired, and ,

o « =€> « 5
r
13 «« 3
this is important. A small bulb controllable by a 2 2 **"'•*¥ J
3 J 30
rheostat is ideal. Jr
4
*) TRl *
f
Distance measure
Distance travelled through the water is measured
by three main types of instrument:
St ^3 21
18
(a) A spinner towed on the end of a line in the

water, commonly called the patent log. OFF 01 1
UJUMMATion SEHS ~
(b) An impeller protruding from the yacht's hull. j

(c) A transducer without moving parts.
economy and reliability the Walker patent
For
log has much to recommend This consists of a it.
registering mechanism or "head" carried on a short

(a) Auto pilot control panel (Neco Marine). Course is set on
metal outrigger which can be slotted into either of main dial. Rudder, trim and sensitivity controls cope with the
a pair of metal plates screwed to the deck on each response of the boat to the autopilot.
quarter. An eye on one end of a line, the logline,
is connected to a hook in the head, which drives
the mechanism. On the other end of the log-line
a spinner or "rotator" is permanently attached.
This is towed through the water. The spinner (b) The drive unit which moves the rudder on signals from the
control unit.
revolves a set number of revolutions each yard or
mile, and the head has dials reading in miles and
tenths of a mile. One or more weights are supplied
which can be fixed to the logline a few feet
forward of the spinner to ensure it remains
properly immersed while being towed.
It is advisable to "stream the log" (put the
spinner and logline in the water) till in a reasonable
depth of water and clear of the harbor, to guard

against bumping the spinner on the bottom, or
getting it fouled round a buoy. For the same
reason, remember"hand the log" (bring it
to
aboard) before entering congested waters. If you
n
hand the line by just hauling it in while it is still
attached to the head, you will find that it comes
aboard like a lot of knitting full of twists and—
knots —
due to the spinner keeping on twisting the
58
equipment
counter over a six-minute period; the number of
1 /1 Oths of a mile clocked up in this time will be
the speed in knots (6 min. = 1 /1 Oth hr). Or do

the same over three minutes and double the
answer.
Glance at the spinning logline from time to
time. If it starts revolving more slowly than the
yacht's speed seems to warrant, the spinner has
probably gathered some weed. Haul in and clear.
The counters can be returned to zero by
unlatching the front glass face and turning each
of the three pointers back to 0, turning them
counterclockwise.
Some instruments have no external moving
parts. The Doppler Speed-log's streamlined
transducer emits a high-frequency signal ahead.
(c) The master compass with power pack which detects
changes from the automatic course. The repeater compass A portion of this signal is reflected back from the
shows the actual course at the wheelhouse or cockpit. boundary layer. The reflected frequency increases
with boat speed increase. The difference between
the two frequencies is converted into speed and
distance, and both are displayed on the meter.

The EMI Electro magnetic log uses the principle
of a magnetic field which is changed by the
speed of passage of water past a virtually flush-
fitted transducer. This also provides both speed
and distance run through the water.
Impeller-type logs do not have a towed
line. Untangling it can be a tedious job. Instead, logline. They can be operated either mechanically
unhook the eye on the line from the head as or electronically. The British "Sumlog" is one
smartly as possible and immediately start paying which is mechanical. This has a short stalk
out back into the water the end just unhooked, protruding a couple of inches or so from the hull,
while hauling in the line working towards the well below water level. This carries an impeller
spinner. When the spinner is aboard the whole which, like the spinner, rotates a set number of
line should be trailing astern, and not twisting times per mile sailed through the water. The
round. It can then be brought aboard quite impeller is connected by means of a rotating
easily, what few turns remain being readily wire to a counter-head which can be mounted in
removed. the cabin or on cockpit bulkhead, and which

If you do not have a water speed indicator records miles and fractions.
(discussed later), the ship's speed can be found The electronic type of log has an even smaller
by observing the 1 /1 Oth mile counter. Read this impeller mounted on a short stalk below water
59
level, but there is no mechanical connection and

the impeller creates electrical impulses which are
sensed and conveyed by wire to the log counter
head where the mileage covered is displayed by
digits, to two decimal places of a mile. The
counter head can be mounted wherever
required —usually near the chart table. With the
electronic type, the impeller can be withdrawn
from inside the hull for clearing, should it become
fouled. Impeller type logs are less frequently
fouled by weed as the impeller is usually more
deeply immersed than the rotator of the patent log
and can have a weed deflector built on it.
Thelog should be regularly read and recorded,
to keep track of the ship's position, and to give
early warning of a fouled log. Most logs are
reasonably accurate if installed according to the
maker's instructions. Accuracy should be within
5 per cent, and can be within 1 per cent. Logs
tend to over-read when beating to windward, and
to under-read when running with a strong wind
aft.
Boat speed and depth displays. The yacht is traveling at

Depth sounder 4^ knots. Depth of water is 1 4 whether meters, fathoms or
:
Rotating neon light meters work on an electronic feet should be known to the navigator!
impulse which is fed by co-axial cable from the

instrument to the transducer, which is fixed,
pointing vertically downwards, in a suitable place
with its operating face on the outside of the
underwater hull. This impulse is reflected back

from the sea bed, sensed by the same transducer
and fed to the instrument. At the instrument the
outgoing impulse causes a red neon light, fixed to
a revolving arm, to flash, and the returning impulse
causes it to flash a second time. As the neon
light is revolving, the interval in time between
outward and return passage of the impulse is
measured by the angular distance between the
two flashes. The arm is so set that the first flash
occurs when the neon light is passing the zero or
60
equipment
ft position. The circular scale round which the dry-cell operated: some can be connected to the
neon light revolves is calibrated so that the yacht's battery, if of the correct voltage.
calibration reached by the returning flash Prolonged use on the feet setting exhausts a
indicates the depth, at that instant, below the It is economical to
dry-cell battery rather quickly.
transducer. set to fathoms when not in shallow water as this
Most of this type are calibrated in feet or uses far less current.
fathoms, from to 60, with a switch to alter These instruments are generally reliable and
from the one scale to the other (feet or fathoms). remarkably accurate. Some owners mount the
When set for fathoms, the arm simply revolves at instrument in the cockpit. As it may not be
1 /6th of the speed as when set for feet. They can truly waterproof a better place is in the cabin,
also be obtained calibrated in meters. Most are in such a place that it can be seen from the
Recording type echo sounder (Seascribe). which also shows

neon light indication. Note the transducers which will be fitted
to the hull
61
—
steering position. This protects from spray, and

the neon light is more readily seen in the shade.
Needle-indicating meters work on the same
reflected-impulse principle, but the depth is read
on a circular scale with a pointer hand. They also
can be switched to show feet or fathoms, and can
be had calibrated in meters. These have the
advantage of being capable of feeding repeater
dials situated away from the instrument, often in
the cockpit.
THE PELORUS COMPASS
A pelorus compass is used when the steering
Graphic display depth meters compass so positioned that it is difficult to

is
take bearings of a landmark direct from the

These have an inked pen which indicates the
steering compass. A pelorus is a dummy
depth on a slowly-moving roll of paper, similar to
a barograph. By this means a continuous trace is
compass in which the compass card is moved
made of the depth traversed. Mainly of value to
by hand instead of by magnetic forces. It
consists of a base fitted with a lubberline; a
fishermen, surveyors and the like, these are not
necessary for the cruising yacht. Like all echo- compass card on a central pivot which can be
turned by hand to register any desired "course"
sounders, this instrument will pick up shoals of
against the lubberline and can be locked in that
fish.
position; sight vanes pivoting on the central
The neon-type echo-sounder has three
pivot so that a distant object can be "sighted"
characteristics to commend it:
and its bearing read off on the dumb compass
card.
(a) Usually it is the least expensive.
(b) Easily read at night — the position of the To operate the pelorus, the base plate is
flashes relative to the flash at the zero point

fixed (or firmly held) so that the lubberline and
indicates the depth without recourse to reading
central pivot are on a line exactly parallel with
the fore-and-aft line of the yacht. (A convenient
the dial; e.g. 25 fathoms flash comes up
ft or at
the 25 minute position on a clock face.
place may be on the top of the coachroof
with the aft side of the pelorus base butted
(c) The setting being used, feet or fathoms, is
readily seen by the frequency of the flashes

almost continuous when on feet; distinct and
separate flashes when set for fathoms.
The echo-sounder has now superseded the
leadline because of the speed and frequency with
which soundings can be taken with it, and the
elimination of the hard work and skill required to
use the leadline. The only points in favor of the
old leadline are its simplicity and the facility it
gives of determining the material on the seabed by
62
equipment
"arming" the lead with tallow so that particles of
sand, shell or whatever is there adhere to the lead.
A neon-type echo sounder will give some

indication of the composition of the seabed.
When over rock, the indicating flash forms a
sharp line: when over soft mud the impulse is
blurred and the neon light is wider.
The transducer should be fitted in accordance
with the makers' recommendations. In a sailing
firmly against any (exactly) athwartships
yacht consideration should be given to fitting two
moulding.)
transducers, one on each side of the keel, so that
If the next bearing to be taken is that with
when the yacht is heeled over steeply when
the yacht's head 1 35°C, the pelorus compass
sailing on a tack, the leeward transducer will be
card is unlocked, the card turned till 1 35° is
"pointing" more or less vertically downwards.
opposite the lubberline, and the card re-locked.
Switches are available which, working under
The sight vanes are then turned till they are
gravity, automatically switch from windward to
sighted on the object while the helmsman
leeward transducer. If two are decided upon, they
reports he is 35° by his compass.
steering on 1
must be ordered as a pair as each transducer is
The object's bearing is then read on the pelorus
matched.
card under the sight vane's pointer. As both
On yachts with fiberglass hulls it is possible
steering compass and pelorus are reading the
to fit transducers entirely inside the hull. This
same heading, the bearing by pelorus will be
avoids having the hull skin broken, and there are
the same as if taken with the steering compass.
no skin fittings, but the maximum operating depth
As the helmsman is directed to steer on a fresh
may be slightly reduced. Special fitting is
course (say 1 80°), the pelorus dumb card is
necessary to ensure the impulse and reflection are
unlocked, re-aligned on 180° to its lubberline,
both transmitted through the hull. When fitting a
and re-locked. When the helmsman reports he
on the new course the sight vane is directed
transducer to a power boat —
particularly a fast
is
on to the object and the pelorus bearing is

planing type —
care must be taken to fit it in a hull
position where the water will be least turbulent, as
taken and recorded.
this can interfere with correct functioning.
Hand bearing compass

There are many occasions when the navigator will
wish to find the compass bearing from the yacht
of one or more distant objects to determine the
yacht's position in relation to that object or
objects, such as lighthouse, headland or church
tower. Few steering compasses are positioned to
enable that compass to be used for this purpose
with any ease. A hand bearing compass, as the
63
A very weight handbearing compass. Illumination is by

light
Betalight luminous material. The object is viewed through a
hole in the edge of the compass which is made of transparent
material. (Fig 30). When correctly aligned, the scale on the
compass card comes into view immediately below the object
being sighted and can be read very accurately. The special
feature of this instrument is that the optics are so designed that
the compass card is seen with the eye focused at infinity — the
same as the object. The compass can therefore be held quite
close the eye without having to alter the eye's focus between
object and scale. A further advantage of this type is that it is
small enough to be worn around the neck, or carried in a
pocket, when going down through a hatch in rough weather.
Fig 30. View through mini-handbearing compass. At night
Betalight shows scale.
64
equipment
name implies, is a small, easily portablecompass,
usually with a prism over one edge. The prism and
associated backsight are lined up by eye with the
object, (Fig 30.) and in the prism will be seen a
reflection of theedge of the compass card, from
which the object's bearing can be read. These
compasses usually have either a self-contained
torch light with battery in the handle, or glowing
luminous material ("Betalight"). When not being
used, the handle type compass should always
be secured to a bulkhead.
65
4. More on Instruments
A is one of the things a navigator looks

radio silent. This is the "null" point.
afteron a yacht. Direction finding facilities can Largely because of their bulk, sets with loop
give you a bearing on one of the many radio aerials are becoming obsolete on fiberglass or
beacons, sited on coasts all over the world. wood Most loop aerial DF sets and some
yachts.
Commercial shipping is increasingly using more with ferrite rod aerials have a dial and pointer
sophisticated aids and these simple transmitting fitted to the aerial axle, the dial being marked in
radio beacons are primarily of use to fishermen degrees to 360°. If the dial is set so that the 0°
and yachtsmen. (N) point lies towards the bow (like a lubberline
Two kinds of aerial can be used to find a bearing. of a compass) on the fore-and-aft line, and the
(a) The ferrite rod aerial will give the minimum aerial is rotated to the "null" position, the pointer
signal strength when aligned parallel with the will give the relative bearing of the DF station.
direction of the transmitting station, i.e. pointing When the relative bearing is applied to the
directly towards or away from the station, and the bearing of the ship's head, that is, the compass
maximum when its axis is at right angles to the course being steered, the result will be the
line to the station. compass bearing of the transmitting station.
(b) The loop aerial will give the minimum On some sets the calibrated dial on which the
strength signal when the plane of the loop is at aerial is pivoted can be rotated. The dial can then
right angles to the direction of the station, be turned so that the reading on its edge is set to
and the maximum when the plane is aligned a lubberline, tocorrespond with the yacht's
parallel to the line to the station. heading by compass. (The lubberline must of
In found that the "null" point the
practice it is — course be accurately positioned, as for a compass).
which gives the weakest
position of the aerial When the radio beacon's signal is tuned to the
signal —
is much more clearly identifiable than the "null" position by turning the aerial, the compass
position of maximum signal strength. Both types bearing of the beacon can be read from the dial.
are therefore operated so as to find the exact The bearing so obtained is a bearing "by ship's
position of minimum signal strength. On a good compass" and must be converted to a true
settuned to a station well within range there will bearing before being laid off on the chart. See
be one position where the signal will be quite Chapter 5.
66
more instruments
Certain DF sets are made with a ferrite rod receiving long and medium wave transmissions,
aerial mounted either above or below a small so that shipping and general weather forecasts
compass. The aerial-and-compass unit is and news can be received. When using celestial
connected to the radio set by its aerial wire. The navigation frequent radio time signals are essential,
rod aerial together with its compass can be and these too can be received. For good results,
rotated by hand till the "null" position is found,

and the compass bearing of the aerial, and hence
of the transmitting station found at once, without
reference to the steering compass. Thisis an
advantage over the set which only provides a

relative bearing, in that the latter requires a very
steady course to be steered while the "null" is
being found, and two readings are necessary

(compass and relative bearing) with inevitable
lack of accuracy and risk of error.
One sort of DF set has the ability to find a

beacon almost by itself. This is the Autofix 1 00 by
EMI. The operator has only to tune the set to the
frequency of a radio beacon when a large pointer
on the set automatically turns to point to the
transmitting beacon. The pointer is set in a verge
ring inscribed 0° to 360°, which can be rotated
to correspond with the compass heading of the
yacht. The compass bearing of the beacon is then
given by the pointer.
Most sets having loop or ferrite rod aerials will
give identical results whether the pointer on the
loop aerial or the ferrite rod is pointed AT the
transmitting station, or exactly AWAY from it.
Normally one has a rough idea of the general

direction of the station to which the set is tuned,
but ambiguity can arise in the case of an
offshore station such as a light vessel. It can
happen that the station is somewhere astern of
the yacht when it is thought to be ahead (or vice
versa). (Fig 31 .). Some sets incorporate a device A radio direction finder (Sailor). The navigator listens
for resolving this possible ambiguity, i.e. will on the ear phones while turning the compass and ferrite rod
aerial.
indicate which end of the rod is pointing to the
station and which away from it.
Almost all DF radios are also capable of
67
Fig 31 . Which side of the light ship am ? Radio bearing

I
could be 80° out. For yacht on set course, change of angle

1
gives clue. If bearing opens out. beacon is ahead of the beam;

if it reduces, beacon is abaft beam.
Radio direction finding loop mounted on a wheel house roof.

This location is essential on steel boats, and it is also
generally useful on medium or large motor cruisers. The line of

the loop gives a minimum signal at right angles to the beacon.
68
more instruments
DF radio receivers should be so sited that the
aerial is in a position least subject to radio
distortion, and where the aerial-compass will be
subject to the minimum magnetic influence of
objects in the yacht which might cause deviation
of the compass. A DF receiver should be
"calibrated" by sailing within sight of a radio
beacon (transmitting station) and taking both
radio and visual bearings of the station with the
ship heading successively on courses all round
the compass.
Any radio set capable of picking up the long
wave with good power can be used for picking
up Consol stations. These are of value only when
well offshore. The operation of DF radios is
dealt with in Chapter 1 0.
Binoculars
It is surprising how often binoculars are used,
to search for a buoy or lighthouse or other
landmark, or even to read the name of a buoy, or
of a ship. mistake to buy glasses of too
It is a
high a power. Magnification x 5 or x 7 is the
maximum The
to be of practical value at sea.
s higher the power the more the object viewed will
For small craft, the best way of radio direction finding is an "dance." Magnification x 1 is almost useless, even
connected to a compass. This is a ferrite rod
aerial
in a flat calm. The more important feature of
(Brookes and Gatehouse) which gives a minimum signal in the
line of the beacon. binoculars is the size of the object lens (the
larger end).The bigger they are the better will be
the light-gathering power, and this determines
their value when observing in a poor light or at
night. The ideal size is 7 x 50 (indicating
magnification of 7, diameter of object glass
50 mm), 7 x 35 is also a useful size, and has the
advantage of being smaller and lighter than
7 x 50.
Stop watch
Thisis useful for timing lights. The light should be
observed and the stop watch used to time it care-
69
This is accurate and

fully. far more reassuring change indicates a probable change in the
than trying to count. weather, and if readings are regularly recorded a
graph of the barometric pressure can easily be
Clock constructed. (Fig 32.). Alternatively, some yachts
A clock on the cabin bulkhead is obviously useful. carry a barograph, a barometer which traces on
One which chimes "ship's bells" is rather fun, and paper a continuous record of the reading. Hardly
(if set a few minutes can be a useful
fast) necessary on a coastal cruiser, this type is of
reminder of the time to tune in to the next particular value when in tropical waters where a
shipping forecast, the time to read the patent log, change of as little as 3 millibars may give warning
and to change watches. Eight-day clocks with of an approaching cyclone.
alarms are useful.
The Sextant
Barometer Essential for long-distance cruising when celestial
A barometer can give additional indications of observations are necessary, a sextant can be of
changes in the weather. On a passage of 24 hours great value even in coastal cruising. A sextant is
or more it is prudent to make the reading or the designed to measure with great accuracy the angle
barometer one of the routine items to be noted in subtended at the observer between two objects.
the logbook at regular intervals. Any marked If the angle between the top of an object and the
RAPPEL BARO DE LA VEIL LE B A R - s 1 M P L E X BARO DU JOUF
M-J 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 C us
. „ .... situations amicvcloAiQues
1033
1029 1029
1025 1025
1021 1021
1017 1017
1013 1013
- 1009
1005
1001 1001
997 r 1
:
993 993
1
989
.
989
situations dtpresstonnaires
Fig 32. If a barograph is not carried, a graph can be
constructed to show the movement of the barometer. This

"Baro Simplex" is a 24 hour chart for such use. (It is published
by Editions de la Mer. Paris.)
70
more instruments
sea level below it is measured, then if the height
of the object is known it is a moment's work to
find out the distance from the object. The height
of all lighthouses is available, for example. This is
a vertical sextant angle (VSA). Similarly, the
horizontal angle between two objects or features
can be measured by horizontal sextant angle
(HSA). The procedure for obtaining and using
VSAs and HSAs is given in Chapter 9. Positions
found by these means can be considerably more
accurate than those obtained by the more
frequently used compass bearings.
Even when making modest passages there may
well be occasions when a position line or
position found by a celestial observation of the
sun (or moon, planet or star) will be of value. For
this a sextant is essential.
Apparent wind direction indicator

The movements of an arrow, fixed to the masthead
and free to pivot like a weathercock, wind sock or
burgee, are transmitted electronically to a dial. A
pointer shows the and number of degrees
direction
which the masthead arrow is pointing from the
dead-ahead position. Note that this will register
only the direction, relative to the ship's head, of
Stopwatch for use on deck, essential for easy timing of lights:
this one is sealed in plastic.
the apparent wind, not the true wind. The
instrument is of value in helping to steer the
optimum course when close-hauled, particularly
at night when the sails cannot readily be
observed, and also for the less experienced
helmsman. The skipper who knows his boat can
instruct the helmsman to steer a course which
keeps the apparent wind, say 32° on the port bow,
if he knows this is the best angle to the wind in
the prevailing conditions. The wind direction

indicator is a great help when running down wind
with the wind almost dead astern — particularly at
night.
71
—
The wind speed indicator, or anemometer ratio of Vmg to the speed of the true wind, that is,
This consists of four small hemispherical cups

.. . This is more useful than Vmg alone as it
mounted on four arms free to rotate on a vertical Vt
axis, carried at the masthead and electronically does not change significantly with changes in
connected to which translates the
a dial wind speed, as does Vmg. This enables the
revolutions of the cups into wind speed in knots. course steered and the sail trim to be adjusted to
Knowledge of the wind speed in absolute terms give the highest figure without waiting for a
(knots) can reinforce judgement as to when to period when the wind speed, and hence Vmg
reef, what sail to carry, and so on. For the skilled remain steady.
racing skipper it can also indicate the optimum The Horatio has two settings
close-hauled course to steer. It can also support (a) For a windward course, the Vmg/Vt setting
the bar story about how it was "blowing 50 knots.' produces the result described above.
(b) For sailing off the wind, the Vs/Vt setting is
Sailing performance computer used, and sheets are trimmed to give the highest
When sailing to windward — particularly when reading.
racing — the problem facing the helmsman to is Both settings can also be presented on various
gauge just how close to the wind to steer in scales between coarse and fine. The latter show a
order to make good the maximum speed to larger movement on the dial for smaller alterations
windward, technically called Vmg (Velocity made of value.
good). A course too close to the wind will be Some racing organizations and classes have a
good in the directional sense but at the cost of ban or restriction on the type of electronic
speed through the water; a course too far off the instruments used. At the present time, most racing
wind will give a high speed through the water but organizations allow individual instruments but
bad in the directional sense. It is the old problem do not allow them to be linked to a Vmg computer
of "pointing" or "footing," and of finding the to give any sort of computed position.
optimum to get the yacht fastest to her destination.
The performance computer is designed to solve
this problem. It is fed (from each of the
appropriate instruments) with wind speed, wind
direction (apparent) and yacht's speed through
the water. The instrument indicates on a
dialand needle the value of Vmg, and any
changes in that value. Fractional alterations of
course angle and of the trim of the sails show up
as changes in the Vmg, and hence in the yacht's
progress towards a windward mark.
There are several manufacturers of this type of
instrument. The Horatio (made by Brookes &
Gatehouse Ltd., England) takes matters a step
It produces an answer in terms of the
further.
72
5. North, South, East, West
Whenever we are out of sight of land and quite same way any bearing picked up from the chart
frequently when within sight of the coast, the be reference to the meridians, which are true
only way to tell the heading is by using the (north-south) bearings, must be converted to the
compass. The compass is quite the most important corresponding magnetic bearing before being
instrument on the yacht, so a clear understanding used for steering. This is the application of variation.
of how to use it is essential.
As the lubber line shows the exact direction of Variation
the yacht's fore-and-aft line, the direction in Variation may be either side of the true direction of
which the yacht is pointing is given by the degree
mark on the compass card which is against the
lubber line. In a yacht under way and changing
direction, one's first impression is that the compass
card is swinging and that the lubber line is
stationary. But really the compass card remains
(relatively) stationary, the N point constantly
4"-
pointing to north, and it is the lubber line which
is moving round the compass card as the yacht's
head moves round. But the north to which the
card tries to point is called magnetic north. It is
not the same as true north and indeed the whole
card is slewed round so that every reading on it
will differ from the true direction by the same
amount. (Fig 33.). It follows that a magnetic
direction, heading or bearing is likely to differ
from the corresponding true direction or bearing
read from the chart. This difference (or "error"),
is called "variation."
To relate a compass reading to a true bearing Fig 33. The yacht's compass seeks to point to magnetic
north (colored arrow). But true north is shown by the edge
on the chart, the compass reading must be con- of the chart and there is an angular difference. This
verted to the corresponding true bearing. In the difference is variation.
73
north. For instance, inLong Island Sound the seen to have tremendous effect, so even a foot
a
variation at this time between 13° west and 14°
is or so away can throw the yacht off course. One
it
west. Near Vancouver Island in Canada the idea is to have a notice in the cabin if the compass
variation is as much as 24° east, while near position is on the other side of the bulkheads,
Greenland it is 50° west, because there it is stating that the compass is there and that no
getting very close to the actual north magnetic metal materials must be put in that region of the
pole. cabin. There is a little device which can be
So to relate any reading on the compass to the bought at hardware stores in which a bar of soap
true bearing on the chart the compass reading is held by pushing a small bit of steel into it and
must be converted to the corresponding true then hanging it near the basin, clean and dry by
bearing. means of a magnetic holder. I once found one of
Now what the variation is:
to find these installed by the owner's wife on a yacht on
(a) By looking at the compass rose printed on which was navigating. The powerful magnet was
I
the chart. inside the cabin but less than 1 8 inches on the
Itmight say, for example, "variation 7° west (1 970) other side of the bulkhead was the ship's
decreasing about six minutes annually." Obviously steering compass.
these six minutes must be applied to bring it up Having removed all possible influences from
to date for the year in which you are. the compass it is still necessary to see if there is
(b) Many nautical almanacs and pilots give the any deviation remaining and this is done by
variations at various ports. Some ocean and other "swinging ship." Bearings are taken with the
small scale charts show variation by means of steering compass of a distant object the magnetic
isogonic lines on them. bearing or which is already known or has been
found. The yacht heads on each of eight or more
Deviation equidistant headings all round the compass. Each
Steel or other magnetic material near the compass, bearing of the object taken with the compass is
whether loose gear or the yacht's structure itself compared with the actual magnetic bearing of the
causes deviation. When variation has been applied object from the yacht's position, the difference
to a true bearing it is known as a magnetic reading: being the deviation on that heading.
when deviation has been applied on top of this it The reason for this becomes apparent when we
is known as a compass bearing or course and is consider the effect, for example, of having a
written 01 0° C or 1 74° C. On a wood or fiberglass single piece of metal which attracts the compass
yacht a well sited compass may have no deviation north and repels its south pole, placed, say,
if the engine and iron keel are far enough away. forward of the compass. (Fig 34.) Note the effect
Usually the deviation on fiberglass boats is very the metal will have on the compass needle as the
small and of the order of not more than 2°. yacht's head is steadied in different directions. Or
Beware however of metal objects which can take the case where a single piece of metal which
influence the compass if left carelessly near it. attracts the compass N and repels its S pole is
This is old advice but one sees it happen quite placed on the port quarter. (Fig 35.) This is an
frequently. An ordinary so-called stainless steel over-simplification of the problem, but will serve
crew knife when near the compass will be to illustrate how magnetic influences in the yacht
74
north, south
Fig 34. A single piece of magnetic material forward of the

compass deviates the card. The snag is that this is for different
amounts on different points of sailing.
Fig 35. Metal (or magnet) on port quarter. Once again

deviation changes with the yacht's heading. Note how the piece
of metal moves round the compass card with change of ship's
head.
75
:
may affect the compass in varying amounts and 2. Place small magnets near the compass in such
direction (E or W) depending on the direction the a way that they exert an exactly equal and
yacht is heading at the time the compass is read. opposite influence to that caused by the offending
There are three ways of dealing with the material, thus cancelling out the deviation. This is
problem of deviation what the professional compass adjuster does.
1. Site the compass sufficiently far from any 3. Ascertain what deviations occur when the
ferrous or magnetic material which could cause yacht's head is pointing in various directions, all
deviation, or move the material away. There will round the circle. In practice it is usually sufficient
then be no deviation. to determine the deviation when heading on each
<
° w 10° E
Fig 36. Variation and deviation, where present, affect every

course, (a) 1 5° E variation shows positions for magnetic N and
173° magnetic; (b) Deviation 5° W against magnetic N and

173° magnetic; (c) Total "error" 10° E. True; triangles.
Magnetic; circles. Compass: squares.
76
north, south
cardinal and intercardinal point (N, NE, E, SE, S, Or, working from Compass to True:
SW, W, NW). Enter the deviations so found on a
Compass Co. 272°C 1 30°C 318°C
deviation card. Use the deviation card whenever
converting from compass to true, or vice versa. Var n 2°E 3°E 10°W
Compass adjusting is best carried out by a Dev n 3°E 4°W 6°E
professional compass adjuster, but this is not
Total Error 5°E 1 °W 4°W
necessary if, swinging ship, no
after carefully
deviation exceeding a degree is found. A True Co. 277 °T 129°T 314°T
procedure for swinging ship for deviations is
given at the end of this chapter. Note particularly how the total error in both sets
of examples has been applied, either by adding or
subtracting, according to the jingle
Application of variation and deviation
If deviation is present, the two errors can be
combined into a single figure forming the total Error EAST, Compass LEAST (less than true)
error of the compass: the amount and direction Error WEST, Compass BEST (more than true)
the compass N, (AND all compass readings) differ
Having done a conversion always test with the
from the true N (AND all true readings). Each of
jingle.
the two errors is expressed as being either east or
west. For example: Error EAST Error WEST
Var n 6°W or 8°W or 2°W or 3°E
(a) Compass drawn to E Compass drawn to W
of True N of True N
Dev n 2°W 3°E 6°E 2°E
so so
Total Error 8°W 5°W 4° E 5°E (b) Whole compass card Whole compass card
drawn clockwise drawn anticlockwise
It will be noted that where names are the same relative to True card relative to True card
(both E or W) we add and leave name (c) All Compass Card All Compass Card
unchanged; where names are different, we readings readings
subtract the smaller from the larger and name the LESS GREATER
answer as the larger. (Fig 36.) than True readings than True readings
Here are some examples of applying variation so so
and deviation which are combined: [d) All True readings All True readings
Working from True to Compass: GREATER LESS
than Compass than Compass
True Co. 173°T 254°T 317°T
readings. readings.
Var n 6 °W 8 D
W 2
D
W Check these two statements with the two compass
D D
Dev n 2 °W 3 E 6 E
roses in Fig 37. It would be nice if we could just
Total Error 8 >W
( C
5 »w 4 3E call each error "plus" or "minus," instead of E or W.
But the sign (plus or minus) to be used depends

Compass Co. 181 °C 259 °C 313 °C
on whether we are applying the error to compass
77
to arrive at true, or to true to get compass.

Compare (c) and (d) above. This is why the
jingle is so valuable, and should always be used.
The problem of remembering whether to add or
subtract variation or deviation is a perennial one
and gives many people trouble. But really it is

similar to a problem we are all familiar with,
using a watch which is known to be fast or
—
slow we have a "watch error." First, remember
that variation and deviation are both "errors of the .'
>*
compass." If small, they can be combined to give
-f*
a single figure or total error. Consider a watch
which is, say 5 minutes slow by time signal. We Jh -U
Jit
-^
know that we must add 5 minutes to watch time
to get true time. If we know the true time we
5*
must subtract 5 minutes to get watch time. If our
watch is fast, we must reverse the signs in both
cases. Applying the same technique to the **«
* - - ~
compass, we can say that an Error WEST means
if
theCompass is FAST or registering HIGH; if

ErrorEAST the Compass is SLOW or registering
Fig 37. The solid line is transferred to the compass rose and
LOW. dotted line shows true and magnetic bearings. True is 292°.
If Error WEST: magnetic is 31 0°. (Variation of 1
8° west.)
Compass reads HIGH

SUBTRACT from COMPASS for TRUE
ADD to TRUE for COMPASS
ADD to WATCH for TRUE time

Watch is FAST
SUBTRACT from TRUE time for WATCH time
SUBTRACT from WATCH for TRUE
ADD to TRUE time for WATCH time Mnemonic:
Error WEST, Compass BEST, HIGH (Fast)
If Error is EAST: Error EAST, Compass LEAST, LOW (Slow)
Compass reads LOW To swing ship for compass deviations

ADD to COMPASS TRUE
for The following procedure can be used for
SUBTRACT from TRUE for COMPASS determining what, if any, deviations are present.
Two people are required: a reliable helmsman and
Watch is SLOW an observer to take the bearings. A calm day with
78
north, south
Fig 38. By going clockwise round the comoass N. NE. E,

SE etc the yacht strays from the mark and does not maintain the
same bearing to the distant mark. By taking N. S. NE. SW etc
in that order the yacht keeps close to the near mark and the
bearing to the distant one changes negligibly.
79
good visibility is chosen, so that the yacht can be The data can now be re-arranged to produce a
held on a steady course and a distant landmark deviation card, shown below. Each deviation has
can be clearly seen. been applied to yacht's head by compass to give
The yacht is maneuvered, at a minimum steerage the equivalent yacht's head magnetic.
speed, near a buoy identifiable on the chart, out
of the fairway, and in sight of a landmark at least Deviation card Yacr Date
5—8 miles away, and also identifiable on the
Yacht's head Yacht's head
chart. The true bearing of the landmark from the
compass Deviation magnetic
buoy is found from the chart and (by applying
local variation) the magnetic bearing is 0°C 2°E 002°M
determined. The helmsman is ordered to steer 045° 1°E 046°
exactly N, 0° by compass, and to call out when 090° 2°W 088°
he is on course, AND when he is off course. The 135° 4°W 131°
observer takes the bearing of the landmark by 180° 2°W 178°
compass while the helmsman is calling "On on — — 225° 225°
on." This compass bearing is noted against 270° 3°E 273°
yacht's head. This is repeated while the yacht is 315° 6°E 321°
being steered on each cardinal and intercardinal
heading. (It is preferable to take the bearings Hand bearing compass bearings
while heading in the sequence N, S, NE, SW, E, Provided the hand bearing compass is held well
W, SE, NW. This keeps the yacht nearer to the away from any ferrous material, including standing
chosen buoy and reduces parallax.) (Fig 38.) rigging, it is any deviation. In this
unlikely to have
The complete record might appear: case it will show the magnetic bearing. Bearings
taken with a hand bearing compass must always
Bearing < Df landmark by chart 254°T
be corrected for variation to provide a true
Variation 8°W
bearing.
262°M A
Approximate deviation check in emergency
B
If any reason the deviations are not known, or
for
Yacht's Landmark's Deviation
are in any way suspect, for instance on taking an
head bearing (A - B)
unknown yacht to sea without having had the
compass compass
compass swung, or if the deviation card is
N 0° 260° 2°E missing or lost, a rough guide to the deviation on
NE 045° 261° 1°E just one course can be got by holding up a good
E 090° 264° 2°W hand bearing compass, well away from shrouds or
SE 135° 266° 4°W any metal, and sighting the mast and bow while
S 180° 264° 2°W standing exactly amidships in the stern. Compare
SW 225° 262° 0° the reading obtained with that shown by the
W 270° 259° 3°E uacht's steering compass and note any difference.
NW315° 256° 6°E This will be the approximate deviation. Variation
80
north, south
must still be applied in the usual way. This is apt

to be rough and ready but will guard against any
gross error. But remember that the deviation so
found is only valid for the course being steered at
the time, and may be very different on a different

yacht heading. This is not recommended on an
all-steel yacht, for obvious reasons.
Using magnetic bearings

Some navigators prefer to work entirely with
magnetic bearings, using the inner ring of the
compass rose on the chart. As explained in Chapter
3, the variation scale on a Weems Zweng course
protractor can be used to read magnetic bearings

and plot magnetic courses. There are, however,
several points to watch when navigating in this way:
(a) Use the variation given on the chart compass
rose which is nearest to the position, and see that
the variation given is up to date.
(b) If deviation is present, it will be necessary to
re-set the protractor for the particular deviation
for ship's head at the time, and to alter this on
change of ship's head, if a course to steer is being
sought.
(c) Bearings of leading lines, arcs of visibility,
and so forth shown on most charts are always true
(without the suffix T), not magnetic. On other
charts and in some books they may be either
pilot
magnetic of true, so carefully note which it is. If
there is no suffix it is safe to assume a bearing is
true.
81
6. To Shape a Course
Now that we have surveyed the tools of the moon and the sun, and that the whole body of
navigation, use see how to use them to sail
let a large area of moves to and fro twice a
the sea
from one point to another. Even if there are no day. As it movesone direction the level of the
in
obstructions, sandbanks, pieces of land and so on sea rises, and as it moves away it falls. There are
in the way it may not be possible to sail direct thus two movements, one a lateral movement,
because of the necessity to tack. Before dealing which is the tidal stream, the other vertical move-
with that a bit later, assume that you are under ment resulting in changes in the height of tide.
power or have a fair wind, and can steer the Both concern the navigator, but for purposes of
course required. shaping a course we need only consider the lateral
Even this may not be the way in which the movement or tidal stream (except for consideration
yacht is actually going and she may be deflected of making short cuts over shoals).
by: Everything that floats is affected by the stream
(a) The effect of any tidal stream (or other to the same extent. The difference is that for a
current) setting across the track. slower boat, it takes her longer to move a given
(b) The effect of leeway due to wind blowing distance through the water and therefore she is
across the track, causing the yacht to drift to exposed to a particular tidal stream for a greater
leeward. time than a fast boat.
First we must find out, by whatever evidence is Think of the sea as an enormous belt-conveyor
available, what the tidal stream is doing, or will be moving in the direction of the stream. An ant
doing, when the course is sailed. We must find walking due north across a belt-conveyor moving
both the direction the stream will be flowing due east cannot tell that he is moving (relative to
(known as "set") and the speed. Then we must the shop floor) in a direction well east of north — he
estimate as best we can what leeway the yacht is moving in a diagonal direction over the floor,
will be making. Only when both factors have though straight across the conveyor belt. Similarly,
been assessed as closely as possible can we work the navigator, if out of sight of land or of an object
out the course we must steer to remain on the fixed to the seabed (like a buoy) cannot tell what
desired track. the current is doing to the water, and thus to the
position of the ship relative to the seabed. (It is true
Tidal stream that an experienced sailor can sometimes tell when
It is common knowledge that tides are caused by the direction of the tidal stream has changed, by the
82
^^"
to shape a course
>:••
Fig 39. Tidal stream effects are relative. Heavy sandbarge and
plastic dinghy in a three knot tide (top) on water, drifting
lie
at same rate. In second drawing, dinghy still adrift passes

moored buoy in same tide. Next, sandbarge drifts on. but wind
from the right blows the dinghy against the tide. Wind has
little effect on sandbarge. Becalmed yacht at bottom moves on
the tide, but with her go orange peel, plastic cups and any
other floating objects.
83
.
appearance of the waves, but he cannot determine shows by small arrows and figures the directions
the exact direction or speed the water
is moving). of the streams at the time when it is HW at the
(Fig 39.) stated port, forwhich predictions are available.
Information about the tidal stream is available The chartlets before and after this page represent
from several sources: the streams for each of the six hours before and
after the time of HW. Figures over many of the
1 Some charts have arrows indicating tidal arrows are given in pairs, e.g. 1 5, These are the
26.
streams and currents. predicted rates when tides are at neaps and
2. Tidal atlases, such as those produced by the springs respectively, in TENTHS knots. Thus,
National Ocean Survey, give a general picture of 1 5, 26 means neap tides the rate
that at times of
tidal currents in particular areas. will be 1 .5 kn and at springs 2.6 kn, and flowing
3. Book has detailed current
Eldridge Tide and Pilot in the direction shown by the arrow. (The point at
tables which can be used to predict tidal direction which the measurement was taken is the dot
and rate at over 300 east coast locations. between the figures).
4. Reed's Nautical Almanac and various pilot books Most tidal atlases show only the direction and
give information on currents and tidal streams approximate rate of the general body of the tidal
for a number of different areas. stream. In many places the tidal stream close
inshore changes its direction before the main
Both the direction and rate of the tidal stream stream further out. The time varies, but may be as
at a given place (normally) vary during the period much as an hour earlier. This can be turned to
between the time of one high water and the next, advantage when on a coastal passage by standing
and the time of high water at any place changes more inshore well before the end of a foul tide,
from day to day. Consequently, the information and standing out again well before the end of a
given on a tidal chart is usually related to the favorable tide. In this way it may be possible to
time of high water at a stated reference station. extend the period of favorable tide to perhaps
So to find when the tide at a given place will seven hours or more, and to reduce the period of
be moving in a certain direction and at a certain foul tide to five hours or less.
rate, consult a daily tide table for the time In practically all areas the tidal stream sets into
of high water at the reference station for and out of bays. Particularly when crossing a bay
the appropriate tidal chart. which could form a lee shore, due allowance
Note, too, that the direction of the tidal stream should always be made when shaping a course,
does not necessarily change at high water or low to guard against getting set into the bay.
water. For instance, when it is high water at the Tidal atlases and other references predict the
battery at the tip of Manhattan, the tidal stream streams under normal meteorological conditions.
is flowing north at 1 .8 knots. It does not reverse Winds blowing in one direction for a considerable
its direction until three hours later. time (several days), and an intense depression in
A tidal atlas consists of a book containing one area with a high pressure system in another
thirteen chartlets of a given area. All the chartlets area, can both alter the rate and the time of
are identical except for the arrows showing the change of a tidal stream.
streams. The chartlet in the middle of the book A tide rising higher (or lower) than normal will
84
to shape a course
tend to increase (or reduce) the lateral flow of course steered, in the same way as when in tidal
tidal stream. A strong wind blowing in one waters.

direction for several days will tend to push the
water in the same direction and affect the heights Leeway
of tides. If blowing in the same direction as the A cross-wind, that is one not blowing from dead
flood stream tides will tend to be higher than ahead or astern, will cause a vessel to be blown
normal, and the time of change in direction sideways to some extent. Her passage through the
(from flood to ebb), may be later. The opposite water will thus not be in exactly the direction in
applies when wind is blowing in the opposite which she is heading. Leeway may be defined as
direction to that of the flood stream. the angle between the direction of the ship's fore-
When barometric pressures or winds are and-aft line and the direction through the water, or
abnormal the possibility of altered rates of stream her "wake course."
and of times of change in direction should be The amount of leeway, or the size in degrees of
allowed for. Any opportunity of gauging rate and this angle, is difficult to determine with accuracy
direction of the stream should be taken, by and will depend on the strength and relative
observing how any navigational buoys or light direction of the wind, the state of the sea (a
vessels are behaving, or by correlating several yacht makes more leeway in a choppy sea), and
fixes (where these are available) with the yacht's on the superstructure, sails and keel shape. Some
DR positions, as ascertained by working them up idea of the amount of leeway being made may be
by reference only to course and distance sailed got by steering a steady course and observing the
through the water. angle between the yacht's wake in the water and
the yacht's fore-and-aft line projected aft. A
Currents modern yacht sailing to windward may make 4°
A current is defined as the horizontal movement of to 8° of leeway. (Fig 40.)
water due to causes other than the tide-generating
forces of the moon and the sun. In coastal and
inland waters currents are caused by out-flowing
rivers. In oceans the temperature and barometric
pressure over large areas, the effect of wind
blowing (mainly) in a given direction, and the
O
gyroscopic spin of the earth all give rise to ocean
currents. These tend to flow for long periods in a
set direction and at a set rate, though some vary
in both direction, rate and in their exact location
during the year. The Gulf Stream is a typical

ocean current.
Details of ocean currents are given on ocean
routing charts and in Pilots. When on ocean or
offshore passage, any current must be considered Fig 40. Yacht heads up to windward so that leeway is
both when shaping a course and when plotting a compensated.
85
—
Having found the expected set (direction) and

rate of the tidal stream (or current) at the time and
place, and the leeway estimated, there is enough
information to shape a course.
How to shape the course

Lay on the chart the required track course
off
the direction required over the sea bed, and mark
this line with double arrows. (Fig 41 .)
The line AD represents the distance the
yacht will go over the sea bed in one hour,
and shows her speed over the ground. The same
scale is used for current speed and ship's
speed. (It is often convenient to use the latitude
scale for all three speeds.)
The wake course just arrived at is still not the
direction in which the ship's head must point, if
any leeway is expected. We must allow for leeway
by pointing the yacht's head somewhat up to
windward, the amount being the leeway
anticipated in the prevailing conditions.
We can now measure (by compass rose or
protractor) the bearing of the wake course, apply
leeway to windward, and we
have the required
direction of the yacht's head. We have allowed
for current and leeway. If we had measured the
wake course by reference to true north, we still
have to convert ship's head true to ship's head Fig 41 .Desired track from A to B has been drawn in.
compass. AC represents strength and direction of stream. (Three arrows.)
Estimate the speed of the yacht through the water. With
Note that it is not necessary actually to plot on compasses set to a radius of units of expected yacht's speed
the chart the "ship's head" (shown in these through the water (use same units as used for tidal stream AC),
examples as dotted lines, for illustration) but and center at C. describe an arc to cut AB: this gives D. The
line C to D is wake course required. Subsequently leeway is
leeway (if any) MUST be allowed for in allowed for: broad arrow is wind direction. Note that yacht
calculating the course to steer. Note also that (if never actually goes near C.
all our figures are right) the yacht's actual progress
over the sea bed (and hence on the chart) will be
along the track line and not along the wake
course. The latter has been drawn simply to find
the required direction of the yacht's wake course.
We have only drawn a "vector" to find the heading
86
to shape a course
necessary to counteract the effect of the stream or destination. We follow exactly the same
current. procedure but in this case wake course and track
Let us consider the situation where the current course will be on the same straight line, but not of
is not setting across the track but parallel to it: the same lengths. (Fig 42.)
flowing either directly towards, or away from, the
YACHT SPEED 6 KNOTS

STREAM
GROUND SPEED 8 KNOTS

YACHT SPEED 6 KNOTS
STREAM
^ 2 KNOTS -.
GROUND SPEED
4 KNOTS
Fig 42. Simple tidal stream or current effects, when yacht is

sailing with (top) or against (bottom) the stream. It takes twice
as long, in this case, when the stream is foul.
87
To avoid any possible misunderstanding it along the track, as in example (a). (In fact, about
should perhaps be made clear that a tidal vector \ mile more, or ^ per cent). A single course-to-
(or current vector) is necessary at whatever angle steer will have been used, BUT her track will be
the direction of the stream makes to the track in a curve, as shown. This method saves
direction —
whether at right angles (90°) or at an calculating several different ship's headings, and
acute angle (say 1 0°). The direction of the saves alterations to course, but should ONLY be
stream is laid off (by protractor or compass rose, used open waters.
in
outer ring). When making a passage expected to take

The passage for which the course-to-steer is about 1 2 hours some navigators work on the
required may well extend over several hours. If the assumption that, as they will be subjected to
track will pass near any dangers it may be (about) two tides (an ebb and a flow) the two
necessary to set such courses as will keep the will cancel out, so they disregard tidal stream.
yacht on the track line, allowing for changing This is not recommended because:
streams during the passage. This could be the
(a) Tides seldom "cancel out" in both direction
case when passing rocks, shoals, or any other
and rate.
hazards. It will then be necessary to plot a series
(b) Yacht's speed may vary considerably during
of tide vectors, one for each tidal effect. For
the passage, thus the yacht may be exposed to
example, assume the stream is predicted to set:
one stream for longer, and to another for a
In first hour —
090° at 2.5 kn
shorter time, thus affecting the average.
In second hour —1 1 0° at 2.0 kn
In practice usually sufficient to lay off
hour
In third 180° at 1.0 kn — it is
courses designed to put the yacht back on the

Yacht's speed (through water) 5 kn.
track every two or three hours, if moderate
Track co. 200 °T.
laterally-setting streams are predicted.
In this example (Fig 43(a)) the yacht will move
over the seabed (and over the chart) along, or

very close to the track line, 200 °T. Other causes of drift
If the track lies in open waters, passing no In addition to leeway as already described, there
dangers, a single wake course to allow for two or are two other factors which may cause a yacht's
more hours' streams can be worked out. (Fig 43(b).) wake course to differ from the direction of the
From starting point A lay off each current ship's head. One is the effect of surface drift. A
successively from the end of the last current line. wind blowing in one direction for a number of
Then strike the arc of a circle from the end of the hours causes the surface of the water to move in
last current line, radius equal to the distance roughly the same direction, that is, a surface drift
through the water the vessel will cover in the is set up. While has little effect on large
this
number of hours' tide used (ship's speed vessels of 1 more draft, it will affect the
ft or
X hours). In example (b) the same three current yacht which draws only a few feet. The amount
predictions have been used, as in example (a) but of this surface drift seldom exceeds 2 knots, but
a single wake course produced. At the end of the on a 1 2 hour passage this would mean the yacht
third hour the vessel will be on the track line and was a very long way off course.
will have made good almost the same distance The other factor may be termed luffing error.
88
to shape a course
B' a
Fig 43(a). Making allowance for set of tide for hours 1 . 2 and
3. Yacht in this way remainsclose to her track AB. Courses
steered — single arrow, track —
double arrow, stream —
treble
arrow.
Fig 43(b). Same effect as (a) with single compensation for

three hours of stream. Colored line is track over ground, not
actually drawn on chart.
89
.
In a if the waves are large,

seaway, particularly
when wind ahead of abeam there
sailing with the
is a tendency for the helmsman to head up into a
wave and to bear away between the waves. Indeed,

this may well be essential for comfort or safety.
The course may thus become a series of zig-zags.
For example, with wind and waves on the
starboard bow a course-to-steer of say 240° may
involve luffing up to perhaps 250° as a steep
wave is met, followed by bearing away to 235° HOW TO SHAPE A COURSE
in the troughs. The helmsman has to declare (or 1 Lay off track line from start point to finishing
record) the average course he has been steering. point.
However carefully this is done, there is a tendency 2. From start point lay off current direction with
for the periods when the heading is "high" (to length units equal to rate in knots.
windward) of the "average" course to exceed the 3. With a center at the end of this current line,
periods when it is "low" of the "average" course. describe an arc of radius equal to the
As well as deliberate luffing-up to wave crests, yacht's speed through the water to cut the
most sailing yachts when being sailed to windward track line.
tend to run up slightly into the wind in strong 4. The line from the end of the current line to
gusts. The expert helmsman allows for this when where the arc cuts the track line is the
assessing his "average" course steered, but again, required wake course. Measure the true
there tendency for the luffs up-wind to
is a bearing of it.
produce course more to windward than that

a 5. To wake course bearing, true, apply leeway
recorded. In displacement power yachts the same towindward. This is the course to steer, true.
tendency to steer up into waves from ahead can 6. Apply variation (from the chart) and
cause the wake course to be more to windward deviation (from the deviation card). This
than expected. gives the course to steer by compass.
There is thus something of a "push-and-pull"
between leeway, the lateral push on the yacht by
the wind, surface drift, a surface current to
90
to shape a course
leeward and luffing error.

The first two cause the wake course to be
something to leeward (downwind) of the yacht's
heading; the last one to cause it to be to
windward. If the helmsman is alert to the
principle involved in "luffing error" this should be
comparatively minor, and the only guidance that
can be given is to make an allowance for leeway,
but not to overdo it. It is likely to be less, rather
than more, than the measurable angle between
wake course and the heading direction.
91
. —
7. Plotting the Course
However carefully a course has been shaped it is identifiable features, observations of lighthouses
still necessary to keep track of the yacht's and landmarks of various kinds can be used;
position and progress. Many factors may cause when out of sight of land, observations of
the yacht's track over the ground (and hence over heavenly bodies may be obtained. Both facilities
the chart) to vary from that intended. These willprovide a "fix."
factors can be any or all of the following : Between pieces of land there will be periods
1 Yacht's actual speed through the water may be

often lengthy — during which no observations for a
fix are possible. Even on a coastal passage the
greater or less than that predicted when the
land, or identifiable landmarks, may be invisible
course was shaped, due to wind or sea conditions.
due heavy rain. It is
to darkness, fog, mist or
2. Actual leeway suffered may differ from that
therefore the navigator's duty to plot on the chart
predicted.
the yacht's track, using all the data at his disposal.
3. Yacht may be in a given tidal stream area at a
This is loosely called "plotting the course by dead
time different from that predicted when the
reckoning." Plotting the course commences with
course was shaped.
the maintenance of an accurate record of times,
4. Helmsman may not have steered exactly the
distances and courses steered. The importance of
course set originally.
such a record is great and Chapter 1 3 deals with
5. The course shaped may have to be departed
this subject.
from in order to sail round a major obstruction
The procedure for plotting the course is as
(such as a fishing fleet), and in a yacht under
follows:
sail, the wind may be such that the course
When the yacht is at a known point of
desired cannot be sailed and she is sailed on one
departure "\ mile S of X harbor entrance")
(e.g.
or more tacks, or gybes.
the time, log reading and compass course being
For these reasons, the navigator must be in a steered are all noted. At regular intervals (say
position to plot on the chart his best estimate of every hour) and on every alteration of course the
the yacht's position at any time. On this will time, log reading and new course being steered
depend his ability to make a good landfall, and in are noted. If the regular log reading is missed at,
some cases to avoid running into danger. The say 0600 hrs and it is read at 061 5, the actual
yacht's position may be established in a time when read (061 5) should be recorded. At
number of ways. When within sight of land having suitable intervals the navigator uses this data to
92
plotting the course
-% B2
27CT 24M
Fig 44. Yacht steers red course, but leeway (red angle) gives
wake course (single arrow). DR (small cross) is deduced. Add
current to this (treble arrow) to give EP (small triangle).
Resultant track is double arrowed line.
Fig 45. Estimated position after different courses, different

tides and effect of leeway first to starboard then to port. See
Fig 44 for meanings of each line.
93
:
plot the yacht's position on the chart. *

Leeway is subtracted here because on this
Strictly, the new position found by using the course the wind is on her starboard side, pushing
course steered (compass, converted to true) and the wake course to the left (or counterclockwise)
the distance sailed through the water by log since from the direction of the ship's head, 073° T.
the last position was plotted is the position by The wake course can now be plotted, direction
dead reckoning, abbreviated to DR position. 068° T from the starting point A. The length of
(Fig 44.) But we have already seen that the this line will be the distance sailed through the
yacht's actual position will also be affected by any water, as shown by log (9 miles). This gives the
tidal stream (or current) she may be in, and by DR position.
leeway, if any. The navigator must therefore take Next, the "drift" of the tidal stream
in the time
these into account also, and the position so she was sailing is plotted on from the DR. 2 hrs
found is called the estimated position (or EP). at 2 kn = 4 M. The end of this line is the EP.
This is the best possible estimate of the yacht's When a yacht is beating to windward, she will
actual position, using all the data available. This sailon alternate tacks, heading up into the wind
position is usually marked on the chart with a as muchas possible. Fig 45 is an example of this.
small triangle, and the time and mileage noted From a position A, a yacht sails on port tack
against it for reference. (wind on her port side) steering a course 320° C
Having plotted the first EP, after a given time for one hour when, by log, she has sailed 4 miles.
(say two hours or so) the course is plotted The stream is setting 255° T at 2 knots, and
forward from the first EP to a fresh EP, using the leeway is estimated at 6°.
course or courses steered, the distance sailed by She then tacks on to starboard tack and heads
log, the estimated leeway and the various 225° C, the stream is now setting 270° T at
currents estimated to have been experienced. ' 1.6 kn.

Here is an example (Fig 44) Deviation on heading 320° C is 1 ° W, and on
From a position A a yacht sails for 2 hours on a 225° C is 4° E.
course by compass, 085°C. On this heading the Variation is 8° W.

deviation is 3°W, local variation is 9°W, and the Find the yacht's position when she has sailed
leeway from a S wind is estimated to be 5°. The 7 miles in 1 \ hours on the second tack.
log shows she has sailed 9 miles through the
water, the tidal atlas shows she has been in a 1st tack 2nd tack
stream setting 1 50° at 2 knots.
Ship's head 320° C 225° C
First find the Wake Course, True:
Ship's head 085° C
Dev: 1
c
W 4° E
Dev:3°W
Var: 8
C
W 8° W
Var: 9°W 9°W 4°W
error 12°W
Ship's head 311 °T 221 °T
(Ship's head) 073° T leeway + 6° -6°
Leeway -5°
Wake Course 068° T Wake course 317°T 215°T
94
.
plotting the course
Note that leeway is reversed on the second tack

as wind is on the opposite side.
She will be at EP, C, having sailed (over the
ground) from A to C to C2 along the track,
provided the courses steered, leeway and currents
were as recorded.
Note particularly the sequence used:
When plotting a course steered, plot wake

course (true) first, then current. (Refer back to
PLOTTING A COURSE
Chapter 6.)
1 Convert the compass course to true (by
There will inevitably be occasions when the
applying deviation and variation).
data used for working up the EP are not in fact
2. Apply leeway to the leeward side of the
those actually applying. The helmsman may not
course. This gives wake course.
have accurately steered the course recorded, the
3. Lay off this wake course on the chart and
amount of leeway experienced may have been
along it plot the distance from log or
different, or the current may have been setting in
distance meter.
a different direction or speed from that predicted.
4. From this point on the end of the wake
If any of these errors occur, the ship's true
course lay off the tidal stream in direction
position will not be at the EP plotted.
and in distance. This gives the EP.
For this reason, every opportunity should be
5. A from the starting point to this EP is
line
taken to fix the yacht's true position by any
the course made good over the ground and
means available. Whenever a reliable fix is
the distance along it is also the actual
obtained, the position so found should be marked
distance made good.
on the chart and in the logbook with time, date
and log reading. The next EP will then be worked
up from the last reliable fix obtained the previous
:
EP being discarded. A fix should be marked on the

chart with a small circle.
95
8. How High is the Tide?
It is common knowledge that in tidal waters the We thereforeneed precise information about
sea level rises and between low water and
falls is, height of tide, to be
the state of the tide, that
high water. The echo sounder will give the actual able to answer many questions which frequently
depth of water where we are, at the moment we arise, for example:
are there. But, what is often required is the depth
(a) To find the actual depth of water to be
at a later time or at some other place.
expected at a particular position on the chart, at a
examining charts it was explained that the
In
given time. This could be necessary when
chart shows soundings at a great number of
approaching a shoal or a bar across a river, or
positions in the sea, and drying heights of areas
when selecting an anchorage.
which are periodically covered and uncovered by
(b) To compare the depth of water found by
the sea. But these soundings very seldom
echo sounder with soundings shown on the chart,
correspond with the actual depth of water there
as when checking, or seeking to establish, the
will be at the various positions at any given time.
yacht's position on the chart by reference to
They will only correspond when the sea level
charted soundings, or when taking a line of
happens to be at chart datum —
at exactly mean low
soundings. (See Chapter 9.)
water on charts of the U.S. Atlantic coast, and at
(c) To find at what time the water will reach a
exactly mean lower low water on charts of the
given depth at a position the sounding of which
U.S. Pacific coast. At all other times the actual
is shown on the chart, as when deciding when it
depth of water at a given place and time is:
will be safe to sail over a bar or sandbank.
Charted depth — depth of sea bed below chart Tide tables are available which give the times
datum,
and heights of high water (and some, of low
plus Height of tide —
height of sea above (or
water also) for every day of the year at a large
below) chart datum.
number of ports. But to find the height of tide at
To relate an actual depth of water (as shown by times intermediate between the time of and HW
echo sounder) to a charted depth it is necessary LW requires some calculation.
to establish what is the height of tide at the time
and in the locality. Thus the height of tide is the
essential link between charted depths and actual Echo sounder readings
depths of water. (Fig 46.) A point to bear in mind is that the echo sounder
96
how high is the tide?
registers the depth of water between the At times of full and new moon the sun is pulling
transducer (the hull fitting which transmits and in concert with the moon — roughly parallel. The
receives the impulses) and the seabed, NOT from movement of water is then at its greatest, tidal
water level to seabed (unless the echo sounder streams are at a maximum and high water is
has been specially calibrated). The transducer has higher than average and low water lower than
to be positioned so that it is well below the average. This is the period of spring tides. At
waterline, but above the lowest point of the hull. first and last quarters the sun's pull is at right
The easiest approach to this problem is to angles to that of the moon, thus greatly reducing
measure the vertical distance between the yacht's the effect of the moon. The movement of water is
normal waterline and the transducer on the hull. then at its least, tidal streams are weaker than
Make a note of this and add it to all echo average, high tide is less high and low tide less
sounder readings to give the true depth of water. low than average. This is the period of neap
(Fig 47.) These readings, and any calculations of tides. (Fig 48.)
depth, can be directly related to yacht's draft. From new moon through first quarter, full,
last quarter to new moon takes approximately

27^ days. Twice a lunar month the pulls of moon
Causes of tidal streams and tides and sun are at a maximum, and twice at a
Tides are caused by the gravitational attraction of minimum. Thus spring tides and neap tides follow
the moon, and to a lesser extent of the sun, on the each other at intervals of just under a week.
earth. The moon's influence is the greater
because of its comparative nearness to the earth.
These attractions can be resolved into two Tidal patterns
components, one acting vertically on the earth's The pattern in which tidal levels change varies in
surface, the other horizontally. The horizontal different major areas of the world due to the
component, acting parallel to the earth's surface shapes of land masses, differences in latitude and
is by far the greater and causes the sea to be similar causes. The principal tidal patterns can be
drawn towards moon and sun on one side of the between:
classified
earth, and away on the other. (a) Semi-diurnal tides. These are the sort that
The earth revolves on its axis once every 24 occur along the Atlantic coast of the U.S. There are
hours but the moon is moving round the earth in two complete cycles each lunar day (about 24 hours
the same direction. In consequence the moon and 50 minutes) —
that is, two high tides and
crosses every meridian, on average, once in two low tides. A typical pattern is shown in
24 hours 20 minutes. The moon's attraction Fig 49.

causes the oceans to be drawn towards areas on (b) Diurnal tides. These are found chiefly in
the sides of the earth nearest to and furthest from tropical latitudes where the rise and fall is
the moon, and away from the areas in between. generally not great, as along the northern Gulf of
At any one place there is, in consequence, a high Mexico. There is only one complete cycle per lunar
tide followed by a low tide, twice every 24 hours day,one high and one low water. (Fig 50.)
50 minutes (on average). (c) Mixed, mainly diurnal tides. (Fig 51 .) There
The sun exerts a similar but lesser attraction. are two complete cycles per lunar day, but the
97
a SEA LEVEL
SEA LEVEL
s "h
1
Fig 47. This yacht draws 1 .5 meters. Total depth of water is
3.5 meters and detected by leadsman. Depth under keel is

is
therefore 2 meters, but transducer depth depends on its hull

position. Usually it can be adjusted to show either total depth
or depth under keel.
Fig 46. A depth of water is the addition of chart depth (red

tone in a.) and height of tide (lighter tone). Where the land
dries at low water, b.. the depth of water is height of tide less
drying height.
98
HW
LW
HW
LW
Fig 48. Top: Spring tides. Bottom: Neap tides. Each occurs
twice a month.
99
HKH
Fig 49. A semi-diurnal tide. Horizontal numbers are successive

days; vertical height in feet.
100
h
inequalities in the heights of successive high and

low waters, and in the corresponding time
intervals are very marked. These occur on the
western seaboard of U.S.A. and Canada.
Tide tables
Tide Tables are available from which the state of
the tide can be determined at any time in the
particular year, at a large numberThey
of places.
give a calendar for each port dealt with,showing
for each day the times and heights of the two
high waters. Some tide tables give times and
heights of both high and low waters. Tide tables
available are:
(a) The produced by the National
tide tables
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National
Ocean Survey. These are published in four
comprehensive volumes covering Europe and the
West Coast of Africa (including the Mediterranean
Sea), the East Coast of North and South America
(including Greenland), the West Coast of North and
South America (including the Hawaiian Islands),
and the Central and Western Pacific Ocean and the
Indian Ocean.
(b) The tide tables included in Reed's Nautical
Almanac. The various editions of Reed's cover
different waters.
(c) The tide tables in Eldridge Tide and Pilot Book.
Includes height of tide data for locations along
the east coast of North America from Nova Scotia
to Florida.
(d) The tide tables published by the hydrographic
offices of other nations.
(e) Many ports publish tide tables for their own
particular localities.
It will be noted that all tide tables give times
and heights of HW
(and some of LW also). Some
calculation is therefore necessary to determine the
state of the tide at times other than at HW, that is,
at intermediate times. Before explaining these it is
101
necessary to have a clear understanding of the

terms used in describing tides. Most of the
difficulty in working out tide problems arises

from lack of appreciation of the meaning of the
terms. (Figs 52, 53, 54.)
Height of tide. The vertical distance between the
level of the water at any given time, and the level
of chart datum. It must not be confused with the
actual depth of water (the vertical distance
between the level of water and the sea bed at
any given time).
Range of tide. The difference between the level of
high water and the level of the preceding or
succeeding low water on a particular day. The
level "ranges" up and down between LW and HW.
The range varies, being at a maximum at times of
spring tides and at a minimum at neap tides.
Duration.The period of time between the time of
low water and high water. The time one "range"
lasts.
Interval. The interval between any given time and

the time of high water nearest to that time. An
may be a number
Interval of hours and minutes
BEFORE or AFTER HW. Fig 50. Diurnal tide pattern. Vertical lines are at 24 hour
intervals.
Finding the height of tide

A tide table gives, for every day of a particular
year, predictions of the time and height (above Fig 51 . Mixed semi-diurnal tide pattern. Vertical lines are at
24 hour intervals (example from Vancouver, west coast of
CD) of high water (and some tables of low water
Canada).
also) at a number of key locations referred to as
reference stations. It also gives the information
needed to calculate similar data for a large number
of other locations, called subordinate stations.
For each subordinate station, the publication lists
the differences between the time and height of high

water at that location and the time and height of
high water at some reference station. Thus, the
time and height of high tide can easily be found for
any subordinate station by using the appropriate
reference table and adding or subtracting the
102
. —
required numbers. This system saves tabulating

complete tidal predictions for every day of the
year at hundreds of different locations.
Usually a subordinate station is keyed to a
reference station within its own vicinity, but this
is not always the case. The criterion is the
similarity of the pattern of the rise and fall of the
tide at reference or subordinate stations. (In the
Pacific, many subordinate stations are hundreds,
and in some cases thousands of miles from their
reference station.)
Methods of determining the state of the tide at
times intermediate between HW and LW vary
according to the table used. Three points are
I, l
s
worth mentioning before examining methods in
detail:
1 Ensure the tide table used is that for the

current year. No two years' tables are identical.
2. Check what time is being observed in
carefully
the table. probably be a zone time, such as
It will
Eastern Standard Time which is Zone +5 or five
hours behind Greenwich Mean Time. Daylight Saving
Fig 52. Terms used in the tide cycle. HW and LW are high Time is not used in NationalOcean Survey, Reed's,
water and low water for that tide. H1 height at time 1 H2 is
is
or Eldridge tide tables, so one hour must be added
.
height at time 2. D is duration of R is range of tide.

rise of tide.
CD is chart datum. I, is interval that 2 is before high water. 2 is I
to the times given in these publications when
interval that 1 is afterwards. Check text for full meaning of DST is in effect.
these common terms.
3. Note that heights of tide may deviate from
predictions due to abnormal weather conditions. For
example, high barometric pressure or strong offshore
winds cause tides to be lower than normal, while
low barometric pressure or strong onshore breezes
cause tides to be higher than expected. Similarly,
distant storms often create tidal surgeswhich can
cause high and low waters to vary considerably
from predictions.
4. Find the location you require in the index
it saves time.
103
;
MHWS
V1HW
VIHWN
Fig 53. of terms used in vertical movement

The meaning
of tide. H height of tide: CD is charted depth
is
D is the depth at the moment when the sea level is at the

top of the pale red area. DH is the drying height
of the big rock. Other abbreviated terms are mean high water
springs, mean high water, mean high water neaps, mean low
water neaps, mean low water, and mean low water springs.
104
National Ocean Survey tide tables

Before discussing how to use the National Ocean
Survey tide tables to find the height of the tide
at a time between high and low water, it is worth
reviewing the contents of these publications. Daily
tidal predictions for the geographically-listed
reference stations are given in Table 1 at the front
of each volume. Fig 56 shows sample page. Tidal a
differences for subordinate stations are compiled
in Table 2 of each volume, with the subordinate
stations listed geographically and grouped according

to the reference stations on which they are based.
Sample entries for Table 2 are shown in Fig 57.
Table 3, entitled "Height of Tide at Any Time,"
is an aid for calculating the height of the tide
at any time between high and low water. All stations
included in a volume are listed alphabetically
in the index at the back.
TIME To determine the height of the tide at a reference
station at any time between high and low water, turn
to the tidal predictions for that station and
locate the appropriate month and day. Find the
Fig 54. An illustration of various terms in the tidal
cycle. The height of the red area at any point
is the
times of high water and low water between which the
height of the tide at any given moment. Line M marks time in question falls and calculate the following
the mean level of the tide. Four high tides are shown
data the duration for that particular tide
:
over a period of more than one day. Note how each high
tide gets progressively lower, indicating that the cycle
(the difference between the times of high and low
is approaching neap tides. The bottom axis of the chart water), the range of the tide (the difference
measures the passage of time. If the tide is at A. the between the heights of high and low water), and
shaded area I, marks off the interval after high water.
Similarly, if the tide is at B. the shaded area 2 marks l
the difference between the time in question and
off the interval before high water. The time measured the nearest high or low tide.
by shaded area D is the duration of the second rise Next turn to the top portion of Table 3 at the
of tide.
back of the National Ocean Survey volume. (See
Fig 58.) Select from the bold-face column of
figures on the left the number that most nearly
agrees with the duration of the tide in question.
Follow this row horizontally across until you
arrive at the time (in hours and minutes) that
most closely matches the difference between
your time and the time of the nearest high or
low water. Then follow this column down into the
105
S :
-1
TABU 2.-TOA1 CHFfEMNCES ANO OTHEB CONSTANTS

POBTLAND. HMHE. 1977
TINES AMD HEIGHTS HE HIGH AND LOU WATERS
:-:.:::
«- «. I m.1 ft* jt« I
MAINE. Outer Coast on PORTLAND, p. 32
arboi 4: :: I -O U I -O 111 40.3

Monhecan Is 2-c -4; 46
I 04 36 II 0500 -O.t 1 0603 -1.5 16 0540 -0.5 1 0056 16 :::: 9 9 9urnt 4: :."
•
F 1049 '4 1107 8.4 H 1216 9.9 1149 9.2 TH 0705 F 0627 -0 -
St. Ceorie Bluer
-1648 1701 0.7 1820 -0.7 1751 -0.1 1315 :•: 3
-:-- - vde- 43 56 -0 11 -0 07
2305 2312 9.5 1928 1857 -: 1 1
Of is Cove 43 59 1 - 1 -: -4 I
"
> 0S31 II 0535 -0.2 2 0033 10.5 17 0001 9.7 2 0139 17 0108 9 4-1 :-; 69 11 -
:4 1144 1144 8.S n 0651 -1.2 U 0615 -0.6 F 074 7 SA 0713 -' : 10.8
SI
1739 0.6 1303 9.8 1226 9.5 1357 1327
- 3
New Harbor, NAisoangus 5a. i :: 69 29 -0 10 - 10.1
2358 2349 9.5 1910 -n.s 1833 -0.3 2015 1947 -1 -
a 58 SB 21 -0 09 - ::.4
: Herto 43 58 -:" 1: -0 IS -: --- :: .
3 0624 II 0609 -0.3 3 0122 10.0 0043 9.7 3 0224 II 0159 9 4 '
Biver
'- -0.6
1236 H 1218 8.7 M 0736 -0.8 0654 SA :;:: SU 0803 -1 3
'" , n -0 10 - 1
1837 1816 0.5 1350 9.6 I34H 9.7 1443 1419 7 1
1959 -0.2 1917 -0.4 :

'
:- 2043 -0 8 69 23 -: 16 -0 04 1
12 -: :f - I s.s 10.1
i 0051 "
"
4 0025 9.5 4 0211 9.4 4 0126 9.5 4 0312 4 0255 9 1
- 071 0644 -0.4 TH 0824 -0.2 F 0737 -0.5 :. 0915 :;:: r
-0 02 -
1328 1256 8.9 1439 9.3 1351 9.8 1533 1517 9 •
1933 18S5 0.4 2053 0.2 2005 -0.4 2157 2145 -0 5 69 32 - 1 to 28 10.7
-:-3- :::.; Harbor -
-0 09 -0 10 10.1
S 0144 n 0105 9.5 5 0301 8.7 70 0215 9.3 5 HK :::: 4
7 - a -
•- IBM
1424
N 0721
1335
-0.3
9.0
F 0912
1630
0.3
8.9
SA 0824
1440
-0.3
9.8
1009
Hi
-. 1002
1621
:
9
3 909
SouThoort, Towns?
Sheepscot Bluer
:
— -,-
^ :1 69 40 -M) 01
-0 05
M3.01
::
:
:
2028 1939 0.3 2145 0.6 2058 -0.3 2254 2252 -0 ;
I s = :- 69 41 - -0 01 -:
e 0240 71 0148 9.3 6 03S4 8.2 ?1 0309 9.0 6 0506 21 OS08 8.5
N 0901 - 0803 -0.3 SA 1002 0.8 SU 0916 0.0 TU 1106 Cross i; f.4- - - 10 O* 1
1517 1416 9.2 1622 8.6 1536 9.7 1725 H scasset K 1 -: 1
2127 2026 0.2 2244 0.9 2159 -0.2 2353 -:, :: 51 - - ::

-
::: 13 +0 31 0.0 1C.5
7 0336 72 0235 9.1 7 0452 7.7 72 04O9 8.7 7 0607 22
0952 F :?44 -0.2 S. 1057 1.2 1015 0.2 U 1205 •-
0619
Robinhood, Sasanoa Rivei 43 :: .- 10.1
1612 1504 9.3 1718 8.4 1636 9.7 1824 1223 Mi Foint, Sasaooa Rivei
i l - :
- .: 10.1
2226 2118 0.2 2341 1.0 2303 -0.2 1842 Upper He Gate, Sisans-: -- -: :: +1 31
1 i -
, e.c
a 04 36 n 0328 8.9 8 0553 7.S ?3
"
0516 8.5 8
'-
0063 23 0108 HAKE. lennebec Biver
F 1047 SA 0939 0.0 H 1155 1.4 1120 0.4 0706 F ::-:
1708 1558 9.4 1813 8.4 1743 9.7 1304 1330
2329 2217 0.1 1919 1948 ---- 44---
; __ - -
4c 4; "
11
, -
9 0537 24 0426 8.7 9 0041 1.0 24 0013 -0.2 9 0146 24 0210 -----
SA 1143 V- 1034 0.1 •. 0652 7.4 W ;:r 8.5 r 0756 SA :-:;£ !S +1 17 - :.-
Sturgeon Is -
•0.59
law 1655 9.6 1250 1.5 1229 0.3 1356 1431
-
2319 0.0 1909 8.4 1850 9.8 2009 ::4-: A.-.droscogg - River i
I
-
4: 51 -
*5 26
ig 0027 25 0531 s.s •

0137 0.9 25 0119 -0.5 10 0233 25 0303
-
*i 36 0.4S :
SI Ct 34 N 1135 0.2 0746 7.5 1H 0735 8.7 SA 0841 :- 0916

1238 1757 9.8 1345 1.4 1335 0.1 1444 1526 Bowdoinhaa, Cathance Rivet 44 K +r 34 - • -
1857 2001 8.6 1956 10.1 2054 2137 - -, -

:
- I
-
-13 03
Ner.urv.ea5 Is'and- ,4 U. +3 21
-
n 0125 76
"
0026 -0.3 u 0228 0.7 n 0222 -0.8 0315 26 0352 44 14
-
-
•
5.1 :.'
N 0732 0637 8.6 TH 0836 7.7 F 0836 9.1 SU 092 3 N 1004
1332 1240 0.2 1433 1.2 1438 -0.2 1526 1613 M 17 - •:.
1948 1900 10.1 2047 8.9 2054 10.3 2137 7225 - • .--
II 0215 27 0131 -0.6 12 0313 0.4 27 0318 -1.0 12 0357 n 04 36

44IHE. Casco Bar
0S2S 0743 8.8 F 0921 8.0 SA 0929 9.4 N 1001 :«s
42: 1343 0.0 1515 0.9 1534 -0.5 1608 1659
2036 2004 10.4 2129 9.1 2148 10.5 2217 2309 -
43 44 -' -- - -:
-- -
0302 : 0233 -1.0 13 0352 0.1 78 0409 -1.2 13 04 29 :
=
0517 -Eric-. 'Vs. '-te: -: I
0910 - 0845 9.1 SA 1001 8.3 SU 1020 9.7 TU 1038 u 1127 S57 rkxarti Fbint, Mew Meadows Rivo 4;- ;: -: :• - I .
1505 1444 -0.3 1557 0.7 1627 -0.7 1645 1740 ; 3-d 4; 4; - :- - I
2118 2102 10.7 2208 9.4 2238 10.5 2256 :; = : -;;. - - 1
Pcrrrs Harbor- 43 44, -: : -; :

14 0345 71 0331 -1.4 14 0429 -0.1 • =
0457 -1.2 14 0508 :; 0555 1
0953 F 0942 9.4 SU 1038 8.6 1* 1107 9.9 1117 - 1204

1547 1542 -0.6 1637 0.4 1715 -0.8 1726 1820 son Cove, Middle =4 4c 44 40 02 :: :
2204] 21SS 10.9 2247 9.5 2326 10.3 2336 867 Little Flying Point, -
| ! -
IS :4.-4 N 0424 -1.6 IS 0505 -0.3

" 0541 -1.0 15 0545 30 ::;:
-
- Freet ri 1
-
," -
F :;: SA 1035 9.7 H 1114 8.9 1152 9.9 TH 1156 F 0632 16 I
1625 1637 -0.8 1714 0.1 1801 -0.8 1812 1241 1 -: lc - -

-"
::.4 4.:
2237 2252 11.0 2324 9.7 1859
! - -
:;.4 4.4
31 0515 -1.7 31 0011 10.0 877 I FORTLATO Oai ly predictions I
SU 1126 9.9 H 0624 -0.7

1729 -0.8 1234 9.8
2343 10.8 1845 -0.6
106
1 1 1
TABLE 3. HEIGHT OF TIDE AT ANT TIME

Time from the nearest high water or low water
h. in. h. 771. h. 771. i. 771. h. 771. h. 771 h. 771. h. 771. h. m. h. 771. h. 771. k. 771. h. 771. h. 771. h. 771. k. 771.
4 00 008 16 24 32 40 48 56 1 04 1 12 1 20 1 28 1 30 1 44 1 52 2 00
4 20 09 17 26 35 43 52 1 01 1 09 1 18 1 27 1 35 1 44 1 53 2 01 2 10
4 40 09 19 28 37 47 056 1 05 1 15 1 24 1 33 1 43 1 52 2 01 2 11 2 20
5 00 10 20 30 40 50 1 00 1 10 1 20 1 30 1 40 1 50 2 00 2 10 2 20 2 30
5 30 11 21 32 43 53 1 04 1 15 1 25 1 30 1 47 1 57 2 08 2 19 2 29 2 40
5 40 11 023 34 45 57 108 1 19 1 31 1 42 1 53 2 05 2 16 2 27 2 39 2 50
6 00 12 24 36 48 100 1 12 1 24 1 36 1 48 2 00 2 12 2 24 2 36 2 48
6 20 13 25 3X 051 1 03 1 16 1 29 1 41 1 54 2 07 2 19 2 32 2 45 2 57
6 40 13 027 40 053 107 1 20 1 33 1 47 2 00 2 13 2 27 2 40 2 53 3 07
7 00 14 028 42 056 1 10 1 24 1 38 1 52 2 06 2 20 2 34 2 48 3 02
7 20 15 29 44 59 1 13 1 28 1 43 1 57 2 12 2 27 2 41 2 56 3 11
7 40 15 031 46 101 1 17 132 1 47 2 03 2 18 2 33 2 49 3 04 3 19
8 00 16 32 48 104 1 20 130 1 52 2 08 2 56 3 12
8 20 17 033 050 107 1 23 1 40 1 57 2 13 3 03 3 20
8 40 17 35 52 109 127 1 44 2 01 2 19 3 11 3 28
• 00 18 36 054 1 12 1 30 148 2 24 3 18 3 36
9 20 19 37 056 1 15 1 33 152 2 29 3 2-5 3 44
9 40 19 39 058 1 17 137 1 56 2 35 3 33 3 52
10 00 020 40 1 00 1 20 1 40 200 2 40 3 40 4 00
10 20 21 041 1 02 1 23 1 43 2 04 2 45 3 47 4 08
10 40 21 43 1 04 1 25 1 47 208 2 51 3 55 4 16
Correction to height
Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft.
0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0. 1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5
1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0. 1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.7 0.8
2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0. 1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
2.5 0.0 0.0 0.1 0. 1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
3.0 0.0 0.0 1 0. 1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.5
3.5 0.0 0. 1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
4.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
4.5 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.0 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
5.0 0.0 0.1 0. 1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.5
5.5 0.0 0. 1 0. 1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1. 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8
6.0 0.0 0. 1 0. 1 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8 2. 1 2.4 2.7 3.0
6.5 0.0 0. 1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1. 1 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2
7.0 0.0 0. I 0. 2 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.8 3.1 3.5
7.5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.9 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.8
Fig 55. Portion of a page 8.0 0.0 0. 1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0
from the National Ocean 8.5 0.0 0. I 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1. 1.4 1.8 2.1 2.5 2.9 3.4 3.8 4.2
9.0 0.0 0. 1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.9 2.2 2.7 3. 1 3.6 4.0 4.5
Survey Tide Table 1 showing
.
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6
9.5 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.3 4.8
tidal predictions for 10.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Portland. Maine during 10.5 0.0 0. 1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.7 2.2 2.6 3. 1 3.6 4.2 4.7 5.2
July. August, and September 11.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1. 1.4 1.8 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.4 4.9 5.5
11.5 0.0 0. 1 0.3 0.5 0.8 1. 1.5 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.4 4.0 4.6 5. 1 5.8
of 1977.
12.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 1. 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.6 4. 1 4.8 5.4 6.0
12.5 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.7 4.3 5.0 5.6 6.2
Fig 56. Portion of a page 13.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.7 2.2 2,7 3.2 3.9 4.5 5.1 5.8 6.5
from the National Ocean 13.5 0.0 0. 1 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.2 2.8 3.4 4.0 4.7 5.3 6.0 6.8
Survey Tide Table 2. showing 14.0 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.3 1.8 2.3 2.9 3.5 4.2 4.8 5.5 6.3 7.0
14.5 0.0 0.2 0.4 6 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.3 5.0 5.7 6.5 7.2
tidal differences for 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.5 3.1
15.0 3.8 4.4 5.2 5.9 6.7 7.5
Monhegan Island. Maine. 15.5 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.7 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.6 3.2 3.9 4.6 5.4 6.1 6.9 7.8
16.0 0.2 0.4 0.7 1. 1 1.5 2.1 2.6 3.3 4.0 4.7 5.5 6.3 7.2 8.0
Fig 57. The National Ocean 16.5 0.0 2 0.4 0.7 1. 1 1.6 2.1 2.7 3.4 1 1 4.9 5.7 6.5 7.4 8.2
17.0 0.0 2 0.4 0.7 1. 1 1.0 2.2 2.8 3.5 4.2 6.0 5.9 6.7 7.6 8.5
Survey Tide Table 3. used 17.5 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.9 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.0 6.9 7.8 8.8
for finding the height
18.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.7 2.3 3.0 3.7 15 5.3 6.2 7.1 8.1 9.0
of tidebetween high and 18.5 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.8 2.4 3.1 3.8 4.6 5.5 6.4 7.3 8.3 9.2
low water. 19.0 0. 1 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.8 2.4 3. 1 3.9 4.8 5.6 6.6 7.5 8.5 9.5
19.5 0. 1 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.9 2.5 3.2 4.0 4.9 5.S 6.7 7.7 8.7 9.8
20. n 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.9 1.9 2.G 3.3 4.1 5.0 5.9 6.9 7.9 9.0 10.0
:
bottom portion of the table, stopping when you Table 3 can also be used to find the time at
are parallel to the appropriate range of tide, which the tide will be at a given height. Simply
or the numerical value closest to it. This is your reverse the previous procedure. First enter the
height of tide correction. It should be subtracted bottom portion of the table at the appropriate
from the height of the nearest tide if that tide range of tide, stopping at the required correction.
is high water, and added to the nearest tide Then move up that column until you are parallel
if that tide is low water. to the appropriate duration of tide.
Example: Example:
Find the height of the tide at Portland, Maine on Find the time at which the tide at Portland, Maine
August 1 7, 1 977 at 000 Daylight Saving Time.
1 on the morning of August 1 7, 1 977 will have risen
First convert to Eastern Standard Time by subtracting to a height of 6 feet. This is the data needed.
one hourfromthetimein question. (1000DST — 1 hr
= 0900 EST.) Then look up and calculate the the range of tide:
following data. 10.1 ft (9.5 ft minus -0.5 ft)
the height from nearest high or low water:

the tide predictions for August 1 7 at Portland 3.5 ft below HW (9.5 ft minus 6.0 ft)
LW 0615 -0.6 ft the duration of tide:

HW 1226 9.5 ft 6 h 11 m (1226 minus 061 5)
the duration of rise:
6 h 11 m
(1226 minus 061 5) Knowing that the range of tide on this particular
the time from nearest high or low water: morning is 10.1 feet, enter the bottom portion of
2 h 45 m after LW (0900 minus 061 5) Table 3 at 1 0.0, which is the range closest to the
the range of tide: one in question. Move across the horizontal row
10.1 ft (9.5 ft minus -0.5 ft) until you reach 3.5, the difference between the
required height and the height of high water. If
Looking down the column of bold-face figures on the exact difference is not given, stop at the
the left of the top portion of Table 3, select the closest value. Then move up that column until
number nearest to the duration of rise in question. parallel to 6 h 20 m, the duration closest to the
This is 6 h 20 m. Move across the horizontal row one in question. The time correction is 2 h 32 m.
at m until you come to the time nearest
6 h 20 Subtracting this from the time of high water
the 2 h 45 m interval after LW which you have (1 226) gives you 0954 Eastern Standard Time. Add
calculated. In this case, 2 h 45 m is listed in one hour to convert to Daylight Saving Time and
thetable. Then follow down the column in which this the time at which 6 feet of tide occurs on the
time occurs, entering the bottom portion of the morning of August 1 7 is 1 054.
table. Stop opposite 1 0.0 in the list of bold-face Now suppose you want to find tidal information
figures on the left, 1 0.0 being the range of tide for a subordinate station. To calculate the time
closest to the 1 0.1 range in question. The of high water and low water, simply apply the
correction arrived at is 4.0. It should be added tidal differences listed for that subordinate
to the LW height of —0.6 to get a total tide of station to the predictions for the appropriate
3.4 feet. reference station.
108
:

Example: the duration of fall:
Find the time and height of high and low water at 6 h 21 m

(1848 minus 1227)
Monhegan Island, Maineontheafternoon of Septem- the time from nearest high or low water:
ber 1 6, 1 977. The reference station is Portland. Here 2 h 03 m from H W
(1 430 minus 1 227)
is the required data and calculations. the range of tide:
11.2 ft (10.1 ft minus -1.1 ft)
the tidal predictions for September 1 6 at Portland:

HW 1240 10.3 ft Enter the top portion of the National Ocean Survey
LW 1857 -1.1 ft Table 3 at 6 h 20 m, the duration closest to the
the tidal differences for Monhegan Island: one in question. Move horizontally across this row,
HW -Oh 13 m -0.2ft stopping at 2 h 07 m, which is the interval nearest
LW -Oh 09 m 0.0 ft the difference between the time of high water
high and low water calculations for Monhegan Island and the required time. Then proceed down the
HW 1227 10.1 ft column and stop opposite 1 1 .0, the range of tide
(1240 - 13 m) (10.3 ft - 0.2 ft) closest to the one in question. The tidal correction
LW 1848 -1.1 ft of 2.8 should be subtracted from the height of
(1857 - 09 m) (—1.1 ft - 0.0 ft) tide at high water. This gives a height of tide
of 7.3 feet at 1 430 EST or 1 530 DST.
But often you will want to find the height of
tide at a secondary port at some time between Reed's tide tables
high and low water. To do
by finding so, start The tide tables in Reed's Nautical Almanac are
the time and height of high and low water, as in similar in format to those published by the
the previous example. Then calculate the duration National Ocean Survey. Daily predictions of the
of the tide in question, the difference between times and heights of high and low water are listed
the required time and the time of the nearest high for various reference stations, called standard
or low water, and the range of the tide. Finally, ports in Reed's. Immediately following the
consult Table 3 of the National Ocean Survey tide data for a given standard port, the tidal time
volume to get your correction figure and add or and height differences for secondary ports are
subtract it as required. listed. All locations are arranged geographically,
and a particular one can easily be found by
Example: consulting the alphabetical index inthe back of
Find the height of tide at Monhegan Island at the book.
1530 on September 1 6, 1 977. First, convert the To find the time and height of high or low water
time to 1 430 Eastern Standard Time by subtracting at a certain place, eithei a standard or a
one hour from the given time. Then note the reference port, Reed's requires the same
following information. procedure as do the National Ocean Survey tables.
Reed's also uses a "correction" table (entitled
high and low water calculations for Monhegan Island: "Rise and Fall of Tide") for calculating the
HW 1227 10.1 ft state of the tide between high and low water, but
LW 1848 -1.1 ft this table is constructed somewhat differently
109
than the National Ocean Survey Table 3.
The Reed's table disregards differences in the

duration of the tide in question, a factor taken
into consideration in the top portion of the Ocean
Survey table. This makes many of the tidal
"corrections" taken from Reed's "Rise and Fall of
Tide" table slightly more approximate than those
derived from the Ocean Survey Table 3. Although
the results obtained from Reed's are adequate in
most cases, a good margin of safety should be

allowed when accuracy is particularly important.
The data needed to find the height of tide
between high and low water using the Reed's method
is:
(a) Time and height of HW and These can be found from the
LW between which the time predictions for a standard
in question falls. port, or from a tidal difference
table used in conjunction with
standard port predictions.
(b) The difference between the
time in question and the
time of the nearest HW
orLW.
(c) The range of tide. The difference between the
heights of high and low water
between which the height in
question falls.
Once this information is looked up and calculated,

turn to the "Rise and Fall of Tide" table in the
almanac. Consult the list of figures on the

left for the range of tide in question. If the
exact range is not included, you should interpolate

between the closest two numbers. (Note that this
procedure differs from that followed when using the
National Ocean Survey Table 3 where interpolation
is for.) Then follow the appropriate
not called
horizontal row across until you arrive at the
difference between your time and the time of the
nearest high or low water. This gives you the
110
HEIGHT OR TIME OF TIDE

FORM
Reference station. Date 71une
TIME HEIGHT
High water
METERS, FATHOMS AND FEET
Low water For some years to come yachtsmen will have to deal
with combinations of meters and fathoms/feet
Di/ratcon of tide
^%^ for soundings and heights. This is because American
Time from nearest H. WorL W. charts are gradually being converted to the metric
system, as are British charts. The process,
Range of tide
however, will take many years to complete since
Correction figure there are so many charts to be replaced. And even
after all local charts are long since metric,
Heigh t or time of tide
depths will probably be measured in both systems
on many yachts.
Thus, some conversion between meters and feet
subordinate, station. Date Tune.
will frequently be necessary. The relationships are:
1 meter = 3.281 feet
1 foot = 0.3048 meters
TtdaL differences 1 fathom = 1 .829 meters.
Make sure that the figures used for charted
High water
depth, height of tide and depth sounder are all
Low water in the same unit (either feet or meters) and

convert if necessary.
Duration of tide
Tune from nearest H.W.orLW

Range of tide.
Correction figure
Height or time of tide
Fig 58. A form for finding the height of tide.
111
correction figure. It should be added to the 1
height of the nearest tide if that tide is low

2
water, and subtracted from the height of the nearest
tide if that tide is high water.
3 RANGE
The "rule of twelve" method
The assumption is made that the tide rises and 3
falls between LW and HW at a rate proportional to

the time between LW and HW. This is by no 2
means always the case, but this method can be 1

n/
used when only a rough approximation is
considered adequate, and when no danger can
arise if the answer is inaccurate. (Fig 59.)
The rule assumes that
the rise or fall in first hour is 1 /1 2th
second 2/12
third 3/12
fourth 3/12
fifth 2/12
sixth 1/12
of the range of the particular tide.
It works like this. (Fig 60.) Find the
approximate height of tide at 1 200 hours at a
place and on a day when
HW is at 1000 hours, height 4 ft 1
LW is at 1615 hours, height 4 ft

Range this tide is 1 ft (1 4 — 4 ft)
Interval between HW and time required is 2 hours
In first hour, tide falls by 1 /1 2th of range

In second hour, tide falls by 2/1 2th of range
3/1 2th, or
1/4 of 10 ft = 2.5 Fig 59. The "rule of twelve" assumes that a tide rises on this
subtract from HW height of 14.0 pattern. Numbers on left are twelfths of the range for the
bottom numbers are a succession of hours. Reference to
day.
local
Approximate height of tide tide graphs shows many exceptions
at 1200 hours will be 11.5
After looking up the necessary daily predictions

and calculating the required data, the "rule of
twelve" method still takes some time to compute Fig 60. The example of how to use the rule of twelve.
112
properly. Therefore, it is usually used only when a one until it has been checked), stand back and
correction table is not available. see if it "looks sensible." Often an error in
principle comes to light this way.
Other methods
Tide Tables produced by other countries usually
contain tables or graphs for finding heights at
intermediate times and give instructions for their
use, and examples.
General comments
Tidal calculations inevitably take a little time to
work out and check. Heights of tide should
therefore be calculated BEFORE they are
required, whenever possible. It often saves
trouble if the height is worked out for the time it
is expected to be required (give or take a few

minutes), AND at the same time to work it out
for one or more hours before and after this time.
If then arrival time is appreciably earlier, or later
than the ETA, the figure is ready. It takes very

little longer to work the others out once the data
has been assembled on paper.
Always allow a margin for safety, both in
depth (assume depth may be less than that
calculated) and in time (assume tide may be later
in coming up to a required height, or may be
early in falling to a given height).

Tidal streams do not by any means always
reverse their direction at high or low water, but
may do so some hours earlier or later. A tidal atlas
must be consulted. The range of the tide does,
however, give good guidance as to the probable
rates of the tidal stream as between the rate
shown at springs and neaps respectively.
Whenever a height of tide problem is not clear,
make a rough sketch showing chart datum level,
level of water, chart depth and so on, as in the
illustrations given here.
Having checked a calculation (and never use
113
9. This is the position
Plotting the yacht's position is the basis of A single observation of a single identifiable
coastal navigation. The snag is that it is subject to — and only a
object will provide a position line
small but accumulative errors. To wipe these out position line — somewhere along which the is
at one stroke, it is necessary to obtain a fix. yacht's position. To obtain a positive fix, two (or
Within sight of land, this fix is found by more) objects must be observed almost
reference to objects such as lighthouses, simultaneously. However, there are occasions
conspicuous buildings, headlands, light vessels when even a single observation of a single object
and buoys. A radio beacon comes into the same can be of real value. Position lines can be
category. obtained by finding either the bearing of an
To be of any value for finding the yacnt's object, or its range. Occasionally both bearing
position an object must meet TWO conditions: and range of one object can be found, in which
case a fix is possible. To be precise, the range of
(a) The object must be POSITIVELY IDENTIFIED.
an object will provide a circle of position (as
(b) The same object must be identifiable on the
opposed to a position line), that is, a circle
chart.
round the object somewhere on the
This point cannot be overstressed. Many circumference of which the observer's position
yachts — and commerical vessels — have come to must lie.
grief entirely due to mistaking one object for The methods of position line finding are:
another, either visually or on the chart. A (a) Bearing Methods.

lighthouse seen at night must be positively By compass bearing.
identified by the characteristics of its light. A RDF bearing.
buoy is and by day
similarly identified by night, Transit of two objects in line.
(particularly if there are several buoys around) its Radar bearing.

exact name should be read. Care needs taking in (b) Range Methods.
finding the correct buoy on the chart. Many have By rising and dipping distance of a lighthouse.
rather similar names. A lighthouse on a headland Vertical sextant angle of an object of known
seen by day can be mistaken for another, and height.
calls for careful verification by studying the Horizontal sextant angle of two (or more) objects.
contours of the land near it and comparing with Radar range.
those on the chart. Soundings (in some circumstances).
114
the position
Any one of these will provide a position line (or extending seawards and passing through both
circle of position from ranges), and any two will objects. When it presents itself this provides an
provide a fix (if the position lines cross at a accurate position line as it eliminates any compass
suitablywide angle). Circumstances will error.
normally dictate which of all these methods This is of particular value when entering (or
should be used. leaving) a port. In Fig 61 a current of unknown
strength is setting across the entrance. By
By compass bearing watching the transit the helmsman can keep on
A position line from observation of a single the line, heading up towards the current a little
identifiable object can be established by taking a more, or less, so that the objects appear to
compass bearing of it. From the object on the
remain stationary.
chart, lay off a line in the direction of the
reciprocal of its bearing from the yacht. If a hand Cross bearings
bearing compass is used, either lay off in relation
If TWO objects can be identified both visually and
to the magnetic rose on the chart, or convert the on the from each can be
chart, then a position line
compass bearing to true and lay off in relation to obtained by compass bearing. (Fig 62.) Since the
the meridians on the chart, for instance, yacht must be on both position lines, the
= — intersection of the two lines must be her
(Reciprocal Bearing + or 180°).
position, provided always that the bearings are
(a) Bearing of object from ship 046°T accurately observes and plotted. Note that the
PL from object 226 °T nearer the observed objects are, the smaller will be
(b) Bearing of object from ship 315°T the error in the position resulting from an error
PL from object 135°T in the bearing taken. (Fig 63.) The more nearly
or, Bearing from ship 127°M the two objects subtend an angle of 90° the
Variation 8°W better the "cut." (Fig 64.)
= If three identifiable objects can be observed

119°T, reciprocal 299°T
and their bearings taken, the resulting position
(When using a Weems protractor for this purpose, lines should cross at a point. They seldom do so
a useful tip is to orientate the center hole exactly, butform a triangle or "cocked hat," the
of the protractor over the object and the lines size of which gives a guide as to the reliability of
parallel with a meridian, but with the north point the observations. If the cocked hat is of
downwards (to S). Then use the original true appreciable size one or more of the bearings are
bearing from ship to object to lay off the inaccurate. This may be due to
position line. This saves the conversion to a
reciprocal bearing — and eliminates one possible (a) One or more of the objects observed not
being the one on the chart.
source of error.)
(b) Error in taking one or more of the bearings.
By a transit (c) Variation wrongly applied or wrong.
If two identifiable objects are seen one behind the (d) Simply an error in laying off the position lines
other then a compass bearing is
in transit, on the chart.
unnecessary. The yacht must be on a line The odds on the true position being inside the
115
Fig 61 . Properly identified transit points provide best check for

keeping on a position line. If stream is setting across, yacht can
still be maintained on correct line by heading up slightly.
Fig 62. Simple fix from two objects on land. If bearings are
reliable, yacht is at intersection.
116
k
the position
Fig 63. Nearer objects are more reliable for bearings. Here
same angular error on distant object gives twice the difference
in position.
Fig 64. Bearings A and B make a good angle of cut. A and C

make bad angle. Note that error B gives only one third of
a
position change of error C, This is because of wide angle of
.
C-C, to A.
117
Fig 66. Two position lines taken when the yacht is moving
along a known course and distance. Estimated position was EP
and fix was obtained after second position line had been
Fig 65. Cross bearings giving indeterminate position. obtained.
Subsequent course as given by dotted lines could result in
hitting rocks. Solid line courses in south westerly direction will
clear all dangers, wherever yacht is in circle.
118
the position
cocked hat are four to one against. Do not

therefore assume that the true position is bound
to be inside the triangle, but draw a rough circle
round its center of diameter somewhat greater
than the longest side. If the triangle is large, then
re-check all working. (Fig 65.)
Running fix
If only one identifiable object is visible, a good
approximation of the yacht's position can be
obtained by taking one compass bearing of it,
followed by a second one when the bearing of
the original object has changed substantially, and
yacht has moved a known distance in a known
The position when the second bearing
direction.
was taken can be found by simple geometry.
Both position lines are plotted in the usual way.
Then the first position line is transferred forward
in the direction and the distance travelled over the
ground since the first bearing was taken. (Fig 66.)

If thereis no tidal stream, the procedure is simply
Take the first bearing and read the log.

Keep yacht on a steady compass course and Fig 67. Validity of running fix depends on correct allowance for
note course steered. stream or current (treble arrowed line). Wake Co alone is not
sufficient. Transferred PL (double arrows) cuts second bearing
When bearing of object has changed by about to give fix (small circle).
40°, take a second bearing of it; read the log.
Plot both bearings as position lines.
From any point on firstposition line draw a line
in the direction of ship's wake course (heading
corrected for leeway) of length equal to the miles
run between bearings, as recorded by log.
Through the end of this line draw a line parallel to
the first position line. This is the "transferred
position line."
Where transferred PL crosses the second PL is the
ship's position when the second bearing was
taken.
The accuracy of the running fix depends on
the correctness of the direction and distance
travelled over the ground between the two
119
mm
.
bearings, as well as upon the accuracy of the two

bearings taken.
Reference to the appropriate page in the tidal
show you what the tidal stream was
atlas will
doing. (Fig 67.) If there is such a stream, this
must be plotted on from the wake course so that
the true direction and distance the yacht has
—
moved over the ground her track between the —
times of the two bearings is plotted.
To find the distance off without plotting

Two methods of finding the distance from a single
object without plotting are of interest. These are of
limited value as their accuracy depends on
knowing the distance and direction sailed over
the ground between taking two bearings of the
one object. This will of course be affected by any
tidal stream.
Streams off headlands, where the distance off is
often required, are difficult to predict and are often

strong. Few charts in tidal atlases show the tidal
stream close in with any accuracy, and the
stream may well be setting at a different rate or
direction from the nearest point of tide reference.
These methods also require the bearing to be
taken at frequent intervals, which is not always
convenient. For these reasons, these methods
should only be used when the stream is known to
be slack or negligible, and the result should be
used with caution and ample margins for safety
allowed.
Fig 68. Doubling The angle on the bow. When the angle of
Doubling the angle on the bow the object against the ship's head is doubled then the distance
off equals the distance run. which therefore has to be
1 A first bearing of the object is taken and accurately known. Red angle is double black angle.
converted to a relative bearing, to give the angle
between the ship's head and the object. The log Fig 69. A four point bearing doubles the angle of the bow
when 45° to give
it is a distance off when the object is
is and noted.
read,
exactly abeam.
2. The object is watched, and when the relative
bearing is exactly twice the first relative bearing
120
the position
the log is read again.
3. The distance run between the two bearings is
the same as the distance from the object when the
second bearing was taken. (Figs 68 and 69.)
I
Position finding by sextant
In addition to its primary use for celestial
observations, the sextant is of great value to the
coastal navigator. can be used to measure the
It
horizontal angle subtended at the observer

between any two objects, or to measure the
vertical angle subtended between an object of
known height and sea level below it.
Horizontal sextant angles

If the sextant is held flat, (i.e. the plane of the arc
horizontal, handledownward, mirrors upward) the
index arm can be moved so that the direct image
of one object and the reflected image of a second
I object to its right, are superimposed on each
other. The sextant reading gives the exact angle
subtended between the two objects. The objects
are more easily seen if the telescope is removed.
If the two objects are marked on the chart,
knowing the angle between them will enable a

circle to be drawn which will cut both objects
(Fig 70.) the observer will be somewhere on the
;
circumference of this circle. This is a circle of

position, but without some further evidence it is
not possible to say at what point on the

circumference is the observer's position.
however, a third object can be identified and
If
Fig 70. A single horizontal angle gives a circular position line. its angle from one of the first two objects
Like any position line this can be crossed with a single bearing,
measured, a second circle of position can be
radio signal, soundings or similar line.
drawn (Fig 71 .), and the observer's position is
Fig 71 . If horizontal sextant angles can be taken using three then fixed at the intersection of the two
is the most accurate way of obtaining a
objects, this
them. Station pointer can be used for quick results.
fix from circumferences —
because this is now the only
point on one circle of position which is also on
the other circle.
A "fix" by HSA of three objects is likely to be
121
I
Fig 74. When center object is on far side of outer one.

satisfactory results are not obtained with horizontal sextant
angles.
Fig 72. Plotting of horizontal sextant angles.
Fig 73. Plotting angles when one horizontal sextant angle

exceeds 90°.
122
I
—
B
:
the position
Fig 76. Different situations when plotting with station

pointer which meet the requirements which have been listed.
more accurate than one by compass bearings obs. angle = 56°. The intersection of the lines
because the angles found by sextant can be just drawn gives the center of the first circle.
extremely accurate, and compass error cannot Describe the circle to cut both A and B. Repeat
arise. the process for the angle between B and the third
The "fix" by HSA can be
of three objects object C. (Fig 72.) (90° - 18° = 72°.)
established on the chart inways:
several If the observed angle is greater than 90°,
(a) By calculating and plotting the circles on the subtract 90° from observed angle and lay off the
chart. lines on the opposite (landward) side of the line
(b) By using a three-arm protractor. joining the two objects. (Fig 73.)
(c) By using tracing paper or a Weems protractor
on the chart. By three-arm protractor
This is a circular protractor engraved for 0°— 1 80°
By plotting to and right of 0°; it has a central arm fixed at
left
Assume the angles between three objects are 0°, and two other arms, pivoted at the center,
found by sextant to be: 34° between A and B, which can be moved and locked into position
1 8° between B and C. This is normally written subtending any required angle from the center
"A34°B 18° C." arm. The arms are set to the angles found by
Rule between A and B. From A,
a straight line sextant, the center arm placed on the chart to cut
lay off a linemaking an angle from the line A— the central object", and the whole instrument is
of the compliment of the observed angle (90° then moved around till the bevelled edge of each
123
arm cuts its respective object. (Fig 75.) There is a By plotting — without compasses
hole through the central pivot. A pencil point A quick way, which only requires a protractor, is
through this hole will mark the observed position. as follows: Join A to B and B to C by straight
This is quite the quickest method of plotting a fix lines.From B, lay off a line BV, angle ABV being
by two horizontal sextant angles. There is now an the complement (90°-angle) of the horizontal
inexpensive clear plastic three-arm protractor which sextant angle. From A, draw a line at right angles
works well and also has calibrations on it for to AB, to cut BV at X. Repeat the process from C,
obtaining distances off by vertical sextant angle angle CBW being the complement of the horizontal
(see below). This is the Ebbco "combined station sextant angle, the line at right angles to BC
pointer and distance off calculator." cutting BW at Y. Join X and Y. Drop a perpen-
dicular from B to XY to Z. Z is the fix. (Fig 76a.)
By tracing paper or Weems protractor (Ifthe horizontal sextant angle is greater than
Ifno Station Pointer is available it is quite simple 90°, subtract 90° from it and lay off on landward
to mark the necessary angles and lines on any side.) (Fig 76b.)
transparent material. Draw a central vertical line.
From the lower end of this line draw lines to left
and right, each making the required angle from
the central line. Move the paper or protractor Fig 76a. Horizontal sextant angles are 40° and 35".
round till each line cuts its respective object.
With a compass point stab the intersection point •C
of the three lines on the transparent paper or
protractor through to the chart. When using a
Weems protractor, lay off the lines on reversed
sides of the central line, then turn the protractor
over, face down. The lines then show up much
more clearly.
The selection of suitable objects for horizontal
sextant angles is important. They must be chosen
so that:
(a) The three objects are all on, or near, the same
straight line, or
(b) The center object is on the near side of a line
joining the two outer objects, or
(c) The ship's position is clearly inside a triangle
formed by joining the three objects.
These provisos are to ensure that the

circumferences of the two circles intersect at a
good angle of "cut," and to avoid ambiguity. Fig 76b. Horizontal sextant angles are 55° and 102'
(Fig 76.)
124
the position
THE THREE-ARM PROTRACTOR
Some three-arm protractors have, instead of a center
hole, a dimple or point on the underside at the
center. Pressure on the instrument produces an
impression on the chart which can be made
bolder by a pencil mark. In suitable cases,
positions can be plotted more quickly, and with
Station pointer with single fixed arm and two that can be
revolved and then clamped. This Ebbco, which incorporates a
quick calculation for distance by vertical sextant angle,
measures 1 5 in. across.
Fig 75.
greater accuracy by this method than is

possible by taking compass bearings of objects.
A useful tip when moving the three-arm protractor to
align each arm over its respective object on the
chart is to place a compass point (or divider point)
on the center object. The center arm of the
protractor is then steadied against the compass point
,v V and the instrument is slid around till left and
right hand arms are both aligned over their
respective objects — the compass point ensuring
that the center arm is also correctly positioned.
125
Vertical sextant angle

If you can see, and identify, a lighthouse, beacon
or any object the height of which is marked on

the chart, and you can also see the foreshore
immediately below the object, then your distance
off the object (its range) can be found immediately,
and very accurately, by measuring its altitude with
the sextant and consulting the "Distance by vertical
sextant angle" given in Bowditch, American
Practical Navigator or in Reed's.
The sextant should be set at approximately
zero degrees. Both the direct and the reflected
image of, say, the L/H will be seen in the
telescope, superimposed one on the other. Adjust
the sextant so that the lantern of the left-hand
(reflected) image is bisected by the horizon (sea
line) below it. Read the sextant and correct the
reading for any index error. (Fig 77.)
Enter the Reed's table with the height of the
lighthouse taken from the chart or light list. Enter
the Bowditch table with the difference between the
height of the lighthouse and the height of the
observer's eye. Follow down the "height" column
until reaching the corrected vertical angle. This
Fig 77. Set sextant so direct and reflected images almost
coincide (A). Then (B and C) measure angle between sea level
gives your distance off. Example using Reed's:
at lighthouse and lantern. Burnt Island Light (61 ft)
Sextant altitude 0°19'

Index error (on the arc) —2'
True altitude 0°17'
Distance off 2.0 miles (see Reed's table).

If a compass bearing is taken at the same time,
an absolute "fix" is obtained; the bearing giving
the position and the angle giving the
line,
distance-off, measured along this line.

Note that the point at sea level immediately
below the object must be within your horizon. If
your height of eye is about 7 ft or less, this means
that distance-off calculations of objects beyond
3 miles should be used with caution.
126
I
the position
Fig 78. Heights of lights are measured from mean high water,
so the charted height is H1 and not H2 which represents sea level
at some height below MHW. (CD is chart datum which is not used
to measure heights of objects.) The example in the bottom
portion of the figure shows the navigator taking a vertical
sextant angle when sea level is 1 ft below MHW. The height
of the lighthouse is 1 00 ft and his reading of 28' gives a

distance of 2 miles (A), but really (R) he is 2.2 miles. When
dangers are inshore of yacht this is an additional safety (but not
in the case of Fig 79. maximum distance).
127
It will be remembered that all heights of objects

not periodically covered by sea (e.g. lanterns of
lighthouses) are shown on the charts as heights
above MHW. If below or above MHW, the
the tide is
difference in height must be added to or subtracted

from the charted height of the object. If this
correction is neglected, the true distance off will
be somewhat more or less than the distance
calculated. The amount is usually insignificant.
However, if you must make certain not to pass too far
or close off (as when passing inside or outside a

danger), the appropriate correction should be made.
To do so, calculate the present height of the tide
and subtract this from the height of the tide at 0°23'
MHW. The height of the object should then be
adjusted by this correction figure.
Danger angles
If the course lies past a lighthouse with offlying
dangers the sextant may be used to ensure that a

minimum distance is maintained from it in order to
clear the danger. If the appropriate danger angle
is set on the sextant (entering the table with
minimum distance-off required height) then as

soon as the VSA observed approaches (increases
up to) the danger angle, course can be altered
away from the object to the extent necessary to
keep the angle on the sextant less than the
danger angle. (Fig 79.)
Rising and dipping distances

A useful method of finding one's distance from a
lighthouse at night is by observing when the
appears above the horizon when
light first
approaching, or first disappears when receding
from, the lighthouse. Usually the loom of the
lighthouse is first seen when the light is below Fig 79. Minimum safe distance off given by vertical sextant
the horizon, often long before the actual light can angle. A
lighthouse of 80 ft at 2 miles gives 0° 23'. Diagram
shows readings at different places. Below, same principle is
be seen. If the height of the light is known, a
applied to a maximum safe distance, though a decision is
table of rising and dipping distances will give the needed on when to enter "maximum circle."
128
the position
Symbols and meaning
Illustration Lights which Phase description
I Lights which do
not change color
show color
variations
F. = Fixed. Alt. = Alternat- A continuous steady

ing. light.
F. Fl. = Fixed Alt. F. Fl. = Al- A fixed light varied at

and flashing. ternating fixed regular intervals by
and flashing. a flash of greater
brilliance.
F.Gp.Fl. = Fixed Alt. Gp. Fl.

F. A fixed light varied at
and group = Alternating regular intervals by
flashing. fixed and groups of 2 or more
group flashing flashes of greater
brilliance.
PL- Flashing... Alt. PL Alter- Shows a single flash at

nating flash- regular intervals, the
ing. duration of light al-
ways being less than
the duration of dark-
ness. Shows not
mure than 30 flashes
per minute.
Gp. Fl. = Group Alt. Gp. Fl. = Shows at regular inter-
A flashing. Alternating
group flash-
vals groups of 2 or
more flashes.
ing.
Qk. Fl.= Quick Shows not les3 than

AAAAAAAAAAAAAiiAAAAAAAA flashing. 60 flashes per min-
ute.
I AAAAAA AAAAAA AAAAAA

I. Qk.
terrupted
quick flash-
Fl. = In- Shows
for
quick flashes
about 4 sec-
onds, followed by a
ing. dark period of
about 4 seconds.
S-L. Fl. = Short- Shows a short flash of

long flashing. about 0.4 second,
followed by a long
flash of 4 times
that duration.
Occ. = Occulting Alt. Occ. = Al- A light totally eclipsed

ternating oc- at regular inter-
culting. vals, the duration
of light always
equal to or greater
than the duration
of darkness.
" Gp.
Group
ing.
c c .
occult-
= A ligh'.
of 2 or
with a group
more eclipses
at regular intervals.
Light colors used and abbreviations: W=» white, R = red, G=green.

z
ig 80. Buoys in proximity will each have a pattern to avoid confusion with others
Characteristics of the lights of navigational marks.
nearby. The same applies to lighthouses that can be seen from a single position. Remember a stop watch must be used when timing
these. The chart or almanac will give the time interval for a particular light. This period is timed from the beginning of one pattern to the
1 OQ
beginning of the next. It would be the same thing to take the time from the finish of a cycle.
—
distance off at the moment the light is on the

horizon.
This will provide a valuable method of position
fixing when approaching a coast. Calculation of
the distance off provides a circle of position, and
a compass bearing a position line crossing the
circle. To be of any value
(a) The loom must be seen before the actual
lightappears (when approaching) or after it
disappears (when receding).
(b) The light must be positively identified by its
characteristics.
(c) The distance off must be taken for the actual
height of eye of the observer.
The light flashes should be counted and timed

with a stopwatch for several periods of the
light. If some counts and times are not exactly
repeated (e.g. 4 flashes every 30 sec), continue
counting and timing until they are. Stress is laid
on this point as many navigators have assumed
that inconsistencies (e.g. sometimes 3 flashes,
sometimes 4) were due to wave interference, and
have allowed "wishful thinking" to persuade them
they have identified the hoped-for light when in
fact it is another —
or even a distant ship's light
being obscured and visible as she, or the yacht,
rises and falls on the waves. (Fig 81 .)
The range of a light first seen on approaching is
limited by either
(a) Height of observer's eye and height of light,
above sea level, due to the earth's curvature
(which gives its geographical range), or by
(b) the intensity of the light if not powerful
(called its "nominal range").
Fig 81 . As explained, care must be taken before relying on This is why important to look for the loom
it is
dipping light for a fix. In top picture, light is just visible to left before (on approach) or after (on leaving) seeing
yacht, but from deck of right yacht only the loom can be seen. the actual light. If this is not spotted due to poor
Navigator on his chart has drawn radius for distance of light
"just dipping" and crossed with a compass bearing of the light to visibility or due to it being a weak light, it might
get a fix. (Charted distances assume an eye height of 1 5 ft.) first be seen when it was actually above the
130
ft
the position
horizon, and thus much nearer than its Position by line of soundings
geographical range. Whenever closing the land, if there is any doubt
Distance off a light just rising or clipping is at all as to the yacht's position due to darkness or
most accurately found by entering the appropriate poor visibility, frequent soundings should be
table in either Bowditch or Reed's with (a) Height taken and compared with the charted depth at the
of eye, and (b) Height of light, which determine estimated position. If, after correction of depth for
respectively: (a) distance from observer to the approximate height of tide, the two do not
horizon and (b) distance from horizon to light. correspond, the EP must be suspect.
A light's height is shown against it on a large- A soundings taken at regular intervals
series of
scale chart and in lists of lights. (a "line ofsoundings") can, in suitable places, give
Some charts show only a light's visibility, usually a good guide to the yacht's position. A convenient
to the nearest mile, may be given in
and this the interval between sounding might be between one
list of lights. This distance is valid when the and two miles apart. The intervals can be either
height of eye above the water is 1 5 ft. On a time intervals, e.g. every 1 5, or 30 minutes, or
yacht, the height of eye is usually less than this. distances sailed, e.g. every two miles by the log.
As a result the distance to the sea horizon is less. The former is simpler if any current is flowing.
This table shows the horizon distance and what Current must be dealt with since we must know
to deduct for the variation in height of eye. In the direction of the yacht's track over the ground.
practice,once you have assessed your height of An example will clarify:
eye at your normal observing position, it is only
A yacht takes a series of echo sounder
necessary to memorize (or note) the correction
readings. After correction for height of tide, the
required and apply this to each observation made.
soundings to be compared with the chart are:
Subtract from
Distance
distance given
Log between
Height of eye Distance to for eye height
Time reading soundings Sounding
above sea level horizon 1 5 ft
0415 84.0 2.5 15 fms

4 ft 2.3 M 2.2 M 0445 86.5 2.5 14 fms
6 2.8 1.7 0515 89.0 2.5 14 fms
8 3.2 1.3 0545 91.5 2.5 21 fms
10 3.6 0.9 0615 94.0 2.5 17 fms
15 4.5 0645 96.5 2.5 28 fms
On new charts the geographical range is given Course steered 085°T. Stream setting 240° at
unless it is a light insufficiently powerful to be 1 kn throughout.
seen at this distance, in which case the nominal

range (when visibility is 10 M) is stated. On old Procedure
charts all ranges were given their geo-
light Make a wake co/current/track co vector, either on
graphical range, even if too weak to be seen that the chart, or on plain paper to the chart scale.
far. All major navigational lights are visible, in Along the wake co line mark off the intervals
clear weather, up to their geographical range. between the soundings. From each sounding
131
96.5
LQGREADiNGS.
Fig 82. Position by

soundings. Recorded
14 21 17 28 soundings are plotted and
TRACK CO SOUNDINGS the current allowed for.
Fig 83. Position line by soundings. With the aid of tracing

paper the line of soundings is moved on the chart to see if
it fits.
132
the position
point on the wake co lay off lines parallel to the two objects with a compass bearing of only one.
current line to cut the track co line. (Fig 82.) A line of soundings and a DF radio bearing.
Mark the soundings along the track co line, and A transit of two objects and a distance off by
determine the direction of the track co (091 °T). VSA.
Place the edge of a piece of paper (or transparent Where two (or more) methods are available in a
paper) along the track co line and write the given situation, choose those which are likely to be
soundings at the track co intervals along the the most accurate. And remember these points:
paper edge. The most accurate fix is one obtained visually.
Place the paper edge on the chart, exactly The closer the observed object is to the yacht the
parallel to the direction of the track co (091 °T), more accurate will be the position found.
the sounding figure being placed near the
first Position lines should "cut" at a good wide angle,
EP at first sounding.
the time of the that is between 50° and 1 20°.
Check if all the soundings on the paper edge If three objects (suitably positioned) can be
correspond closely with the charted soundings. If identified, horizontal sextant angles will give the
they do not correspond, slide the paper around most accurate fix.
keeping it parallel to the track co direction, till the Whenever possible, obtain three position lines.
position of best fit of actual soundings to chart The size of the "cocked hat" gives a good
soundings is found. The position of the last indication of the accuracy of each PL.
sounding should be the yacht's position when Do not use any object unless you can positively
this sounding was taken. identify it both visually and on the chart.
Finally, slide the paper around (still parallel to When within soundings, check the depth
the track co direction) to check whether a close (corrected to CD) with that shown on the chart
match can be found anywhere else in the at the "fix" found. If they do not correspond
vicinity. If such a place is found, doubt exists and closely, the fixsuspect and
is all bearings and
further soundings must be taken and the process workings should be checked.
repeated, or the new EP treated with great Check and re-check the characteristics of lights
caution. (Fig 83.) before using, to guarantee correct identification.
Mark the fix and note against it the time and
Composite fixes date, and write against each PL its bearing (or
There is thus a wide variety of methods of range) so that this can be checked.
determining position lines and circles of position, Position finding by radio systems is explained
any two or more being used together to provide in the next chapter. Position lines so found may of
a fix. There is no reason why a position line (or course be combined with any found by
circle) obtained by one means should not be visual means or by soundings.
combined with another obtained by a different
means. Combinations might be:
A distance off by vertical sextant angle or by
rising or dipping distance with a single compass
bearing.
A position circle by horizontal sextant angle of
133
10. How the Radio Helps
Direction finding systems depend on the fact that accurately detemined than that of maximum
receiving aerials are available which have strength. Indeed, in suitable conditions there is
directional sense. They can indicate the exact line one position with either loop or ferrite aerial
in which a transmitting station lies. where the signal becomes quite silent. This is
Marine radio beacons have been set up on termed the zero or null position.
nearly all the coast lines throughout the world All loop and some ferrite rod aerials are
frequented by shipping. Their positions are mounted on a vertical axis so that they can be
marked on National Ocean Survey charts by a purple rotated in a horizontal plane. A 360° scale is
ring, and they are listed in H.O. Pub. No. 1 1 7, fixed below the axis, and a pointer, connected to
Radio Navigational Aids. Many radio beacons are the rotatable aerial indicates on the scale the
also listed in the various editions of Reed's, with direction in which the aerial is pointing. The scale
their geographical positions and other details. is usually fixed so that the zero degree point is
A radio receiver for using radio beacon stations towards the yacht's bow and exactly on the
requires a directional aerial. There are two main fore-and-aft line (as is a lubberline). When the
types of aerial: aerial is rotated so that the signal strength is zero
(null position) the bearing of the transmitting
(i) The loop aerial.
station is read on the scale. This will be a
(ii) The ferrite rod aerial.
relative bearing, which is converted to a true
The loop aerial has the characteristic that it will bearing.
pick up the station to which it is tuned, at Alternatively, the scale under the aerial can be
maximum volume when the plane of the loop is rotated and the same bearing as the yacht's head
parallel to the direction of the transmitting station by steering compass set against the scale's
(edgeways, pointing to the station), and at lubberline. It is locked in this position. When the
minimum volume when the loop is at right angles aerial is rotated to the null position, the compass
to the direction of the station (broadside to it). bearing of the DF station is then read directly.
The ferrite rod aerial is just the opposite: This method should only be used when the
minimum volume when the rod is pointing to the yacht's heading can be relied on to be held
station, maximum when broadside to The it. steady while the DF station is being tuned in,
position of minimum signal strength is more identified, and the null found.
134
how radio helps
For yachts not built of steel the preferred type

of aerial is a ferrite rod fixed either above or
below a small compass which can be hand-held.

The aerial is connected to the receiving set by
flexible wire (a co-axial cable). Aerial and
compass together are rotated to the null position,
and the compass bearing is then read direct from
the aerial-cum-compass unit. This eliminates
reference to the yacht's steering compass, but still
needs a steady course to be held by the
helmsman to get an accurate bearing. The
compass bearing is converted to a true bearing in
the usual way. In a yacht with a steel hull, or Fig 84. When radio bearings are taken so that they pass near
steel deckhouse it is preferable to fit a loop aerial the coast, refraction usually occurs. The bearing which crosses
the coast at right angles is not affected.
above the deckhouse operated from below, as a
directional aerial cannot be used satisfactorily if
enclosed in steel.
DF bearings can be subject to several types of

error:
(a) Coastal refraction may occur when the
signals come obliquely over a coast. (Fig 84.)
(b) Night effect. Between about one hour before
sunset and one hour after sunrise, reflections from
the sky wave can interfere with the signal
received from a DF station which is more than
about 25 miles distant. This is at a maximum
around sunrise and sunset. If within 25 miles no
error is likely to arise.
(c) Quadrantal Error. This occurs due to the

reflection or re-radiation of radio waves from the
yacht's rigging or structure. It is at a maximum
when the direction from the DF station is 45°
from the fore-and-aft line of the yacht, and at a
minimum when it is ahead, astern or abeam.
(Fig 85.) This error can be minimized by placing
the directional aerial as nearly amidships and as
high as can be arranged, and well away from
standing rigging. Insulation of the guard rails and
Fig 85. Quadrantal error. Signals from radio beacon approach
standing rigging will help to reduce quadrantal yacht, but part of them are deflected (D). so that navigator
error. interprets signal as coming from A
135
Calibration cycle is indicated in radio aid publications.

A DF radio requires calibration in much the same Having tuned the yacht's receiver to the
way as a steering compass must be checked for frequency of a particular group of radio beacons
deviation. Having installed the aerial in the most it is possible to pick up all the beacons in the
suitable place regarding distance from rigging and group, one after another, in the six minute period.
other metal, the yacht should be maneuvered Only beacons which are situated well within the
within sight of a DF station. The receiver should listed range should be used —
those further away
be accurately tuned to the station, as also should being either disregarded or their bearing being
the aerial if provided with a frequency scale and taken only as very approximate.
pointer. Pairs of bearings of the DF station are
then taken with the yacht on successive headings Operation of the DF radio receiver
at equidistant intervals round 360°, one bearing The receiver is switched to the appropriate
being that found with the DF aerial, the other a frequency and the beat frequency oscillator
visual bearing with a hand bearing compass or the (BFO) switched on. In some sets the BFO is
yacht's compass if conveniently sited. Comparison automatically switched on when the set is
of each pair (yacht's compass bearing being switched to "navigate." If the set has a tuning
corrected for deviation if any) will give the scale on the aerial this should be tuned to the
quadrantal error of the DF aerial. An error card frequency of the beacon(s), and the receiver
can then be prepared, similar to a compass tuned. When the first station is heard the
deviation card, showing the correction to be receiver (and aerial) is accurately tuned to give
applied for any given RELATIVE bearing of a DF the best reception, and the aerial prepared to be
station. rotated or oscillated by hand.
Each beacon transmits over a period of one
To take DF bearings minute. When the first beacon has ceased its one
Radio Beacons (or DF stations) have been set up minute message, the next beacon transmits a
round most coasts with frequencies (or wave- similar one minute signal, and this sequence is
lengths) often arranged in pairs or groups. Thus repeated by each beacon in the group until the
from two to six radio beacons may transmit on the cycle is complete when the first beacon is again
same frequency, although never at the same time. heard.
The timing is so arranged so that the first beacon As a beacon's designated signal is heard, the
transmits its own code for one minute, followed by aerial is rotated to a position of silence or least
a transmission from the next beacon for one strength (the null). The aerial is rotated a few
minute, and so on until all the beacons in the group degrees to either side of the null, the oscillations
have sent their signals. The sequence then starts being reduced till the note can just be heard on
again with the first beacon transmitting. A either side.The reading of the central, null,
complete group transmission cycle should be taken position, or the mean of the two ends of the
to be six minutes, so if there are six stations oscillations is then read on the scale, or on the
in the group each will transmit once per cycle, or inbuilt compass in that type of aerial. This should
if there are three stations each will transmit twice be noted down at once, together with the beacon's
per cycle. The time of each signal within a group call sign or name.
136
.
how radio helps
EXAMPLES OF MARINE RADIO

BEACONS
Station and code Freq. Sequence Range
(morse ident.) (kHz) (miles)

Block Is. SE Lt. 286 5 70
F .. —
Fire Is. 286 2 100
RT .
— — .
Execution Rocks Lt. 286 6 20

K — .—
Ambrose Lt. 286 1 100
T —
Fig 86. Group of marine radio beacons.
Fig 87. Three radio beacons whose bearings have been taken
as shown have
given a "cocked hat." The position can be
assumed to be close to it.
All the beacons in the group which are
situated well within their listed range are
similarly observed and their bearings noted down.
If time permits, two or more complete cycles of
six minutes should be covered and the bearings

checked to ensure they are consistent. The
bearings taken are then corrected for the errors
justmentioned, converted to true bearings and
plottedon the chart. If three or more beacons
have been "observed" the position lines should
They
theoretically cross at a point. (Fig 87.)
seldom do, but form a cocked hat. If this is large,
either repeat the whole "observation," or treat the
results with great caution.
137
Hyperbolic systems
A common navigational aid for shipping in
general consists using an instrument able to

in
pick up simultaneously transmissions from two

radio stations. By use of special techniques
(Fig 88.)- figures are obtained which give
position lines. Special charts are available showing
a number of hyperbolic curves radiating round the
transmitters in a station, each curve passing
through all points which are at a given difference
in distance from A and from B respectively. The
signal sent out by a transmitting station
is so
arranged that the "message" received changes as

the difference in distances from A and B changes,
but the same message will be received at all
places where the difference in distance between

the receiver and each transmitter is the same. So
the same message be received wherever the
will
receiver is located along a given hyperbolic curve.
However, a different message will be received
if the receiver is on a different curve. By the
message received it is thus possible to determine
on which curve the receiver is located.
Fig 88. Navigation by hyperbolic radio systems. This shows

the principle of hyperbolic navigation, which assumes that two
radio transmitters are at eachend of base line at A and B. A
line XY perpendicular to AB and therefore any point on it is
is
the same distance from each of A and B. The point S is

however nearer A than B and a radio signal will take longer to
reach S from B than from A. The key to point S (and S1 S2 .
and S3 as examples) is that the difference in distance from it to

A and B is the same all along the hyperbolic curve. At S1
7* - 3i = 4; at S2 9 - 5 = 4; at S3 1 2 - 8 = 4. In the
lower picture, along each curve an equal difference is
maintained. Numbers on bottom line indicate these known
differences.
138
how radio helps
20
1
—— ———
I H I
30-
I I- 25
-,--r-t 21
18- 36
Fig 89. Dots and dashes as
read by ear on an ordinary
receiver picking up Consolan. Note
'I— T-+ 37
the "equisignal" where both dots
35 21- and dashes are lost. Numbers on
right indicate deduced reading;
these are applied direct to
7+ 10- Consolan chart.
Consolan received in several "sectors," but within each

This is system which requires no
a hyperbolic sector there an audible difference between the
is
special receiving equipment on the yacht, beyond signal received when the receiver is on each of
a radio receiver capable of picking up the the curves within the sector. Each sector is
1,500 meter waveband ("long wave") about between 1 0° and about 1 5° wide, the widths
200 kHz, and preferably fitted with a beat varying as the boundaries of the sectors are
frequency oscillator (BFO). All radios designed hyperbolic curves radiating from the Consolan
for yacht use are so equipped. A special Consolan station.
chart is also required. This is a chart (on The method of operation is extremely simple.
gnomonic projection) overprinted with the Consult the Consolan chart covering the area and
Consolan (Consol in Britain) hyperbolic curves check to see that the boat's estimated position
radiating around a Consolan station. does not fall within an "ambiguous sector." Also
A Consolan station transmits continuously a note the station's call sign and frequency
pattern of signals, the characteristics of which (shown on the chart). Switch on and tune to the
vary according to which hyperbolic curve the frequency, when a series of dots and dashes will
receiver is situated on. The same pattern will be be heard. Listen for, and identify, the call sign.
139
The complete signal, repeated every 40 seconds, Consolan station by rotating the loop or rod aerial,
is: as would be done if using a radio beacon.
1 sec Consolan station's call sign, two or three Consolan fixes should not be used when within
letters in morse code, and a long dash 25 miles of the Consolan station, and never used for
for accurate tuning. making a landfall or for close coastal navigation as
30 sec A
series of dots and dashes, the dots and the accuracy is insufficient. They are generally
dashes being separated by the only of value when beyond the range of radio
"equisignal," where dots and dashes beacons and when well offshore. The range of a
merge to produce a continuous sound. Consolan station is said to be about 1 ,200 miles.
The station will transmit 60 characters in the Using Consolan, there are areas in which positions
30 seconds, either so many dots equisignal — — by day to within an accuracy of 5 and 1 miles can
dashes, or so many dashes —
equisignal dots. — be expected, and positions at night to within an
Count the number of dots, and of dashes, which accuracy of 20 miles. These areas are in ranges of
can be clearly heard, and write them down. about 400, 600, and 800 miles respectively.
(Fig 89.) Add together. The number heard will Fixes by Consolan should therefore be treated
always be a few less than 60, because some will with caution and never relied on when closing
be lost in the equisignal. Halve the "lost" number danger.
and add this to each. "Name" the signal with the
sign (dot or dash) which came first. Repeat the Decca
count for several cycles till consistent results are This is a British hyperbolic navigation system.
obtained, e.g. It is probably the most accurate system for

20 dots — equisignal — 30 dashes, total 50, position fixing when within range of a Decca
lost 1 0, signal is 25 dots. group of stations. The approved range is
1 8 dashes — equisignal — 36 dots, total 54, 240 and it is very widely used by
miles,
lost 6, signal is 21 dashes. commercial shipping. Within 50 miles, accuracy to
35 dots— equisignal — 21 dashes, total 56, well within 1 00 yards is to be expected.
signal
lost 4, 37 dots.
is Unfortunately it has little application for the
6 dashes — equisignal — 46 dots, total 52, average small yacht as it requires equipment only
lost 8, signal is 10 dashes. obtainable on hire from the Decca Navigator Co.
Examination of a Consolan chart will show that Ltd, the rental being quite uneconomical for
the curves are numbered from 1 to 60 dots, yachting.
followed by 1 to 60 dashes, and that these Shore based stations arranged in groups or
"sectors" are repeated. It is necessary to chains of three stations have been established
establish which sector the yacht's position lies around Europe (including U.K.), India, South
within before seeking the line numbered to Japan and the Eastern seaboard
Africa, Australia,
correspond with the count obtained. Usually the of Canada and U.S.A. The three stations in a
yacht's EP by dead reckoning will make this clear, chain are located about 100 miles apart in a
but if the EP is in doubt, an approximate position triangular pattern. Signals are continuously sent
(sufficient to determine the sector) must be out by all three stations which are picked up on
found by taking a directional bearing on the the ship's special Decca receiver and
140
how radio helps
automatically cause each of three dials to Loran

indicate a "lane" number. The special Decca chart Loran is range electronic navigation system
a long
covering the area of the chain is overprinted with that covers most
of the coastline of the United
three sets of hyperbolic curves, each in a different States, as well as waters of other nations. It
color (red, green, purple) to correspond with the requires a sophisticated receiving unit and
"colors" of the three dials. special charts overprinted with hyperbolic sets
To fix the ship's position it is only necessary of curves in three colors, usually blue, black,
to read each dial, to pick up the curve bearing the and red. See Fig 90(a).
indicated number and of the same color as the The original Loran A system was accurate to
dial, and to find the point of intersection of the between one and five miles over a range of up to
three lines of position so found. To avoid any 1 ,200 miles. This system is now almost totally
error in identifying the sector, a fourth dial is replaced by Loran C which gives an accuracy of up
incorporated called the "lane identification meter." to one quarter of a mile (and down to 50 yards
The latitude and longitude of the position so in the repeatability mode). Loran C is currently
found can then be transferred to the chart being becoming more and more common on pleasure boats
used for plotting course and position. in the United States.
Atypical Loran C receiver.

This model is fully automatic.
The price of such a unit

has recently been falling
as more and more yacht
owners install them.
PULSE
ENVELOPE Fig 90(a). A sample Loran chart. The grid would
actually be printed in three different colors.
10 /i SEC .SHAPE
CYCLE ZERO
CROSSING TO
BE IDENTIFIED
AND TRACKED Fig 90(b). The shape of a Loran pulse.
142
:
how radio helps
A Loran unit receives a pulsed signal from a receiver is used in conjunction with charts
number of stations in a Loran chain. Typically, overprinted with hyperbolic curves. The receiver
there is a master transmitting station and at least shows continuously, in digits, the number of each
two secondary stations. If required, an area of two lines of position (curves), which are
monitor (or SAM) is also installed. Loran C found on the Omega navigational chart. A
signals are trains or groups of pulses transmitted recorder is also available which will give a
in sequence. The receiver measures the difference continuous record on paper of the "count" of the
in the arrival times of each train of pulses two selected stations, so that earlier positions can
from the master and secondary stations. There be plotted at any time.
are eight pulses per train with a ninth pulse for Due to the extremely long wavelengths used,
alarm and identification purposes. The receiver (about 30,000 meters of 10 kHz) the signals
uses an oscilloscope to match each pulse accurately. received are subject to diurnal shift owing to the
Fig 90(b) shows a typical pulse shape. Time change in the height of the ionosphere between
difference is measured between the zero crossing day and night. Skywave corrections are therefore
points of the third cycles of each of the master necessary (obtained from U.S.N, tables), failing
and secondary pulses. This gives greater which errors up to 1 miles may arise. A
accuracy at long distances. continuous and reliable source of power is
Once been located and its shape
a signal has required, consumption being about 40 watts.
matched accurately, the receiver can give a line Other radio position-finding receivers which
of position (LOP), which can then be plotted on cover the world are on the market, and more may
a Loran C chart. This procedure is followed be expected. They are becoming smaller and less
for all the other stations, and the intersection expensive, but so far all
of the three lines gives the yacht's position.
Obviously, it takes considerable operator experience (a) Require a very reliable and continuous
because
to obtain a correct position, especially supply of electricity.
the incoming signals can be modified by (b) Use upwards of 40 watts.
skywave activity. (c) Need skill to operate to within the possible
Skywaves are echoes of the transmitted pulses accuracy of ±2 miles.
reflected from the ionosphere. Their arrival (d) Are very expensive.
at the transmitter can distort the incoming signal.
Large errors of position would result if this
distortion were not compensated for by the shape of
the signal and the receiver design. In any case,
extreme care should be taken when finding a position
during periods of intense skywave activity.
Omega SR-500 receiver

This is system made by
a highly sophisticated
Sperry-Rand. The system covers the world,
and accuracy to within 2 miles is claimed. The
143
.
11. Radar for Some
The vast majority commercial vessels are now

of 240 watts, depending on the model.
equipped with radar, and every year more compact The transceiver generates and controls
and cheaper sets are produced, for use on yachts outgoing electrical impulses which are radio
both sail and power. Radar now constitutes a waves of extremely short wavelength (3—5 cm)
valuable aid to navigation. Radar is only an aid, which, like light waves, travel in a straight line.
and does not replace the traditional methods and The transceiver also receives and processes the
practices of navigation. The human eye is a won- returning incoming echoes reflected back from any
derful instrument, provided visibility is suitable. object struck, or "target." It is connected by a
But when visibility is restricted it is then that any special lead called a "waveguide" to the scanner.
additional aid to navigation is welcome. Radar is This is a form of aerial designed to project the
such an aid, but it has certain distinct limitations outgoing signals in a narrow beam or "lobe," and
and problems in its interpretation which it is also to collect the returningechoes for passing
essential are well appreciated if the radar set is back to the transceiver. The scanner rotates, so
not to be a danger rather than a help. As is well that the beam sweeps round, rather as does the
known, and strandings of ships fitted
collisions light of a lighthouse.
with radar and with qualified watchkeeping The display unit, or plan position indicator
officers on the bridge still occur, which (PPI) contains a cathode ray tube, the flat
emphasizes the importance of a knowledge of surface of which is 7 in. to 8 in. in diameter. As in
radar's capabilities and limitations. a TV tube, the inner surfacecoated with is
material which glows on the impact of electrons

Radar equipment and displays the relative position of targets from
Radar equipment for a yacht consists of: which echoes of radar waves are received back.
1 A generator or alternator, All controls are located on, or close to, the
2. A transceiver, display unit.
3. A scanner, The scanner is a horizontal arm, vertically
4. A display unit. pivoted, rotated by power at (usually) 25 r.p.m.
The generatoror alternator converts the ship's in a horizontal plane. On some sets the rotating
electrical supply of any voltage between 1 2 v and scanner enclosed in a plastic "Radome" so that
is
220 v to that required for the radar. Power halyards and sheets cannot become entangled. A
consumption varies between 75 watts and about scanner not in a radome must be carefully sited
144
radar
where it is safely clear of any obstruction. The of electrons is directed outward towards the
scanner weighs between 30 and 50 lb (1 4-23 kg), circumference, arriving at the time required for an
and must be installed as high as possible and echo received from an object (if any) at the
where there will be the minimum of obstruction to distance (or range) for which the controls have
its "seeing" all round. On a power yacht, it been set. The train of electrons forms a line on
may be mounted on a small plinth on coachroof the screen as the surface retains the glow for a
or wheelhouse roof, or on a short mast. split second (as on a TV screen). The length of
The plane of rotation should be horizontal when the line is known as the time base.
the yacht is under way. In planing power boats, When the pulse has bounced back from any
this may require it to point downwards and ahead objectin its path it is picked up by the scanner,
when the vessel is at rest or off the plane. In processed and fed into the cathode ray tube
sailing craft the preferred position is well up the where it causes a bright spot on the time base
forward side of the mizzenmast. The scanner line, the distance out from the center being
should not be sited where persons would exactly proportional to the target's distance from
normally be in its immediate "line of fire" (e.g. the ship. The time base line suppressed so that
is
level with bridge or cockpit) as radiation is only the returning impulse shows
up. The range
emitted. It should be not less than 6 ft from the so established can be extremely accurate.
compass. When the scanner is revolving at a set speed,
The display unit or PPI is positioned convenient the time base line (not visible) rotates around the
to the helmsman but at least 2 to 3 ft from the center of the screen at the same speed, crossing
steering compass. The transceiver may be sited the "heading line" (or lubberline) when the
anywhere convenient. Some makes incorporate it scanner "looking" directly ahead. In this way the
is
with the scanner unit: others with the display unit. bearing of any reflected impulse is shown on the
screen, relative to ship's head, which is shown on
Radar principles the screen as a steady thin line from the center to
An echo sounder works on the principle of the forward edge, the heading line. Most sets have
measuring the time taken for an impulse sent out a bearing cursor, a line engraved on a transparent
from the yacht to be reflected back from the sea disc over the screen, the line running from the
bed, and received. Radar works on the same center to the circumference. By turning a knob,
principle, but measures not only the time taken the cursor can be rotated so that the line cuts any
for an impulse to be reflected back from an object target's trace and the end of the cursor line
in its path, but is also able to show the direction indicates its relative bearing on a 360° scale
Thus the radar
of the object from the transmitter. around the screen. Some sets are marked 0°
can show both distance away, and bearing, of a round to 360°: others are marked 0° to 1 80°, to
target. left and right.
To visualize the action, consider first what Radar displays, like charts, are scaled. A large
happens if the scanner is not rotating. At the scale chart shows a small area in great detail; a
instant that a pulse is sent out from the scanner, small scale chart shows a larger area but in less
an electron is cathode ray tube at the
"fired" by the detail, distances on land or sea being represented
center of the tube's display face, and a tiny beam by smaller distances on the chart. Radar sets can
145
in length, so that both bearing and range can be

read at once. Indication of range (or distance
away) is extremely accurate, and more reliable
than the indication of bearing.
Various other controls are fitted, for tuning the
transmitting and receiving units in harmony, for
reducing "clutter" caused by signals being
received back from wave crests, for varying the
brightness or contrast, and so on. These all have
vital parts to play and it is essential to master the
Fig 91 . Different ranges set on PPI. Left hand at 1 2 miles, maker's instructions in their purpose and use.
right at 6 miles. Targets in each case north east 3 miles and The shape of the beam of radar pulses sent out
6 miles.
is of interest. The horizontal axis is kept as
narrow as possible to give clear bearing direction,
and is about 2° wide. The vertical axis is much
wider — —
about 25° to allow for rolling and
be adjusted to various "scales," in discreet steps.

The more usual scales, or "ranges," are 1 \, 3, 6, 1 2,
Fig 92. Width of vertical axis of radar pulse, necessary
over 1 2 nautical miles. (Fig 91 .) When switched because of movement of ship, gives rise to false echoes.
to the 1 2-mile range, the distance represented
from the center to the edge of the screen is
1 2 miles. A target trace appearing helf-way out
would indicate a target 6 miles away. Another

trace a quarter the way out from the center,
3 miles away. If the set were switched to the
H°~2<
6-mile range, the first trace at 6 miles range
would jump
second one
to the edge of the screen
to the half-way distance.
and the
To enable
ir
the range of a target to be gauged, "range rings"
are projected on to the screen, their circumference
being at set distances from the center.
Interpolation of the range of targets falling
between two rings is simple. Some sets have a
variable range indicator, a circle of light which
can be manually adjusted so that it touches the
inner edge of the target. The range is then read
from the adjusting control. Another version is the
"InterScan" fitted to some radar sets. This is an
electronic bearing cursor which can be adjusted
146
radar
pitching of the vessel on which the radar is
carried. It is not possible to confine all pulses to

the main beam: some escape out at an angle,
forming side "lobes," which can give rise to A B
additional, false echoes at short range. (Fig 92.)
In clear weather the range at which one can
see an object is governed by the observer's height

of eye and the height of the object, because light
travels in a straight line. Radar beams also travel
in a straight line because of their extremely short
wavelength. In Fig 93 the high ground B will be

shown on the radar screen, but not A. As the
yacht nears the coast, A will start reflecting some
pulses and its trace also will appear in the screen.
The screen is coated inside with material
which glows as the electrons strike it, thus
producing the trace of the target. This spot A B
continues to glow (diminishing in brightness)

until after the time base line has swept over it
again. A stationary target seen from a stationary
operating ship will appear as a stationary spot on
trace. But if ship and target are moving relative to
each other, that is, either or both are moving,
each successive sweep will show the trace in a
slightly different position, but the "afterglow" of
the previous positions will show up, giving the
trace a "tail." This tail must not be confused with
the shape or "aspect" of the target.
It is important to remember that positions, and
movements, of targets seen on the screen are all
relative to the operating ship's position, which is Fig 93. Due to earth's curvature, ship does rot at first see
always at the center of the screen. All stationary high ground A: first sighting shows only B. Later coastal high
ground A appears on the tube.
objects (buoys, the land) will appear to move in
the opposite direction to that of the operating

ship,and their tails will show this. (Fig 94.)
The appearance of a trace on the PPI gives
some indication of its character as follows
(Fig 95.):
Breakwaters and piers make good targets, reflect
well and show up clearly on the PPI.
147
Fig 94. What you see on the PPI tube. "Tails" indicate (top
right) ship on collision course, but not necessarily bows on to
observer; then moving round clockwise, buoy which you are
sailing past; ship on same course and speed (no tail) ship on ;
reciprocal course; ship which will pass ahead, if it maintains

course and speed.
Fig 95. Typical display on PPI. Lower chart shows location of

high ground and floating objects (ships, buoys with radar
reflectors) which the radar has picked up.
148
k
radar
Lighthouses do not show up so well as their up to and (by day) read the name painted on it.
it
tubular shape diffuses the signal. Some buoys are specially equipped so that they
Rocky and steep hills reflect well, but shallow can be identified by the trace on the PPI.
hills with vegetation produce a weak "paint" on These are:
thePPI. (a) The Racon. Marked on the chart surrounded
Low beaches, reefs or sandbanks will only be by a purple ring and the word "Racon" beside.
indicated when within the horizon distance for An increasing number of light vessels and
the height of the scanner, and may be obscured by lighthouses, and some important buoys are so
sea clutter. fitted. The Racon is an omnidirectional radar
The shape or "aspect" of another vessel can transmitter which is triggered off when it
usually be determined when she is within 2 miles, receives a pulse from a ship's radar.
or further in the case of large tankers and other This causes the trace on the ship's PPI to be in
big vessels. the form of a bar or bold line, directed to the
ship's position (center of PPI), the nearer end
Buoys and radar beacons representing the position of the Racon. Racon
A metal navigational buoy will show up on the radar transmitters only respond to input signals
PPI as a small trace. If it is fitted with a radar in the 9300 to 9500 MHz band, and the returning
range and more brightly.
reflector, at greater signals are of a different frequency. The range
When any doubt as to the name (and hence
in a Racon will show is the radar horizon of the ship's
the position) of a buoy observed on the PPI, sail set. At present, Racons are used mostly by aircraft.
The Electrascan radome

which is mounted on the
mast and wheel house and inside
which revolves the scanner and
transceiver unit.
149
A long-range buoy about to be towed out
to a permanent mooring.
(b) The Ramark. Marked on the chart with as these will be the first to come up on the PPI.
the word "Ramark" beside it. The trace appears If observations are started in good time while
as a bar of light (similar to the Racon) but some miles off, the shore line is most unlikely to
with a given number of "breaks" in it. However, show up, but separate traces of the peaks of high
it gives an independent transmission and does ground may appear. These should be plotted on
not need the ship's radar to trigger it off. transparent paper or with a large Weems protractor,
laying off their relative bearings, and ranges to
Navigation by radar the same scale as the chart. If three or more
When making a landfall with radar in operation, "peaks" can be so plotted, the yacht's position
all the usual preparations should be made. A can be found by moving the paper or protractor
large scale chart should be marked with the around on the chart till each object marked
yacht's EP, offlying dangers searched for on the coincides with a hill of comparable height on the
chart, depths checked and compared with chart. Range is likely to be more accurate than
soundings. Objects likely to be first observed by bearing, so when a probable "fix" has been found,
radar should be found on the chart. This will check it by using the range on the set as a
involve examining the charted heights and radius and drawing circular arcs.
approximate bearings and range of high ground, All arcs should intersect at a single
150
Racon device: fitted to a navigational mark this emits a signal Typical radar mounting on a motor cruiser. This Decca Super 1 01
which is triggered by a radar set and is identifiable on a radar has various ranges up to 1 8 miles. Note also whip aerial for RT.
tube. fog horns and bell used for fog signal when the vessel is
anchored.
151
point if the objects have been correctly

identified.
All bearings taken from the PPI will be relative
bearings. To convert these to true bearings for
plotting, first convert the compass heading to true
in the usual way. If the PPI is calibrated 0°-360°,
add the relative bearing to the true heading
(subtracting 360° if the answer exceeds 360°). If
the PPI is calibrated 0°-1 80° left and right, add it
to true heading if the bearing is to the right of the

heading marker; subtract if to the left.
A low shore line will not show up at any great
distance, and it is important to study the height of
the land near the coast. (Fig 96.)
A valuable use of radar is the avoidance of
Radar display unit of small size. This EMI Electrascan weighs
collision. While correct use
enable the will
33 lb and measures 9^ in. x 12 in. x 1 9^ in. and can run on a presence of another vessel to be detected while
1 2 volt supply. some miles off, it is equally important to be
visible to the other vessel. For this reason a radar
reflector is strongly recommended, particularly for
a yacht built of wood or fiberglass. There
Radar tube including a view of the racon signal in morse, close

to themark with its normal tail.
152
radar
Fig 96. Using radar for distance off. The navigator wants to
stay 3 miles off the shore (solid track with crosses). His
mistake would be to stay 3 miles from hills showing on radar
tube.Then he would be on dangerous (pecked line) course.
is a particular model that incorporates an

automatic alarm which, when set, gives audible
warning of any target (ship, coast, rocks)
appearing on the PPI.
Correct interpretation of what is shown on the
PPI is essential for avoiding collisions. In visual
navigation we have the benefit of usually
knowing the "aspect" of an approaching vessel, of
seeing which way she is heading. This is not the
case with radar, until the vessel is getting close.
However, radar can be used to indicate whether
the other vessel's relative bearing is steady or
changing, by lining up the cursor line over her

trace and observing whether it stays on this line.
If it does, or if it does not move distinctly away
153
from this line, the vessels are on a collision by the usual methods of recording courses
course, or "risk of collision exists." The action to steered, distances run, tidal streams, etc.
be taken, and methods of checking its effectiveness Practice at sea, following thorough study, is
and of plotting are beyond the scope of this essential.

book, but should be thoroughly mastered. Practice in clear weather by day, when the PPI
Excellent practice in the use and interpretation display can be compared with what is seen
of the radar set can be got by sailing in bright visually, is most valuable.
clear weather and checking the images seen on Objects below the horizon (as viewed from the
the PPI with visual observations. The wheel can scanner) will not be shown on the PPI.
be turned over to a competent helmsman and The radar set must be checked, and kept in tune,
courses determined from PPI information given strictly as laid down in the maker's instructions.
him. This soon shows up the competence of the An object behind a higher or larger one may not
radar operator. be shown, such as an estuary behind a headland.
Two or more small objects close together may
A summary on radar for yachts appear as a single object.
Radar on a yacht is a valuable aid, but only an Low targets may be lost in sea clutter or heavy
aid, to navigation. All other methods of rain.
establishing the yacht's position and track which A small object may not show up at extremely
the circumstances permit being used, should still short range.
be employed. In particular, the yacht's EP Range is more accurately given than bearing.
should be able to be plotted at any required time
154
a
12. Sailing to Windward
"If I was a gent sir, which I ain't sir, I wouldn't (b) Set "tack limiting" lines on each side of the
never sail to wind'ard, sir." — paid hand in the "windward line," between which the yacht's
days of gaff rig. track is to be kept.
(c) Other things being equal, sail on that tack

which makes the smaller angle to the direction of
the stream, or sail to place the stream on the
Nevertheless, there are plenty of occasions when
yacht's lee bow in preference to the weather bow.
the course to destination, or to the next point to
(d) Plot the yacht's progress, allowing for stream
be rounded, windward, and the direct
is to
and leeway, so that an accurate track over the
course cannot be laid. The yacht must be sailed
ground is recorded on the chart.
hard on the wind and tacked at intervals. The
(e) Be prepared to re-assess the situation when
questions that then arise are:
wind direction or tidal stream alters.
(a) Should the first tack be on starboard or on
port tack?
(b) How far should she sail on each successive Windward line
tack, or when should she change tacks? The direction of the "true" wind can only be
accurately determined by either:
There is no simple answer to either question,
which will depend on many factors including: (a) Observing the yacht's head by compass
when she passes through the eye of the wind
(a) The direction of the tidal stream at various
when tacking, or
times during the passage.
(b) Observing the yacht's heading when close
(b) The likelihood of the wind shifting during the
hauled first on one tack and then on the other,
passage, either by veering (changing direction
and deducing the mean between the two
clockwise) or backing (changing counterclockwise).
headings; e.g. starboard tack, 1 86° C, port tack
These are the navigational hints for windward 280° C, mean 233° C (convert to true for laying
sailing (Fig 97,): off on the chart).
(a) On the chart, draw in the "windward line" — When sailingon a tack the direction of the
line back from the destination, in the direction of wind felt on board, the apparent wind, will be
the true wind. different from that of the true wind, which is the
155
direction you need to know. Apparent wind is

discussed later. A "windward line" is laid off from
the destination (or turning point) back in the

direction of the true wind.
Tack limiting line

When sea room permits, it is possible to reach a
windward position in two long tacks, sailing on
one tack till a position is reached from which the
destination can be laid on the other tack. (Fig 98.)
If this would result in the yacht sailing a long way
from the "windward line," this is not to be

recommended because a change in wind direction
may result in her overstanding her destination,
i.e. on the second tack the wind may become so
free that she could have tacked much earlier, and

saved many hours, sailing. (Fig 99.) Hence the
general rule not to sail too far away from the
windward line.
o
This is best insured by drawing tack limiting X
lines on the chart. There are alternative ways of
doing this. First, draw in the windward line, or
line from destination back towards departure i
point, in the direction of the true wind. Lay a
course to cross this "windward line." Once this
"windward line" is reached, successive tacks will
be made across this line. If no material change in
\/
wind direction can be predicted, tack limiting
lines can be laid on each side of the windward
line. These may be:
(a) Lines parallel to and on each side of the
"windward line," spaced perhaps 10 miles apart
(the longer the passage the wider they may be).
(Fig 100.) Fig 97. General plans for windward sailing. Keep within tack
or (b) Lines drawn radiating FROM destination, limiting lines and do not get "far out" and so be caught to
leeward of destination by wind shift. But (lower picture) if
and making an angle of say 5° from the there is a cross tide, lee bow it until tide changes.
"windward line," on each side of it. (Fig 1 01 .)
or (c) A combination of both (a) and (b) say
parallel lines 1 miles apart till nearing destination,
when (say) 20° arc from destination is reached.
156
sailing to windward
Fig 98
Fig 1 00. Tack limiting lines about ten miles apart, but width
depends on length of voyage.
Fig 98. This yacht on starboard tack simply holds it until she
can lay the destination on port. The first leg may be one mile
or one hundred and is all right if the wind direction remains
steady.
Fig 99. More

likely is a wind shift. In this case it backs. Red
yacht on and has to sail further, black yacht tacks and
sails
fetches mark more easily than in Fig 98 situation.
157
Fig 1 01 . Tack limiting lines five degrees either side of line Fig 1 02. Combination of 1 00 and 1 01 . As destination is
which is dead to leeward of destination. neared. tacks become shorter.
158
1
sailing to windward
Fig 1 When the wind is expected

03.
to veer, draw the tack limiting lines on
the right hand side of the destination.
Note that yacht first sails into the
planned limiting lines.
This produces a "corridor" with parallel sides till it case it has veered or backed.
becomes prudent to shorten tacks progressively as When a substantial (and apparently
the destination is neared. (Fig 102.) established) change in wind direction occurs, a
If can be reasonably predicted (as
a windshift completely fresh appraisal should be made. The
when a cold front is forecast, which will probably old windward line has lost all significance, the
be followed by the wind veering) then the tack old tack limiting lines are obsoleteand a fresh
limiting lines should be drawn on that side of the windward and tack limiting lines should be
line
windward line towards which the wind is drawn. If the wind has shifted as expected, the
expected to change. (Fig 1 03.) This will ensure yacht should be well up to windward of her
that when the windshift occurs the yacht will be destination and (with luck) may be able to lay the
on the then weather side of the original windward direct course to the destination without further
line, and can head up much closer to the tacking. At worst, she will be able to make one
destination. long tack which will bring her much nearer the
An accurate record must be maintained of the destination.
yacht's track and the direction and speed she is
making good over the ground should be calculated Tidal streams and lee-bow
so that the time, and log reading, when she One of the guide lines given earlier was to
should reach the tack limiting line can be lee-bow the tidal stream when there is an option
determined. The helmsman then knows when to as to which tack to sail on. Fig 1 04 illustrates a
tack again. Each time she tacks itis recommended yacht's track when lee-bowing the stream. In
that the direction of the true wind is checked, in Fig 1 05 two yachts are shown. There are two
159
Fig 104. Simple leebowing. Lucky yacht sails to starboard Fig 105. The lee bow effect. There is much misunderstanding
tack and gets lift to windward from west going stream to about the effect of lee bowing the tide. The proper application
destination due south. of the term concerns a cross tide where one tack would put the
stream on the weather bow and the other tack would put the
stream on the lee bow. As the lee bow tack is advantageous it
follows that on a passage crossing several tides, it pays to tack
when the stream changes. Here yacht Y is lee bowing the stream.
Yacht X is sailing on a different tack and takes the tide on the
weather bow. When the tide changes both yachts tack, but X is
far from destination when Y gets there.
real advantages to be gained by "lee-bowing" the vector, that is, a triangle whose sides are of
stream when several tacks are involved: lengths proportional to the wind speeds. First
consider the conditions when there is no tidal

(a) The lateral movement of the yacht, over the
stream.
ground, caused by the stream, has the effect of
altering the direction of the apparent wind in a Assume: Yacht's speed through the water 5 kn.
favorable direction, allowing the yacht to sail True wind speed 10kn.
closer to the true wind direction. Yacht's heading, 45° off the true wind.
(b) There is also a slight improvement in the The wind felt on deck (the "apparent" wind) is
wind speed, which is particularly useful in light the resultant of
airs.
(a) the true wind (10 kn)
To see how this comes about, consider a wind (b) the yacht's own speed 5 kn. (Fig 1 06.)
160
sailing to windward
If the yacht were motoring in flat calm, she
would experience an "apparent" wind from dead

ahead, exactly equal to her own speed. This
component is still present when she is
experiencing a true wind, as in the example.

From the wind vector we see that the yacht
will experience an "apparent" wind of 14 kn,
coming from 30° from dead ahead. Now let us
assume there is a stream flowing to the East at
2 kn, and no wind at all. If the yacht were
drifting and making no way through the
water, she would experience a wind of 2 kn
v \/
blowing from the East towards the West. The
stream has thus introduced a fresh wind
component of 2 kn to westward. Let us draw the
original wind vector but now omitting the true
wind line, and adding the tidal stream wind line,
2 kn long, to westward. (Fig 107.) The new line
"apparent wind including stream effect" is 1 5.2 kn
long, so the new "apparent" wind's speed has
increased from 1 4 to 1 5.2 kn, AN D has swung
round 7°. The wind has freed by 7° and if the
yacht continues to sail 30° off the (new) "apparent'
wind she will be pointing 7° closer to windward.
There is no golden ruie regarding the width
apart of tacking limit lines — their purpose is
simply to give guidance as to how

from the far
windward line it is wise to sail. Too far, and one

may find a wind shift is expensive in time, too
near and tacks are made too frequently. As we
have seen, the tidal stream —
if it will be setting
across the course —

will affect the direction of the
apparent wind, and hence the course that can be
made good to windward. There will be moments Fig 1 06. Apparent wind (Â = 1 4 knots) is the resultant of
true wind (Vj = 10 knots) ana yacht speed (V = 5 knots).
when it is better to disregard the precise position
if by so doing a lee-bow
of a tack limiting line
effectcan be continued for longer. Conversely, it Fig 1 07. Add a 2 knot stream (black solid arrow) to the
apparent wind of Fig 1 06 and there is a further resultant wind
may pay to tack before reaching a limit line if the
(T = 1 5.2 knots). If the yacht is going to windward, she can
stream is about to change. also improve her heading as new wind has swung away from
When sailing to windward along a coast the bows.
161
tidal streams may play a more predominating part

in deciding tactics. Here pay to study the
it will
areas of the most favorable, and most
unfavorable tidal streams. Clearly one would,
when possible, tack so as to avoid areas of more
unfavorable tide, and into areas of more
favorable tide. In general, tides run strongest off
headlands, weakest across bays, tend to set into
and out of bays, change direction earlier close in,
later further out. These points can be seen on
tidal atlas or chart. The original track line drawn
from departure to destination loses all significance
when sailing to windward prevents this course
being laid. The significant direction is that from
the yacht's actual position at any time to
destination (or intermediate turning point).
When ocean racing, careful and exact planning
of the tactics to adopt when sailing a windward
course are essential for success. But when
cruising it is less important to be quite so
painstaking. Nevertheless, the more thought put
in, the sooner will the passage be completed, and
if the going rugged
is —
as it may well be when
sailing hard —
on the wind any time that can be
saved is usually very welcome.
162
.
13. Log Books
Written records of all happenings aboard a yacht the skipper daily, or at the end of a passage, from
are clearly essential for a number of purposes. For the information in the deck log, the navigator's
navigation, accurate details of courses steered, log and from memory.

times and mileages, bearings taken and so on, are 4. Note book. For recording all calculations.
needed. Historical record, broader details of
passages undertaken, times of departure and The deck log
arrival,names of crew and similar details will be This will often be written up, or referred to, on
wanted. To attempt to incorporate all this in a deck, so a stout notebook (preferably of
single log book would be most cumbersome, and waterproof paper) is to be preferred. The ruling
more than one record should be maintained, each can be varied, but that recommended is shown.
for a specific purpose. (Fig 108.) Course required. This is entered by the
Every skipper and navigator has his own ideas navigator before the watch takes over. It gives the
as to what records should be maintained, and course required to keep the yacht on the rhumbline
what details recorded. Some buy books already to the destination (or to the next turning point). If
ruled up with columns headed for a variety of the wind is free, then it is the actual course to be
data. Others rule up their own book, constructed steered. If this course cannot be sailed because it
to record all, and only, the information they would be too close to the wind, it indicates the
consider necessary. The records recommended are: course wanted if and when the wind permits, and
1 A
deck log, which the helmsman or person in the helmsman should not sail above this course
charge of a watch, records all events as they occur. should the wind come more abeam, without
2. A navigator's log, in which the navigator or reference to the navigator.
skipper records only that data, extracted from the Course steered. The helmsman enters this with the
deck log, which is necessary to plot the yacht's actual compass course he has been steering. With
position and progress. a free wind, this should be the same as "Co reqd."
3. A ship's log. This can be anything between a When sailing to windward the helmsman will be
handsomely leather-bound book embossed with sailing as close to the wind as he can while
the yacht's name, and a hard-back note book. maintaining a good speed, varying the course to
This gives the "story" of each passage, listing the accord with the wind by either watching his sails
crew, details of departures and arrivals, interesting or (if fitted) the wind direction indicator. He must
occurrences and so on. This can be written up by also watch his compass, and at the next deck log
163
entry time record his best estimate of the

DECK LOG For Sailing Yacht
average or mean course steered since the last
Date Course
Co. entry. The inexperienced helmsman should be
rdq: reqd.
steered Wind. 3aro. Hemarks
Tune since cautioned of the importance of this being
BST last entry
assessed as well as possible (and not
over-optimistic).
Wind. The helmsman's assessment of the wind
directionand strength, preferably in Beaufort
notation (e.g. SW5). The skipper should make it a
firm rule that at stated and regular intervals (say
every half-hour) those on watch record all the
items listed, and in the Remarks column if they
sail changes, tacks or gybes
occur, details of
made, bearings taken or observations made of any
Fig 1 08. Deck log for sailing yacht. This has essentials only. landmarks. Even the sighting of steamers or other
DECK LOG For Power Yacht
Date Course
log Co. steered Speed Tnq. Charge
Tune rdg: reqd. since
Wind 3aro. or temp. Amps
Hemarks
BST lastentry kpm
NAVIGATORS LOG
Date I oq d >urs e Lee Wake
Stream-
Since Dev: Var. o Way Co. VhtTLef.
Time fyd
BST
last
plot
c° -E-r*
w- w-
It* T
s-
r Set Rate Vrft.
o kn Mues Lot / Long.
or
I I I
i i i
ii
i i i i i
* Signs operate when working-*- Reverse when working -*-
Fig 110. Navigator's log extracts necessary information from

Fig 109. Deck log for power boat deck log.
164
log books
yachts may be not only of interest but of value to dangers are neared, and depending on the
the navigator. The regular noting of the barometer he may plot at more frequent intervals.
visibility,
can be of help in anticipating the onset of bad An entry will be necessary at the time he
weather or a shift in the wind. wishes to make the next plot on the chart and on
In a power yacht, the deck log (Fig 1 09.) every alteration of course since the last entry,
should also record at reasonably frequent since each new course steered will require its own
intervals details of the engine(s), such as r.p.m., wake course line to be plotted. (Alternatively, the
temperature, oil pressure, ammeter. At perhaps navigator may decide to calculate a new EP by
less frequent intervals the state of fuel stocks Traverse Tables instead of by plotting, and for this
should be recorded. The requirement to make he will need details of each course steered. See
these entries ensures that instruments are Chapter 17.)
regularly read and any unusual change is The Tidal Stream section entries will depend on
observed. Even a small (but unaccountable) circumstances. Streams seldom flow exactly as
alteration in reading may give early warning of predicted, and interpolation between springs and
trouble brewing in the power house and enable neaps may be necessary, but very exact
the engineer/skipper to investigate it. calculations are seldom called for. If the tidal
A small but useful tip. At the end of each day atlas hasbeen marked up in pencil with the times
(at midnight) draw a line right across the page each chartlet applies on each day it is usually a
and below it, enter the new day and date. On a simple matter to determine the average tidal
longish trip it is quite easy to use the wrong date stream (set and rate) applying between two log
(for tides, nautical almanac, etc). entries, and thus to enter the drift (rate x time
Regular entry of the deck log is not only elapsed) experienced since the last entry. If the
essential for navigation, but gives the man or men stream is fast, or changing in direction, each
on watch an interest. They can check the speed, hour's set of the stream since the last wake
and if it drops off, check the trim of the sails (or course entry can be recorded. There might then
the engine if under power). Both electronic and be two (or more) stream lines laid off from the
towed logs often get fouled by weed and either DR arrived at by reference to the wake course, to
register slow, or stop. If the log is read every provide the new EP.
half-hour this is soon detected, the log cleared Before actually plotting on the chart, all entries
and the recorded mileage corrected. in the navigator's log should b3 checked,
(a) from the deck log, fo' times, log reading, and
The navigator's log
compass Co.
The object of this separate log (Fig 11 0.) is to
(b) from the tidal atlas (or chart symbols if used).
record only that information, extracted from the
(c) for arithmetical errors.
deck log, which the navigator will need to plot
the ship's progress and position. The navigator If the deck log records any positive fixes
may decide to bring the chart up to date (i.e. plot obtained — or even good single bearings from
the yacht's new position by DR or observations) which a position line is available, then the EP as
every four hours, or at every change of watch, at that time should be plotted and compared with
while on passage. As the destination, or any the fix or PL. Depending on the navigator's
165
.
confidence in the bearing(s) recorded, so he will

decide whether or not to alter his EP. The
observer should be encouraged to note in the
deck log his own idea of its accuracy (e.g. "good,"
"rough," "doubtful," "Start Pt L/H ???"). If he is
satisfied, the navigator will then abandon the EP
and mark a fix and plot forward from there.
The column for "Plot Ref." is to enable the
navigator to "key" the successive EPs on the chart
with the log entries, if he wishes, by letters.
Otherwise, the log distance date and time of each
EP and fix should be noted on the chart astern
of and close to, the EP to which it refers.
Note books
The navigator will be frequently making
calculations of various kinds, some simple, some
fairly complex, e.g. heights of tide; conversions
between compass and true for bearings, courses,
distances, speeds, ETAs, fuel stocks and so on. It
is recommended that all such calculations are

made, and recorded, in a special note book
reserved for this purpose. It is surprising how
often these will be referred to at a later time for
checking, refreshing the memory on how they
were done or of noting which ones were wrong,
and why.
166
1 4. Off to Sea
A successful passage commences with thorough "lanes" which vessels should use while proceeding
preparation long before departure. Preparations in either direction. At the time of writing these are
can conveniently be divided into: not mandatory, but the majority of merchant ships
(a) Advance preparations which can be made adhere to them. The zones are marked in
days or weeks in advance. purple on National Ocean Survey charts, and on some
(b) Departure preparations, requiring attention other charts as well. They should be treated by
immediately before leaving. the yachtsman as a pedestrian does a motorway.
(c) Preparations en route, those to be worked out If possible, keep well clear: one can expect a
during the voyage but before landfall. large volume of shipping in them. If proceeding
in the same or opposite direction, keep well clear
of the lane in shallower water (subject to draft).
Advance preparations If crossing a separation zone or shipping lane try
It is scan charts and one
a positive pleasure to to cross at right angles so as to get across as
essential is a chart covering the whole passage quickly as possible. Make sure these are shown
(showing departure point and destination). on the charts to be used, and shape courses
Port approach charts covering any ports likely accordingly.
to be entered through force of circumstances
are also needed. Check that all charts are up-to- Tidal atlas
date, and if them
not, return to the chart agent This should be prepared for rapid use in the
for corrections, shortly before departure. following manner. Open the a*las at the chartlet
Pencil in the approximate track from departure for situation at high water. This will be at the
to destination, and study the area along this track center of the series. Across the top or bottom
line, noting the features as described earlier. margin pencil in all the days and dates of the
Study the sailing directions or pilot covering the planned passage, and under each, note the times
area of the passage, and any guide book dealing of HW on each day at the port on which the atlas
with the coast and ports en route. Separation is based. Then work progressively forward and
zones are already set up round many headlands backward through the atlas, changing each
and through channels with high shipping density, pencilled time by one hour (earlier and later) on
e.g. in parts of Rhode Island Sound, at the entrance predecing and succeeding pages. When the
to the Delaware Bay, and others. These prescribe the stream at any given time and day is requiied, one
167
has only to flick through the atlas to the chartlet

LIST OF DISTANCES AND TENTATIVE COURSES
bearing the time nearest to that required on the
A/C Mibeage Total Varcaton
appropriate day. At the same time, note whether
Oyster Boy 13°
the tides will be springs or neaps over the
Lloyd Potnt Oil 4 4
various days. It is sufficient to indicate this
Eaton s Neck Oil 4'/? 8'4
on the high water page only. This will show Stratford Shoal 016 13'4 22
whether the springs or the neaps rates of the The Race 092 45 67
stream will apply, or enable the rates at times Block Island 22 89
intermediate between springs and neaps to be
interpolated. LIGHTS LIST
HEIGHT
While preparing the tidal atlas in this way may LIGHT CHARACTERISTIC ABOVE. Foe Signals
WATER
seem tedious work it home. It
is easily done at Horn diaphragm
Batons Neck Ft W 144 1 Blast ev 30s (3s U)
saves further reference to tide tables and the Horn diaphragm
Stratford ShoaL FL \N 10 s. 60' 1 Beast ev. 15s (2s bL)
calculation of the interval between a required
Old Field Pt Alb Fl.RiG 3os 14
time and the time of HW on a given day in order Faulkner hLand fl rss (nfi)
Horn diaphragm
iv.
94 ZBLasts ev 2os (2s bl-Zs.
to find the correct chartlet, which otherwise will Nor tons Potnt FL & 75s (03' r/-2sW-22)
be necessary at a time when one may be working Little Gull Is FW Horn diaphracm
91 2BLostsev iSs
Race Rock Alt FLMIlR 2os 67 2BZ2&1&18S.
under stress at sea. It is well worth the initial Horn diaphragm
Watch UdL Lt. ALt.occ.W.lGpFlRiSs
,
effort.
<°1 1 BLast ev JOs
_ Worn diaphragm
Block. Is. Breakwater FIG 2 Ss 33 7 Blast ev JOs
Course notes
PRELIMINARY TIDAL STREAM PLAN
A study of the rough track line on the chart from
OYSTER BAY TO BLOCK ISLAND
departure to destination will suggest the sort of
NAUTICAL EST a,TIME ETA SIR
information be helpful to have listed up in
it will MILES 3<" "h< 3kN 6KV 3KN 6KN
advance, for quick reference during the passage. Oyster Bay
Lloyd Pocnt 4 4 1-3 -67 0120 0040 7 4 1-6
(Fig 1 1 1 (a).) This will vary widely, depending on >-
Eatons Neck 4/2 8% 28 7-42 0248 0125 03 1 3
the type of passage. Stratford ShoaL 73'4 22 73 3 67 0720 0340 0-S? Slack
The following lists are recommended for all The Race 45 67 22 3 77/7 0220 1110 2 6 4-5
passages: Stock Island 22 89 29-6 1487 0540 1452 OS 05
-*
(a) Lists of distances and tentative courses. List
the departure point, each headland or landmark
to be passed, the mileage between each and the
approximate course to steer at each point where
an alteration to course will be necessary. The
mileage will help in predicting when a landmark Fig 1 1 1 (a). Preliminary preparation for a passage: lists of
should be visible, time along each "leg," and distances, courses, characteristics of lights, and tidal streams.
ETA. (Fig 111 (b).) The approximate new courses

to steer will enable a temporary course to be set
immediately, while an accurate course to steer is
worked out to allow for the tidal stream at the
168
. .
off to sea
DISTANCES & COURSES Cont:-

OYSTER BAY TO BLOCK ISLAND
MILES
62.2 3.5 90° MO (A) Buoy* HP about 3 miles to Port
MILES A/C
PLum Island Lfc. FL.7'/z Sec. 75' Fog siren
CUM fiixf to
TOTAL MARK M° 1 blast eu 15s (2sbl) about 1% mites b> Stbd.
Oyster Boy Bell F

90° M0 (A) Buoy* PI Whistle about ImiLetoPort.
" 90° Little Gull Is. Lt F.lM. 91' Foghorn diaphragm
0.9 9 337° Gony Buoy " 7 .
32° BeLL Buoy *= 15 Ft 4 Sees to Stbd.

2 blasts £• 15 s.
3.2 23
106° Valiant Rock Bell Buoy Qk FL G V/4. miles
70 38 74" Gong Buou * 24C FL R 4 Sec about 1
to Port. Race Rock Lt Alt FL IN and R
rrnLe. to port
20s 67 Foghorn diaphragm. 2 blasts e.v
3.0 1 74° Bell Buoy # 11 Ft 4 sec to St bd. Batons
30s About 2'4 miles to Port.
Neck Lt to Stbd.Fl.W. 144''Foghorn
WhLstle Buoy ^9 FL G 4sec. about 2mdes
diaphragm 1 bLast every 30s (3sbl)
to Stbd.
10.4 24 92° North Stack at Northport 610' abeam to
Stbd.
Watch Hilt Lt. Alt. Occ W and Gp.FL R
15s. Foghorn diaphragm 1 blast ei/
67
201 103 92° OLd Field Pt. Lt. to Stbd about 3 miles
-ALL FL RandG, 30sec, 74' 13M. -No
30s about 5/2 miles to Port.
BeLL Buou S.W. Ledge Ft R 4 sees about
fog Signal.
Smiles to Stbd.
2.12 0.5 92° Stratford ShoaL Lt to Port above 2
Buou *Ê. FL 2 sec abeam.
mites FL. 10sec 60' 24M Foghorn
diaphragm 1 bLast every /Ssec. (2s.bL)
Block Island Breakwater FL & 2.5s 33'
Foyhorn diophragm 1 blast ev. 30s.
6ony Buoy** 2FL. 4s to Port about
1% miles. RADIO BEACONS
42.2 21 92° BeLLBuoy # "106V FL R4s.ec about 5
miles to Port.
306 KHZ 286 KHZ
F4LKENER ISLAND 20M BLOCK ISLAND 70M
43-2 1 92° Faulkner Island Lt.Fl.W /5s (7s FL) • — • • in . . . v
94', Foghorn diaphragm 2 blasts LITTLE Gull 20M Fire islamd 100M
(2s bL -2s Sc - 2^bL -2s Sc)
ev.20sec.
to Port
• — Is.
ii • — — . 11
M0NTAUK point 20 m AMBROSE.

about 5'/z miles. Platform 4 QkFL.Lts, VI 1
Horn about 7 miles to Stbd. execution; ROCKS 20M

46.0 2Q 90° Mottutuck. Inlet Lt.FL4sec 26 'about
— — . VI
STRATFORD SHOAL 20M
7 mules Stbd to • • IV
BeLL Buoy Qk PL. about '/zmcle toPort
494 3.4 90° Hortons Point Lt FIG. 15s 103' No Fog
Signal About 4 miles to Stbd. Whistle.
TIDE CHANGES AT THE RACE
SLACK WATER AT TIME OF MAX. SPEED F = FLOOD
Buoy # 8c FL. R 4sec 2 miles to Port. THE RACE CURRENT E' EBB
55.2 43 90° Rock Point Lookout tower about 2 miles 0237 0506 2-3
08 1 1 1 135 2 6
to mites to Stbd. 143Z 171 9 27
2025
55.7 OS 90" Mo (A) Buoy "4 miles 1
to Port. SATURDAY
0322
0001
0S57
3 4
26
58.7 3 90° WOr Buoy Qk FL horn about 2 miles 0901
1 S19
1223
1307
29
30
to Port. 21 13
0047 37
Orient Pt.Lt. Fl.R 64' Foghorn diaphragm 0406 0643 29
0949 1 3 09 3 1
2 blasts e/ 30sec.(2sbl -2sSc-2shl-24sSi) 2200

aboat 2 miles to Stbd. Fig 1 1 1 (b). A more detailed plan for a coastal passage.
169
actual time, and the leeway according to the colors of such lights. Note these carefully, and
actual conditions being experienced. note also the bearing of such transits or leading
(b) and Fog Signals. (Fig 1 1 1 and
List of Lights lights. For example, a chart might be marked:
112) By reference to the track line on the chart, "Steeple of St. Catherine seen in line to right of
°."
list all navigational lights expected to be seen at belfry of Trinity Church 21 1
night. Against each, note its characteristics (in A stranger does not know the names of the
full), range, height, note also what sectors are churches referred to, and may perhaps only be
covered, and color of light if not white. Also able to pick out a single church. The transit is
note the fog signal of each, its type and given as 21 1 °. This is true, so if variation is
characteristics (timing and number of blasts). 9° W, this equals 220° M. Take a compass
While doing this, also include details of any light bearing of the one church seen — say it bears
which might be seen if one were off course, or 1 80° M. Alter course boldly to port, bearing will
had to enter a port of refuge. Indicate these increase till it is 220° M. Now observe whether a
either by insetting, writing in a different color, or second church is visible roughly in line with the
putting in brackets. first. If so, the churches can now be identified. If
(c) List of DF
radio beacons. From a radio not, real doubt exists as to whether the church
beacon from H.O. Pub. No. 1 1 7, Radio
chart, seen is either of those referred to, so stand off and
Navigational Aids, or from Reed's find and seek another. Do not stand on till the situation
list all radio beacons which will be within radio clarifies.
range of the passage. Bracket together all beacons Where leading lights are placed so that when in
in the same group (having the same frequency) transit, in line one over the other, they provide a
and note against each its call sign and range. leading line, it is important to note the bearing of
(d) Port Entry Guide. Any port, harbor, or river this line. This may be stated in the pilot or on the
which may be entered should be closely studied chart. If can be found by laying off the line
not, it
on a large scale chart to plan in advance a safe through the two lights on the chart. Leading
line or lines of entry. Look up the port in the lights are by no means always conspicuous and
pilot or other reference book, and note whether are sometimes very difficult to identify, particularly
any special advice is given. in a holiday resort where they can be lost among
Port Entry Signals. Some commercial ports are neon advertisements and hotel lights. A check
subject to Port Traffic Signal Regulations. The with the compass bearing should always be
type of signals used, and their exact meaning, applied when any doubt of identification exists.
should be noted. Where such regulations exist
they apply to all vessels, including yachts, and Buoyage list
must be complied with. Failure to do so will Where study of a large-scale chart of a port
a
invoke the wrath of the harbor authorities and indicates it will be necessary to follow a line of
possibly a fine at least, and at worst will involve buoys, it is recommended that these are listed,
the risk of a collision with another vessel, which preferably by name or number (given on chart, in
probably cannot get out of the way. Study the pilot or other reference book), the list clearly
chart and pilot for any approach transits by day, indicating the shape and color, and showing the
and leading lights by night, including sectors and compass bearing from each buoy to the next.
170
off to sea
This is particularly useful in wide estuaries where be steered between all turning points.
the buoys may be some distance apart. Even
when the next buoy can be seen from the last, the List of distances and courses
compass bearing will immediately confirm A should be prepared, similar to that for the
list
whether the one seen is in fact the correct one. If sailing yacht but giving actual courses to be
there isany possibility of the port being entered steered (instead of only tentative courses). In
(or left) by night, also list against each buoy its addition the mileage at each landmark or turning
light characteristics, and whether fitted with bell point should be measured and noted, and the
or fog signal. total elapsed time from start to each landmark
alsocomputed and noted. Except when in a
Preparations on a power boat power boat race, the exact time of departure may
Thorough preparations for navigation are just as be uncertain till it actually happens, so total
important for a power yacht as for a sailing craft, elapsed time to each point may be preferable to
possibly even more so in the case of a fast recording predicted clock time. If the actual
planing power boat. The reason is fairly obvious: speed is in some doubt, one might have two
columns of total elapsed time: one at maximum
(a) Distances are covered much more quickly, so
cruising speed, the other at a reduced speed that
navigational decisions have to be made
might be necessary if sea conditions so dictate. If
correspondingly more quickly.
each column of times is headed with the speed
(b) The motion of the yacht may make reading
assumed, it is usually easy to interpolate mentally
and writing much more difficult, unless speed is
for any intermediate to speed actually sailed. If the
drastically reduced.
yacht's speed is normally controlled by engine
(c) Identification of landmarks and buoys is more
revolutions, past experience will enable elapsed
difficult as each be in sight for less time, and
will
times to be calculated and recorded for given
it may be difficult or impossible to use binoculars.
r.p.m.s instead of knots.
Fixes by hand bearing compass are more difficult
and less accurate.
Engine(s) check list
From this it follows that the faster the speed If there is any possibility of the duration of the
the more detailed the advance preparations should passage approaching (or exceeding) the fuel tank
be. capacity, then it might be prudent to calculate
Most coastal and open water passages by fast what, under normal conditions, the fuel gauge
power boats will be completed within a day, and should register at various points on the passage.
often within a few hours. The speed can be If the listed turning-points or landmarks are at
predicted and thus it should be possible to suitable intervals, the predicted state of fuel stock
calculate, in advance, the direction and rate of could be noted against each. Alternatively a
tidalstreams to be dealt with during the passage. separate engine check list should be prepared
Unlike the sailing yacht, in normal sea conditions giving the predicted fuel stock at suitable time
the power boat can rely on being able to steer any intervals, say hourly. The same list can be
desired course — no tacking is involved. It is entered with any routine checks or jobs which
therefore possible to prepare accurate courses to should be carried out on a regular schedule, for
171
example, lubricate stern bearing, pump header Factors which are worth consideration are:
tank,check water flow, temperature, check (a) What
the rise and fall of the tide at the
is
ammeters, and so on. destination, and the rates of the tidal stream en
The object of pre-computing fuel stocks is to route? Bear in mind that where the rise and fall is
ensure that warning is available of any undue great (e.g. Eastport, Maine) the appearance of the
consumption, to avoid any risk of running out of landscape at high water is very different from
fuel. Regular and frequent checks of all instruments that at low water, which is the scene depicted by
will also give early warning of any possible the chart. Tidal streams run strongest at springs,
trouble, on the "stitch in time" principle. and when flowing against the wind, the stronger
the stream the rougher the seas. If this is a first
Buoyage list trip, or to an unknown area of large tides, an
A listeach port likely to be entered, similar to
for arrivalaround neap tides is to be preferred to one
that described for slow yachts is even more at springs,if this can be arranged.
important for a fast power boat, as there will be (b) What is the prevailing wind, or most likely
little time to consult the chart between buoys. direction? If likely to be favorable when outward
bound and unfavorable when returning, is there
List of light and fog signals sufficient reserve of time?
While not essential for short daylight passages, (c) Is there an ocean current en route? e.g. Gulf
this list will come into its own if for any reason Stream, N Portuguese current. These are shown
the passage takes longer than expected, or if fog, on routing charts.
mist or heavy rain obstructs visibility. Quick If dates are suitable, the best time of departure
knowledge of the identity of a fog signal from a can be considered. In some cases this may be
lighthouse, light vessel or buoy may be vital. immaterial. However, intelligent use of the tidal
streams can make all the difference to a passage.
Lists in general The timing should be planned so that the
For use on fast power boats, make all lists easy to maximum advantage is gained from favorable
read under conditions which may be experienced. tidal streams, and that foul streams will be met
Bold, clear writing is important. where they will matter least. For example, if the
passage is expected to take about 1 8 hours, and
Check lists is along a coast subject to alternate fair and foul
Reverting now to all types of craft, an obvious tides, the start would probably be planned for
step to take at the planning stage of a passage just before slack water (high or low as the case
is to make check annoying, and
lists. It is might be) before the first favorable tide. One
could be serious, if when well on the way, a could then expect to have about two favorable
chart, reference book or instrument is found to and one unfavorable tide. However, the course
have been forgotten. might lie past a headland where the tide will be
Having completed the "early planning" lists, one strongest, during the period of foul tide. One
is in a position to consider whether the proposed would weigh up the advisability of timing the
passage or trip fits in with the proposed dates passage so that two foul but weak tides would be
available, and if so, the best time to start. met, in order to get the benefit of the strongest
172
— —
off to sea
fair tide past the headland. For this purpose a theircompass bearings, and identify as soon as
tidal atlas recommended. Note where the
is possible. By day, check for leading marks and
streams run strongest and try to plan times so as look for any objects on shore which are
to have fair tides at these points or areas. ahead and in transit. Observation of these will
enable the approximate rate and direction of the

tidal stream to be estimated. Closer inshore the
Departure preparations
current often running counter to the main
—
Weather obtain the latest shipping forecast.
is
current further out. Check this by also noting

Phone the local meteorological office, airport or
how any buoys, lobster pots or vessels at anchor
local Coast Guard, all of whom will normally give
are behaving.
you the latest forecast. If available, consult the
There is a limit to the preparation of courses to
latest synoptic (weather) chart, to see whether
be steered, since one cannot predict precisely at
there are any depressions in the offing.
what time the yacht will be at any given place
much will depend on the wind and sea
Landfall preparations encountered. However, the general strategy can
Transfer the EP or last fix from the passage be roughed out. Bear in mind:
chart to the larger scale chart of the destination, (a) Landfalls on a well-lit but strange coast are
as soon as this can be done. This will normally be best made just before dawn. The lights can then
soon after the landfall has been made. Check the be positively identified, and the final run into port
new EP or fix by further observations as soon as made in early daylight.
any are visible. Work out the height of tide for (b) Landfalls on a sparsely lit coast or when
several hours around the ETA. This may be reduced are best made in early
visibility is
wanted for clearing shoals when you arrive. The daylight to see, and if possible to identify the
height of tide will certainly be necessary if you landmarks. It may be advisable to shape a course
propose anchoring, and when that moment so as to close the land a few miles to the left or
arrives you may be too busy to work it out. right of the destination. When land is seen, or a
It is advisable to calculate the heights at suitable fathom line is reached, it is then known
several different hours around the ETA as the last which way to turn along the coast to reach the
few miles often take longer than expected. You destination.
will probably switch on your echo sounder when (c) day can be
Identification of a coastline by
you approach the 1 fathom line, so remember difficult even when the coast is well-known. If no
that depths shown must be reduced by the obvious landmark is visible (such as an identifiable
height of tide at the time, for comparison with lighthouse or conspicuous building), one hill
charted depths. looks very much like another, and "wishful
Examine the large-scale chart and work out thinking" is apt to creep in. Even a headland like
well in advance —
a safe line of approach, noting Cape May, New Jersey, which once seen one
what landmarks are likely to be of use, particularly would think never forgotten, looks different seen
any transits. These may be shown on the chart, or from different angles. When trying to identify
mentioned in any guide or pilot book being used. hills, study on the chart their heights, contours
If entering by night, check for leading lights, note and relative distances away. Try to identify three
173
which make as wide an angle between each other

as possible. Lay their bearings on the chart, and if
the position lines do not cross or make a
reasonably small "cocked hat," they cannot have
been correctly identified. When in doubt, stand off
and sort things out, never press on if uncertain of
the position.
174
15. Coastal Passage
We are planning a passage under sail from Oyster To calculate our estimated time of departure
Bay The charts we intend to use
to Block Island. from Oyster Bay, we must work the course backwards
are No. 1 21 3 (new No. 1 2363) of Long Island Sound from the Race. The distance from the Race to
western part, No. 1212 (new No. 12354) of Long Stratford Shoal is about 48 miles, and from
Island Sound eastern part, and No. 1 21 1 (new Stratford Shoal to Oyster Bay about 22 miles.
No. 13205) of Block Island Sound and approaches. Looking at the appropriate tidal charts we see
From them we can see that our course is out of that for approximately 3^ hours before our
Oyster Bay, around Lloyd Point past Eaton's Neck, intended arrival time at the Race, the tide will
past Stratford Shoal opposite Old Field Point, be flowing with us at a steadily increasing rate,
eastward down Long Island Sound to the Race, with an average rate of 1 .6 knots. Thus if the
and then across Block Island Sound to Block Island. boatis sailing through the water at 5 knots, we
The total distance traveled is about 95 miles. be doing 6.6 knots over the ground. We can
will
A look at the tide table shows that the range now calculate that we will have a fair tide for
of tide is about half way between springs and 23.1 miles on this particular leg of the course
neaps on the proposed day of our trip. This (6.6 knots x 3.5 hours).
means that the rate of tidal streams will be about The remaining distance between the Race and
average. We do not want to go through the Stratford Shoal 29.4 miles (48 miles - 23.1 miles).
is
Race during either flood tide or full ebb because In this stretch of water we will have 0.8 knots
of the heavy overfalls there. So we will try of tide against us. Sailing at 5 knots through
to arrive at the Race before slack water, when the water, our speed over the ground will be
the tide is still flowing to the east but not as 4.2 knots (5 knots — 0.8 knots). Thus, the time
strongly as it would at maximum ebb. We find it will take to cover the required distance is
thaton this particular day, slack water at the almost 6 hours (24.9 miles -r 4.2 knots).
Race is at 0322 and 1 51 9. Since we do not want to Between Stratford Shoal and Oyster Bay the tide
pass through the Race during the middle of the will again be flowing with us Our speed over
night, we select 1 51 9. It is advisable to plan the ground will average 5.6 knots, which is less
our arrival there a little early in case the than our speed when approaching the Race because
wind is light, so we tentatively estimate that we the favorable tide is weaker here. At this rate,
want to reach the Race about two hours before the leg between Stratford Shoal and Oyster Bay
slack water — or about 1 300. will take 4 hours (22 miles 4- 5.6 knots).
175
When we add these separate times up —

3i hours, of, say, one mile around each one, positioning
nearly 6 hours, —
and 4 hours we find that the the center of the circle on the appropriate
passage from Oyster Bay to the Race will take lighthouse. We than mark our track line tangent
almost 1 3^ hours. This means we must plan a to these arcs. The distance to be covered can now
departure from Oyster Bay at about 2330 the previous be scaled off with dividers.
day if we are to arrive at the Race at our Our next step is to draw up a tentative tidal
intended time of 1 300 on the day in question. A stream plan, such as the one in Fig 1 1 1 We do not.
quick check of the weather forecast tells us know what speed we will make under sail so we
that the wind will be a little higher than average do the plan using two speeds:
but not as light as we had originally made (1 ) the speed we could probably make if there
allowances for. So we decide to set our departure are head winds or light winds
time for midnight. (2) the speed we could probably make if sailing
To draw up our preliminary sailing plan we first off the wind.
study the appropriate charts and find whatever We judge that we can make either 3 knots or 6 knots
danger points (rocks, shoals, races) lie near our under these different conditions. Working from :
course. Wehave to round Lloyd Point and pass close our expected departure time of midnight, we
to Eaton's Neck; and we must also pass close to calculate the time required to cover each leg
the Stratford Shoal rocks and to Little Gull Island (traveling both at 3 knots and at 6 knots). This
at the Race. Since we want to pass well off these gives us the times we will arrive at each of
points, we draw the arc of a circle with a radius the major points along our course. By referring
LLOYD
sTToallt.
CAJ^°
^ gulll_VThe__ SOUND
RAC?~
fBlOCK
ISLAND
BLOCK
ISLAND
PI . BATON'S
^^TER BAY NECK 1^^
Fig 112. A chart of Long Island Sound showing the

rhumb line course from Oyster Bay to Block Island.
176
.
coastal passage
to the appropriate tidal charts we can also indicate

DECK LOG
the speed and direction of the tidal streams we
Course
will encounter. This information will allow us to DATE LOG Course Wind Bar- Remarks
StNO.ua
calculate an accurate course to steer. EST f?£ADl*J6
EhTTRi ometer
Fri day 8< Dropped mooriigs Oyster
Midnyht S 1000 Boy under engine.
The passage Sac. °K
1 Buoy ** 75 to STbd, made salt
0045 014 s 1000 fall mam I N° 1 Genoa
The day of the voyage arrives. The crew is on board
10K
and all the gear has been checked against our 0700 3.7 090 074 S 1000 Buoy # 775 to STbd obeam.
lists and stowed. We are ready to sail. Casting 0200 9.2 090 09o S
/5X
1000
off the buoy we motor off and enter our departure 16K St ra tford Shoal bears 335°
0142 78.6 090 090 S 999 SLight racn -poor v/s.
in the deck log. (Fig 11 3.) The passage down
15K f-iotte.ni. no reef <*» "lain - w's
Oyster Bay does not call for navigation because we 0400 19.4 09O O9o S 998 poor _ ram ^hovers
can determine the courses to be steered by eye and 20K
0600 301 090 090 SE 997
by reference to the buoys which are identified 2TK cJianqeM
996 Reef&d
mainsail
0630 32.4 090 090 SE to ** 2 Genoa.
on our large-scale chart of the area. This part
2JK Wi~nd headed.
of the trip, therefore, involves pilotage. 064-5 33.4 09O oes ESE 997
Upon reaching the No. 1 5 buoy (Fl 4 sec) off 1ZK
0800 40 7 090 080 ESE 997
Lloyd Point, the ship's speedometer log is set to tan
shaken
zero. On the way out of the harbor we note that 0820 44.0 090 077 ESE 998 Reefs
to ** 1 Genoa.
out-chanqen
£ 4K
the wind is from the south, blowing at 1 knots. This 10OO 44.8 090 056 Variable 998
gives us a comfortable reach. We set a course 8K. Worm front going through
104-0 454 090 090 7007
of 074° to clear the bell buoy No. 1 1 B off Eaton's
72< Bearuig on R8C Six miLe.
Neck. Our wake course is 065° T. The navigator 1146 53.9 090 090 NNE 7007 reef 04-4°M R/B Nun ors 1&rM
makes these entries in his log. (Fig 1 14.) 12K

1200 55.4 090 09O NNE 7002
We plan to work up an EP every two hours, but 12K Tank on PLum Island bears
7350 66.6 090 090 hJNE 7002 1WM.
at 01 00 the helmsman reports buoy 1 1 B abeam to
12K
starboard. This gives us an early fix and a good 1400 67.7 090 090 NNE 7002
estimate of the speed of the tidal current. We 7422 77 09O 090 NNE
12K
7007
Little GuLL Light bears
750''M
then come onto course 090°, heading for the Race. Through the Race.
1430 71.4 702 090 NE11K 7007
Stratford Shoal light is in sight slightly to
12K
port of our course, but visibility is poor 1600 80.0 105 702 NE 7007
because the weather is overcast. UK
1700 84.7 107 105 NE /00 7
At 0200 and 0400 we enter up the deck log and fJK Toê.r on Block Island
from it the navigator's log. By 0630 the wind has 1706 84.8 107 707 NE 10O0 be*rs, 17 2° M
n,< Totter bears 7 73°/Vf.
increased and headed slightly, so we decide to 11 HS 85 2 707 707 NE 10C0 Checking at 10mLn interuuL^
put the first full reef in the main and to change iok Drop Soils - turn on motor
1742 87.8 709 707 NE 1000
down to the No. 2 Genoa. By 0645 the wind has
1815 90.7 Peck up moorunq on
headed sufficiently so that the helmsman can Greot SoLC Pond
no longer steer the desired course. This fact is
recorded in the deck log. Fig 11 3. Deck log entered up.
177
Z
The navigator consults the tidal atlas to NAVIGATORS LOG

determine the tidal stream we are experiencing.
OffiE LOO COURSE l£E Cc 'RRErfT LAT/
To save work, he interpolates between the two 7"/*J£ .
rc Rab&bnft
PlOT
/Long
Co
nearest times given. Any error incurred in this Kn M
way is not likely to be significant. The navigator A, . I I
also plots the run (wake course) and the tidal

J
v \ 074\ IE 73W v; +3 065 060 7.2 0.8
drift,and he marks our new estimated position % 3,7 37 090 7£ \l3W
on the chart. Because it is now raining, it is °o 92 5,s\o9o.1£ |/3w|o7g| + 3 |o87|w0laeU8

Stratford Shoal
difficult to obtain a fix on the land, so he must 794 70,2 090 7£ 73W "6 +3 O87|70o|o.7|o,3 Lt OBS 32~2°M
keep a good running fix. As shown in Fig 1 1 4, \ 090 30./ 70,7 IB 731V rs + 3 0871270 0.91-7.3
the required entries in the navigator's log are \ 080

40.1 70,0 IE 8W 068 +5 073 21o 08 -14
made up
1
each entry the deck log.

Thus we maintain
after in
\ 41 056 IE
44,8 '>: :^s +5 049\9o 2.5, 21
a careful record of our course % 554 090 70.6 IE :: rs -5 rs 9c 25 4
and speed.
At 0800 the deck log is entered up again, and
\ 677 090 IE 77.7 73iv'J7S :
-3 075 90 2,9 1 4.3
% 80,0 72,9 106
- Uvl OH -3 089 260 0.5 2-1
from it the navigator's log is made up. Based on
our new fix we find that we are standing out into
\ -
stronger tide flowing against us. We are being

% 90.1
pushed back. But the tide will be changing in

Fig 11 4. Navigator's log entered up.
a little over an hour and the further north we go
the earlier and stronger it will be in our
favor. Also in our favor, we learn that a front
with winds from the northeast is forecast.
By 0930 the wind has died away to 4 knots.
We have shaken out the reefs and are sailing under
full main and No. 1 Genoa. By 1 040 the front
is passing through, bringing with it 1 2 knots of PRELIMINARY TIDAL STREAM PUN
wind from the north northeast. We are steering YACHT SPEED I2K DISTANCE 93 MILES
090° to stay a little to weather of the rhumbline TIDAL STREAM ESTIMATED
EST. ESTIMATED SPE£D DIRECT IOM
in case the wind heads again. At noon we are
2130 '4 oos
maintaining course and have hopes of getting
2 230 2 005
through the Race on this tide, which is pushing us 2230 3^2 070
at 2.5 knots. Since our boat speed through the 0030 3/2 070
water is 5.8 knots, this means we are making 8.3 0130 2 010
knots over the ground (2.5 knots + 5.8 knots). 0230 ^2 065
We are able to get a sight on a buoy on the south 033O '4 no
side of Six Mile Reef. It is buoy No. 8C and 0430 Vz no
Y*
the sighting confirms our estimate that we are well 053 7 70
ahead of the log and are making good speed toward

the Race. If, however, we cannot make this tide Fig 115. A tidal stream plan for a power boat.
178
coastal passage
+ Position by dead reckoning
NAVIGATOR'S SYMBOLS
A Estimated position
These symbols are found convenient by

navigators for working on their charts. They are
drawn and at the conclusion of the passage are
rubbed out. They are not to be found printed
anywhere. There is nothing to prevent you
© A fix by landmarks, radio
or celestial sights
inventing your own system, but obviously if
just lines and crosses are used for all workings,

it will be difficult to understand them an hour Wake course
or two later.
^ Track
)y> Tidal stream or current
^ 7 A position line
\fc 77 A transferred position line
179
through the Race, then we will try to squeeze out Assume we decide to make a night crossing,
through Plum Gut where the tide runs a little about dawn so as to have the
arriving benefit of
longer in our favor. As time goes on, it becomes lighthouses for our landfall. First we pencil in on
apparent that we will make the Race quite easily, the chart the rhumbline or track course required,
with an hour to spare before the tide changes. from Miami to Freeport. This is 060° T, and the
Once through the Race we come onto course 102° distance is about 90 miles. Disregarding the Gulf
heading across Block Island Sound. Until now Stream, this particular passage would take
the tide has been pushing us either forward or just under eight hours. (See Fig 1 1 5.)
backward, but as we progress across Block Island Knowing the Gulf Stream runs strongly, we must
Sound the tide changes and starts to flow against allow for it when deciding on the wake course
us from a more southwesterly direction. As we required. If we wished, we could lay off a series
close the land, the stream is parallel to the of courses to allow for the constantly changing
shore, which means that it is pushing us northward. strength, so as to maintain the yacht on the
We must therefore alter our course to compensate rhumbline. If the course would take us near
for this push, so the navigator works out dangers this might be necessary, and would
the necessary vectors. involve drawing a tidal vector for each successive
At 1705 Block Island is in sight. The navigator hourly stream direction and rate, with a series of
obtains a bearing on a tower located on high different courses to be steered. The passage under
ground. Ten minutes later he takes another bearing, discussion is inopen water, and once clear of
which enables him to accurately work out the Miami there are no dangers until we make our
tidal set and compensate for it. This area is landfall. There is therefore no advantage in
known for both its tidal set and its fog, so we making frequent alterations to the course to keep
constantly check our bearings until we are close to on the rhumbline, and we can calculate a single
the harbor entrance. From here on we can use our course which (if the Stream runs as predicted and
large-scale chart No. 269 to pilot our way we maintain a set speed through the water)
through the channel and pick up a mooring. should bring us to our destination. Using the
dividers opened to 12 miles (yacht's proposed
A coastal passage for a displacement speed) mark along the rhumbline 1 2 marks.
power boat Departure is planned for 21 30. The latest
Let usassume our yacht has a comfortable report has it that the Gulf Stream is flowing at
1 2 knots, and we are planning a
cruising speed of about 3^ knots in mid-stream. As we near Great
passage from Miami to Freeport (Grand Bahamas). Isaac Light, the strength of the tide decreases
Not being dependent on the wind we can to half a knot and begins to push us into the
(provided it is not unduly strong) lay any course N.W. Providence Channel.
we decide on. We should make similar With this information we can lay off the vectors
preparations before departure to those described that will enable us to work out a safe course.
in the previous pages, including a list of lights By checking our wake course and taking bearings
likely to be seen or required, and we should work on lights in Miami, we can compensate, if
out a tidal stream plan for the predicted tides necessary, for any change in the rate of the Gulf
during the period of the proposed crossing. Stream. Another correction, which we will only
180
coastal passage
be able to ascertain at sea, is that of leeway.

This will depend upon the wind strength and the
superstructure of our boat.
The course to steer is now known, but it is
still necessary to keep a proper deck log and to
plot the EP at regular intervals. It may well be
necessary to alter course, or may be
the speed
varied, for any number of reasons. If a large
fishing fleet is encountered it may be necessary
to make a wide detour round it; rough seas or
reduced visibility may require speed to be
reduced, engine trouble may occur, and so on.
While it may not be necessary to make frequent
plots on the chart, it is still important to have all
the data recorded (time, course, distance run by
log, et.) so that an EP can be plotted whenever
necessary.
Before landfall, calculate the approximate
height of tide so as to be able to reduce
soundings to chart datum for comparing echo
sounder with chart depths. Calculate when
Great Isaac lighthouse should be visible. If it
does not appear when predicted, watch the echo
sounder. Note how the rhumbline crosses the
20 fathom line. Then after the landfall has been
made, lose no opportunity to check how the
tide is setting by any transits visible lobster—
pot buoys, etc. Allow for this when piloting into
harbor and guard against being set across the
course by taking bearings ahead with the hand
bearing compass. Watch the echo sounder. Have
heights of tide pre-calculated for Freeport.
These will be useful both for reductions to
soundings and for deciding where to anchor, if
this is planned. As the harbor is approached,

change to a large-scale chart, and note the
buoyage system.
181
.
16. Blinded but not Lost: Fog!
Boating in fog is an eerie and unnerving reports from coastal stations state if fog is
experience. All sense of direction and even is lost present, and give the visibility, usually in yards.
the sea level appears to change as there is no If in port, a passage may be postponed if fog is
horizon to establish a level. At night the glow of present or forecast for any part of the voyage.
the navigation lights reflected in the fog seems to There is always an element of danger when at sea
close one in, and one can even get the in fog or mist. As with most aspects of sailing,
sensation that the yacht is sailing downhill. thorough preparation, in advance, will go far to
The official definition of fog is an atmospheric reduce the inevitable anxiety. The very knowledge
condition which reduces visibility to 1 000 meters of navigation will mean that the yacht is steered
or less. It is said to be "mist" when visibility is confidently: sudden feelings that "we must be
between 1 000 and 2000 meters. There are a near land" or "I am sure we are heading in the
number of types of fog due to different causes, wrong direction" disappear as this confidence
but the end effect is moisture in saturated air grows.
condensing out into minute droplets which The two hazards in fog are the risks of
reduce the transmission of light. Once out of collision and of running aground. Preparations for
sight of land it is very difficult to gauge the dealing with fog should not be deferred till
visibility distance. One must be alert to the visibility has deteriorated to the official fog
possibility of something suddenly emerging out of visibility of 1 ,1 00 meters of less, but should be put
mist or fog at much shorter range than expected. in hand the moment visibility shows signs of
If a buoy is passed, it is a good idea to get an deteriorating. This is not always easy to detect if
estimate of the visibility by taking the time or one is not sailing within sight of land, buoys or
reading the log when it is close abeam and other vessels, so an eye should be kept on the
again when it disappears, and (allowing for tidal sharpness of the horizon. Preparation will be
stream) thus to calculate the distance. more sure if a check list has been prepared in
It is better to avoid fog than to have to deal advance. This might read as follows:
with it. Pilot books, routing charts and other sea 1 Obtain fix by visual observation if possible, or
guides give indications of the prevalence or by DF.
likelihood of fog at different times of year. Radio 2. Switch on echo sounder, read and record
weather and shipping forecasts give reliable depth and time.
warnings of the likelihood of fog, weather 3. Post lookout(s).
182
. .
fog
4. Hoist radar reflector. arm. This is the quickest and surest way of
5. Issue life-jackets to all hands. indicating to the helmsman or skipper. If the size
6. Prepare flares/Verey light pistol. of thecrew permits, others should be detailed to
7. Sound fog signals per rules. watch each beam and astern. Order absolute
8. Prepare anchor for immediate letting go. silence.
9. Prepare liferaft or dinghy, stock up. 4. Radar reflector. It is almost more important to
10. Check engine. be seen than to see, so ensure the radar reflector
1 1 Warn helmsman to maintain accurate course is correctly hoisted and well up. If caught out
as ordered. without a radar reflector aboard, hoist a metal

1 2. Navigator to lay off safest course, and order. bucket or wet the sails by throwing water on
Let us go through these points in detail. them as high as possible. This will at least help to
1 Obtain fix. This will probably be the last produce some trace on another vessel's radar
position the navigator will have till the fog lifts, or display.
the yacht runs out of fog. So for a considerable 5. Lifejackets. These should be worn (and if of
time the navigator will be working on dead the inflatable type, blown up) by all hands. If by
reckoning. If no reliable fix by visual observation any chance you were involved in a collision,
is possible, as when well offshore when these might make all the difference between
visibility then the EP should be worked
closes in, being picked up, and not.
up, as accurately as possible, from the last fix or 6. Flares/Verey Pistol. If sailing at night, these
EP. If well within the range of any radio DF should be used (white flares) if a vessel's lights
station(s), the EP should be confirmed with are seen on a possible collision course.
bearings so obtained. Bear in mind that some DF 7. Fog Signals. Rule 1 5 of the International
stations which do not operate in clear weather (or collision regulations specifies these: "A power
only operate infrequently then) will now be driven or sailing vessel of 40 ft or over, to carry a
working in fog. fog horn sounded by mechanical means, and a
2. Switch on echo sounder. This should be left bell"; and "A power driven or sailing vessel of less
running throughout fog (if within soundings). than 40 ft making 'some other
to be capable of
The navigator should calculate the height of tide efficient sound signal.' " The same rule lays down
(to a couple of feet or so) and should reduce the the sound signals required in fog. These must be
depth to CD and should check this with known by heart so that not or.lv can you make
his fix or EP. Depth readings should be taken and the correct signal, but that you know, by her
recorded (with times and patent log readings) at signals,what another vessel is doing. For the
regular and frequent intervals. The intervals will larger yacht over40 ft, sounding signals should
be governed by the type of coastline (shelving or present no problem. The smaller yacht under 40 ft
steep-to) and on the yacht's speed. should carry either:

3. Lookouts. One man should be posted right in (a) An aerosol-powered pressure horn,
the bows, to have a clear view and to be as far (b) A hand-pump powered horn, or
from engine noise as possible. He should be (c) A mouth-blown horn.
instructed to report everything seen or heard, and The range of any of these is limited, and will
to indicate direction by pointing with the whole depend on atmospheric conditions, but is
183
;jj^-X4»^,^
-A_
«^ ^-^-
'jjfl
Fog soon turns simple pilotage into a baffling problem. A

singlemarked post provides a clue to channel in an estuary.
184
I
fog
]
±z
Same scene, but with the fog having lifted. Landmarks and
further navigational markers can now be seen.
185
Normal view towards shore of an estuary with visibility several Fog reduces visibility to about two hundred meters. Shore
miles. line is just discernible, but not trees behind it and it is even
more difficult than usual to judge distance.

—
fog!
unlikely to exceed (a) and (b) a mile, and (c) a placed aboard and secured, or put in a handy bag
few hundred yards at best. The aerosol-horn is ready.
probably the most practical for the smaller yacht 1 0. Engine. In a power-driven yacht, the engine
as it is small, light and easily stowed and used. should be given a quick check, particularly fuel
However, one aerosol container will not produce supply, as it is essential to have full power
more than 250 to 300 blasts, so it is advisable to available if it should be necessary to take rapid
time the frequency of the blasts with these avoiding action. As the navigator must know his
limitations in mind. If under sail (no engine) with position continuously, it is important that a steady
the wind abaft the beam, three blasts every speed can be maintained. In a yacht under sail, if
minute are required by rule 1 5. At thisrate, one the wind is sufficient to maintain at least three
aerosol container would last little more than one knots, it may be preferable to continue sailing as
hour, and the yacht may be in fog for much the absence of engine noise will enable another
longer than this. In waters crowded with traffic, ship's, and navigational, fog signals to be heard at
entering a port or estuary frequented by shipping, much greater distances. If the wind is very light
the signals should be given at the regulation as it often (but not always) is in fog — the engine
one-minute intervals, but in open waters the should be started and a steady speed maintained.
intervals should be more spaced out to ensure According to rule 1 6 (a), speed in fog should be
capacity for sounding on hearing the fog signal of "moderate, having regard to the existing
another vessel. circumstances and conditions." Rule 1 6 (b) is
If anchored, remember to sound at one minute mandatory for a power-driven vessel (which of
intervals the bell, or if not carried, strike a frying course includes a sailing yacht under power).
pan, bucket or the suspended kedge anchor Such a vessel "hearing, apparently forward of her
(which "rings" well). beam, the fog signal of a vessel the position of
8. Anchor. An anchor or kedge should be ready which is not ascertained, SHALL, so far as the
on deck with some cable or warp veered (flaked circumstances of the case admit, STOP HER
out on deck), so that the yacht can be anchored ENGINES, and then navigate with caution until
quickly if necessary. danger of collision is over."
9. Prepare dinghy. As the possibility exists of Let us consider the "circumstances." A yacht's
being run down by a large vessel in fog, it is auxiliary is apt to be temperamental and may be
prudent to make preparations "just in case." If a difficult to re-start when hot. A large vessel stops
self-inflating raft is carried, this should be freed by going full astern, but her stopping distance
from its holding-down lashings, but NOT inflated. may be a mile or more. She has a very wide
But check that the rip-chord/painter is securely turning circle. If a yacht meets a large vessel at
attached to the yacht. It is probably wise to close quarters, the yacnt's best chance of
launch a rigid dinghy carried on deck it can be — avoiding a collision will usually be by alteration
put back when the fog has cleared. A packed of course. She has a very small turning circle
inflatable dinghy which is not self-inflating (often not much more than her own length) and
should certainly be fully inflated and either she will "stop" her forward progress most quickly
carried right-way-up on deck, or towed aft. by going about under full helm and full power.
Paddles, flares and food and water should be If another vessel's fog horn is first heard
187
Fig 11 6. Planning a course in

fog. intended to stay in the
It is
shallow water: distance run

between B and C is checked by
log.
188
.
fog!
apparently fairly distant, it may be prudent

to slow reasonable to lay a course from one buoy to the
the engine down and thus
to reduce engine-noise next, bearing in mind any cross-current, and
to give the forward look-out the best chance of taking care to keep on the out-of-channel side of
gauging the direction of the other vessel. theline. If a buoy is missed and there is shipping
Remember that the other vessel should sound-off about it is prudent to turn into shallow water and
every two minutes. Unless the fog is extremely anchor rather than to "guess" where the next buoy
dense, it is advisable not to alter course on first may be.
hearing another vessel's fog horn, but to hold (b) If coasting. If along a shelving shore (fathom
course and speed, with redoubled vigilance. If she lines far apart)and without offlying rocks, lay a
comes into sight heading straight for your yacht, course direct to shoal water (allowing for the
turn AWAY from
her at full throttle and head at approximate height of tide when reading the echo
about 90° from her approximate track. If she sounder) so as to be out of the reach of most
ought to pass ahead, ALSO turn away so as to vessels. Then proceed along a fathom line by
escape her wash. Only hold your course if you are compass and echo sounder. Better still, lay off a
SURE she will pass astern of you. NEVER attempt course on the chart which is a straight line for a
to cross her bows. reasonable distance and one which conforms to
1 1 Warn the helmsman to maintain course ordered. the safe soundings decided on. In Fig 1 1 6 it
All sense of direction is lost in fog. As the should be possible to detect fairly accurately
navigator must rely on the course steered and when the yacht reaches point A, then point B
distance covered to keep track of the yacht's and point C, by noting when the depths increase
position, accurate steering is most important. The to those charted, and checking that the distances
navigator must keep in mind his own ship's on the chart correspond to the distance run by
heading and the most probable heading of vessels log (corrected for tidal stream). If the fog is very
met so as to be able to make a quick decision if dense or there are rocks about, it is clearly more
necessary. If a quick alteration to course is made, prudent to anchor till visibility lifts.
new course, time and log reading should be If along a steep-to shore (deep soundings on
logged at the earliest opportunity and no reliance the chart close to the shore) or with offlying
placed on memory. rocks, set a course parallel to, or slightly away
1 2. Navigator's duties. After getting his fix or EP from land and warn lookouts to listen for
on the chart and entering it in the log (with time breakers. Watch the echo sounder much more
and patent log reading), his next task is to lay off frequently.
the safest possible course. This will depend on (c) If well off-shore. Try to estimate the position
circumstances, of shipping lanes. Then lay a course to cross such
(a) enclosed waters, in a buoyed shipping
If in lanes at a right angle so as to get across and
\
channel or harbor approach, immediately get away from them as quickly as possible.
out of the fairway by steering for the nearest Throughout, the navigator must ensure the
bank. Watch the echo sounder. If the fog is dense, deck log is maintained meticulously course —
the safest course will be to anchor in shoal water. steered, time and log reading of every alteration to
If visibility is not less than about a quarter the course, and of fog signals heard to help him
distance between channel buoys it may be gauge shipping lanes. He should plot his EP
189
.
carefully at suitable intervals — the nearer land the

more frequently. He should pay particular
attention to tidal streams, bearing in mind that
whether the yacht is moving or stopped in the
water (but not when anchored) the current will
have the same effect. In fog the wind is often
light and the sea calm. Streams are likely to
conform closely to predictions. If carefully worked
up, the positions found by dead reckoning (plus
streams) are likely to be most reliable. However,
nothing should be left to chance, and EPs should
be checked by radio DF and soundings, but when
these are not available, trust your EP.
If in coastal waters the navigator should make
a he has not already done so in the course

list (if
of his normal pre-passage work) of lighthouses,

light vessels and buoys, listing their fog signal
characteristics and type. All radio DF stations and
aero beacons likely to come within range should
be listed, with times and identification letters. If
distant more than about half their listed range,
treat a position so found with caution, particularly
at night or twilight when distortion or refraction
is at a maximum. Warn
hands that the
all
direction and the distance off of all sound signals

in fog can be extremely misleading. Bear this in
mind whan deciding on action on hearing a fog

signal.
Maxims to remember in fog or mist are:
1 Constant lookout: including astern and abeam.

2. Maintain silence: no avoidable talking.
3. Watch echo sounder (in soundings).
4. Hold a steady compass course and speed.
5. Turn away from danger.
6. Plot the EP frequently, and trust the EP till
proved wrong.
7. Sound fog signals in accordance with
international collision regulations, rule 15.
190
17. Traverse Tables
When we are using a chart to plot successive run, or a series of separate runs and/or currents,
EPs we do so by laying off a line representing from our original EP, or a fix or observed
direction and distance sailed through the water, position, without the necessity for plotting, or
add a current line if appropriate, and the end of indeed without the use of a chart at all.
new EP. We can read its latitude
the line gives a
and longitude from the edges of the chart. If we The tables
are making frequent alterations to course steered, In navigation, positions are described in terms of
as when tacking to windward or sailing on wind their latitude and longitude. This could be said to
shifts, we have to plot a series of runs in different be a form of map grid reference: so many degrees
directions and distances. We may be subject to a and minutes N or S of the equator: so many W
series of tidal streams setting in varying directions or E of the Greenwich meridian 0°. The point
and rates. We can again, if we wish, lay off each described is at the intersection of the two.
individual "run" on a given course, and lay off Except when the course happens to be exactly N
each current line of appropriate length and or S, E or W, we are always "traversing" across the
direction. We
can find the latitude and longitude chart, diagonally.
of the final position reached, or if we wish, any If we sail from A to C, (Fig 1 1 7.), a distance of,
intermediate position. This can be a tedious say, 10 miles, we

have made some northing
shall
process, and each separate line provides its and some easting. The amount of northing will be
individual element of small error. A— B, and the easting B— C. We have a right-angled
If we are in the middle of an ocean, or making triangle. We know the angle "a," the course, and
a long semi-coastal passage we shall probably be the side A-C, the distance. The traverse tables
using a small-chart covering several hundred will tell us the length of the other two sides
miles. A run of a score or so of miles, or a current A— B and B— C. If one sails a course of 320°
line for afew hours would be too small to plot (N40°W) from a known position, say 30°N 25°W,
accurately and we shall need to calculate (rather what will be the position after sailing 50 miles?
than to plot on the chart) the change in position Clearly one has amount northward,
sailed a certain
and thus the new position, in terms of its so the N latitude have increased, and a
will
latitude and longitude. certain amount westward, so the longitude will
The Traverse Tables are a quick means of have changed to westward. But by how much?
enabling us to calculate a new EP after a single This is the sort of problem the traverse table solves.
191
know that, by definition, one 1

' of latitude =
1 nautical mile. But we also know that 1
' of
longitude does NOT equal a nautical mile — only
on the equator. obvious from a globe that as
It is
we move further away from the equator the

N /^ distance between two meridians of
in miles
longitude becomes less and less, till they meet at
the poles. So the number of minutes of longitude
spanned by a mile depends on the latitude of the
position. The Traverse Tables give the answer to
our right-angled triangle in terms of miles both
ways. In the diagram, C is so many miles
( = minutes of latitude) north of A (A to B), and
so many miles (but not minutes of longitude)
Fig 117. Yacht goes 1 miles from A to C : traverse tables will east of A (B to C). The miles moved in a easterly
find change and longitude.
in latitude AB is"D. Lat." BC is or westerly direction are called departure.
"departure." Course AC is 036 and 1 °
miles is the "distance."
Traverse Tables vary in format depending upon
the reference book used. But once you understand the
basic principles involved, you should be able to
find your way around any Traverse Table quite
easily. If in doubt, the reference you are
consulting will always provide specific instructions
with examples for their particular tables.
Fig 1 1 8 shows a single page from a set of
Traverse Tables which we will use for purposes
The page covers distances from
of illustration.
1 to 300 miles. Because entries in Traverse Tables
are proportional, the scope of a table can be

adequately extended by simple multiplication. Note
that each block of columns is headed "D Lon" and
"Dep/'and underneath "Dist," "D.Lat.," and "Dep."
For the moment, disregard the "D Lon Dep" head. —
The course in our example was 36°, and the distance
1 miles. On the Traverse Table page for 36° at
In Fig 1 1 7, assume the yacht is at position A, Dist. 1 we find D. Lat. 8.1 and Dep. 5.9. This
latitude54°N, longitude 3°E and sails 10 miles means that, on this course, the difference in
on course 036° (N36°E). What is the latitude and latitude (D. lat.) between A and B will be
longitude of the final position C? The traverse 8.1 miles (= 8'.1 of lat.) and the change
tables solve the right-angled triangle ABC. in an easterly direction will be 5.9 MILES of
But first we must consider the units used. We departure.
:
192
traverse tables
Table 3 TRAVERSE TABLE /
inly
tas
36° tT 36°
D Lon Dep D Lor i Dep D Lon Dep D Lon Dep D Lon Dep
Dist. D. Lat. Dep. Dist D. Lat . Dep. Dist. D. Lat. Dep. Dist. D. Lat. Dep. Dist. D. Lat. Dep.
Hyp. Adj. Ovp. Hyp. Adj. Opp. Hyp. Adj. Opp. Hvp. Adj. Opp. Hyp. Adj. Opp.
1 0.8 0.6 61 49.4 35.9 121 97.9 71.1 181 146.4 106 4 241 195.0 141.7
tat
2 1.6 1.2 62 50.2 36.4 122 98.7 71.7 182 147.2 107.0 242 195 8 142.2
3 2.4 1.8 63 51.0 37.0 123 99.5 72.3 183 148.1 107.6 243 196.6 142.8
Jde
4 3.2 2.4 64 51.8 37.6 124 100.3 72.9 184 148.9 108.2 244 197.4 143.4
5 4.0 2.9 65 52.6 38.2 125 101.1 73.5 185 149.7 108.7 245 198.2 144.0
the 4.9
6 3.5 66 53.4 38.8 126 101.9 74.1 186 150.5 109.3 246 199.0 144.6
7 5.7 4.1 67 54.2 39.4 127 102.7 74.6 187 151.3 109.9 247 199.8 145.2
to 8 6.5 4.7 68 55.0 40.0 128 103 6 75.2 188 152.1 110.5 248 200.6 145.8
9 7.3 5.3 69 55.8 40.6 129 104.4 75.8 189 152.9 111.1 249 201.4 146.4
10 8.1 5.9 70 56.6 41.1 130 105.2 76.4 190 153.7 111.7 250 202.3 146.9
11 8.9 6.5 71 57.4 41.7 131 106.0 77.0 191 154.5 112.3 251 203.1 147.5
12 9.7 7.1 72 58.2 42.3 132 106.8 Tib 192 155.3 112.9 252 203.9 148.1
nd 13 10.5 7.6 73 59.1 42.9 133 107.6 78.2 193 156.1 113.4 253 204.7 148.7
14 11.3 8.2 74 59.9 43.5 134 108.4 78.8 194 156.9 114.0 254 205.5 149.3
15 12.1 8.8 75 60.7 44.1 135 109.2 79.4 195 157.8 114.6 255 206.3 149.9
16 12.9 9.4 76 61.5 44.7 136 110.0 79.9 196 158.6 115.2 256 207.1 150.5
17 13.8 10.0 77 62.3 45.3 137 110.8 80.5 197 159.4 115.8 257 207.9 151.1
i
18 14.6 10.6 78 63.1 45.8 138 111.6 81.1 198 160.2 116.4 258 208.7 151.6
19 15.4 11.2 79 63.9 46.4 139 112.5 81.7 199 161.0 117.0 259 209.5 152.2
20 16.2 11.8 80 64.7 47.0 140 113.3 82.3 200 161.8 117.6 260 210.3 152.8
pon 21 17.0 12.3 65.5 47.6 82.9 162.6 118.1 211.2
81 141 114.1 201 261 153.4
22 17.8 12.9 82 66.3 48.2 142 114.9 83.5 202 163.4 118.7 262 212.0 154.0
indthe 23 18.6 13.5 83 67.1 48.8 143 115.7 84.1 203 164.2 119.3 263 212.8 154.6
24 19.4 14.1 84 68.0 49.4 144 116.5 84.6 204 165.0 119.9 264 213.6 155.2
to 25 20.2 14.7 85 68.8 50.0 145 117.3 85.2 205 165.8 120.5 265 214.4 155.8
26 21.0 15.3 86 69.6 50.5 146 118.1 85.8 206 166.7 121.1 266 215.2 156.4
i
27 21.8 15.9 87 70.4 51.1 147 118.9 86.4 207 167.5 121.7 267 216.0 156.9
28 22.7 16.5 88 71.2 51.7 148 119.7 87.0 208 168.3 122.3 268 216.8 157.5
29 23.5 17.0 89 72.0 52.3 149 120.5 87.6 209 169.1 122.8 269 217.6 158.1
30 24.3 17.6 90 72.8 52.9 150 121.4 88.2 210 169.9 123.4 270 218.4 158.7
tions
31 25.1 18.2 91 73.6 53.5 151 122.2 88.8 211 170.7 124.0 271 219.2 159.3
32 25.9 18.8 92 74.4 54.1 152 123.0 89.3 212 171.5 124.6 272 220.1 159.9
33 26.7 19.4 93 75.2 54.7 153 123.8 89 9 213 172.3 125.2 273 220.9 160.5
34 27.5 20.0 94 76.0 55.3 154 124.6 90.5 214 173.1 125.8 274 221.7 161.1
35 28.3 20.6 95 76.9 55.8 155 125.4 91.1 215 173.9 126.4 275 222.5 161.6
36 29.1 21.2 96 77.7 56.4 156 126.2 91.7 216 174.7 127.0 276 223.3 162.2
37 29.9 21.7 97 78.5 57.0 1S7 127.0 92.3 217 175.6 127.5 277 224.1 162.8
38 30.7 22.3 98 79.3 57.6 158 127.8 92.9 218 176.4 128.1 278 224.9 163.4
39 31.6 22.9 99 80.1 58.2 159 128.6 93.5 219 177.2 128.7 279 225.7 164.0
40 32.4 23.5 100 80.9 58.8 160 129.4 94.0 220 178.0 129.3 280 226.5 164.6
41 33.2 24.1 101 81.7 59.4 161 130.3 94.6 221 178.8 129.9 281 227.3 165.2
42 34.0 24.7 102 82.5 60.0 162 131.1 95.2 222 179.6 130.5 282 228.1 165.8
43 34.8 25.3 103 83.3 60.5 163 131.9 95.8 223 180.4 131.1 283 229.0 166.3
Note 44 35.6 25.9 104 84.1 61.1 164 132.7 96.4 224 181.2 131.7 284 229.8 166.9
45 36.4 26.5 105 84.9 61.7 165 133.5 97.0 225 182 132.3 285 230.6 167.5
'and
46 37.2 27.0 106 85.8 62.3 166 134.3 97.6 226 182.8 132.8 286 231.4 168.1
47 38.0 27.6 107 86.6 62.9 167 135.1 98.2 227 183.6 133.4 287 232.2 168.7
48 38.8 28.2 108 87.4 63.5 168 135.9 98.7 228 184.5 134.0 288 233.0 169.3
Dep."
49 39.6 28.8 109 88.2 64.1 169 136.7 99.3 229 185.3 134.6 289 233.8 169.9
50 40.5 29.4 110 89.0 64.7 170 137.5 99.9 230 186.1 135.2 290 234.6 170.5
head
51 41.3 30.0 111 89.8 65.2 171 138.3 100.5 231 186.9 135.8 291 235.4 171.0
stance 52 42.1 30.6 187.7 136.4 292 236.2 171.6
112 90.6 65.8 172 139.2 101.1 232
53 42.9 31.2 113 91.4 66.4 173 140.0 101.7 233 188.5 137.0 293 237.0 172.2
54 43.7 31.7 114 92.2 67.0 174 140.8 102.3 234 189.3 137.5 294 237.9 172.8
55 44.5 32.3 115 93.0 67.6 175 141.6 102.9 235 190.1 138.1 295 238.7 173.4
56 45.3 32.9 116 93.8 68.2 176 142.4 103.5 236 190.9 138.7 296 239.5 174.0
57 46.1 33.5 117 94.7 68.8 177 143 2 104.0 237 191.7 139.3 297 240.3 174.6
58 46.9 34.1 118 95.5 69.4 178 144.0 104.6 238 192.5 139.9 298 241.1 175.2
59 47.7 34.7 119 96.3 69.9 179 144.8 105.2 239 193.4 140.5 299 241.9 175.7
60 48.5 35.3 120 97.1 70.5 180 145.6 105.8 240 194.2 141.1 300 242.7 176.3
Hyp. Opp. Adj. Hyp. Opp. Adj. Hyp. Opp. Adj. Hyp. Opp. Adj. Hyp. Opp. Adj.
Dist. Dep. D. Lat. Dist. Dep. D. Lat. Dist. Dep. D. Lat. Dist. Dep. D. Lat. Dist. Dep. D. Lat.
D Lon Dep I D Lon Dep D Lon Dep | D Lon Dep D Lon Dep
W
DIP Fig 118. A page from a set of Traverse
c vi° ^^ r* a°
54 ^K±
I
31 Tables, giving the table for 36° or 54°.
193
Note Carefully. — Dep." and use the ITALIC headings "D Lon —
D. Lat. (difference in lat.) is minutes of latitude Dep. " Again, if the latitude is found at the
which are the same as miles, BUT foot of a page, use italics captions at foot of
Dep. (departure E or W) is miles, but not minutes column, e.g.:
of longitude. In Lat. 36°N (or S) Dep. 29.1 M = D. Lon.
We have now found the movement in a (minutes of longitude)
36'.
N or S direction, the D.Lat. in mileswhich are 54°N (or S) Dep. 17.0 M = D. Lon. 29'. 0.
thesame as minutes of latitude, and the In the Traverse Table page for 54° we should
movement in an E or W direction in Departure, find that against our Dep. 5.9 M its D. Lon.
which is in MILES. is given as 10'. longitude.
Notice that the Traverse Tables have pages We can now re-state the work.
headed 1 ° to 45° at the top, and the same pages Run Co. 036° = N 36° E 10M
arenumbered with 89° to 45° at the foot. If the D. Lat. 0°08M N
course angle appears at the foot of a page Dep. 5.9 M in Mean Lat. 54° =
(e.g. 54°), then we must use the captions at the D. Lon. 0°10'.0E
bottom of the columns. These now read If the change in latitude (D. Lat.) is large, e.g.
"Dist. — Dep. — D.Lat." (a different sequence from we start in latitude 48° and finish in latitude 50°,
the top headings). then we use the Mean Lat., the approximate
e.g. Co 54° Distance 36 M = D. Lat. 21 .2 M middle, in that case 49°, for converting the Dep.
Dep. 29.1 M. into D. Lon. A complete example would look like
As the Tables are only printed for 1 ° to 89° all Fig 123a which can be checked with the
courses should be converted into quadrantal Traverse Table extract given.
notation. This simple conversion also ensures Note also that the "summing up" of the figures
we give the D. Lat. and Dep. the correct Names follows the usual algebraic system — when names
(N orS, EorW) — are the same (W and W lon.) add; when names
e.g. Co 039°= N 39° E are opposite (N and S lat.) subtract the smaller
125°S 55° E (180 - 125 = 55)
= from the larger and name as the larger, (N).
224°S 44° (224 - 1 80 = 44)
= W Where a number of different courses are
293°N 67° (360 - 293 = 67)
= W involved, the D. Lat. and departure of each must
We can now "name" the D. Lat. and Dep. the be turned up and listed, but it is not necessary to
same as the course D. Lat. 21 '.2 N — convert each Dep. into D. Lon. separately.
Dep. 19.1 miles E. The Deps can be summed up and the total (net)
We must now convert the E or W miles (Dep.) Dep. converted into a total D. Lon. Note also
into minutes of longitude in our particular that one or a series of tidal streams or current
latitude,remembering that the relationship can be treated in the same way and much work
between miles and minutes of longitude depends saved. The secret lies in a clear, methodical
on the latitude we are in. The same Traverse tabulation, as in Fig 123b.
Tables solve this also. Note that for conversion of the Departure into
We now use the latitude to determine the page, D. Lon. a Lat. of 46° has been used as
Mean
and we now disregard the headings "Dist. — D.Lat. this is about halfway between 45°20' N and
194
traverse tables
Old EP (or starting point) 36°05'.0 N 24°40'.0 W

Run 24 M on Co 234° T = S 54° W
D. Lat. = 14'.1 S
Dep. 19.4 M, in Mean Lat. 36°
ode)
D. Lon. = 24'.0W
!5'
New EP 35°50'.9N 25°04'.0W
Fig 123a.
Last EP 45°20'.0 N 1 8°40'.0 W.
Course Distance D. Lat Dep.

N S W E
050° = N 50° E 24 miles 15.4 18.4

340° = N 20° W 30 miles 28.2 10.3
075° = N 75° E 42 miles 10.9 40.6
350° = N 10°W 18 miles 17.7 3.1
095° = S85°E 12 miles 1.0 12.0
015° = N 15°E 36 miles 34.8 9.3
Current setting
241° = S61°W 2kn x 18 hrs = 36 M 17.5 31.5
249° = S69°W H kn x 6 hrs = 9 M 3.2 8.4
107.0 21.7 53.3 80.3

-21.7 -53.3
D. Lat. 85'. 3 N Dep 27.0 E
Last EP 45°20'.0N 18°40'.0W

D. Lat. 85'. 3 N 1 °25'.3 N
Dep. 27.0 E in M. Lat. 46°

D. Lon. = 38'. 9 E
New EP 46°45'.3 N 18°01'.1 W
Fig 123b. 195

S W
46°45'.3 N. (The exact figure is of course Answer: Course 234° T, Distance 58 miles.
o
45 2 o + 1
°^53 =46°03', but exact The Tables are based on the solution of a plane
right-angled triangle. While the answers given are
interpolationis seldom necessary).
sufficiently accurate for a relatively small triangle,
would have been tedious to have plotted all
It
when distances above about 600 miles are
these courses and currents on a chart, and slight
involved accuracy falls off and the problem
inaccuracies would be probable. The use of
requires the solution of a spherical triangle. For
traverse tables for this type of problem will give a
distances above this figure the table of
more accurate answer — indeed it will be as
meridional parts can be used, but as this has
accurate as the courses and distances used
little practical application to yachtsmen it is not
correspond with those actually sailed.
dealt with here.
The traverse tables can be used for the solution
of a number of similar problems, for example, to
find the course and distance between two
positions of known latitude and longitude,
e.g.
What is the true course and distance from a
position 36°1 4' N 28°20' W
to a position
35°40' N 29°18' W?
First position 36°14' N 28°20' W
Second position 35°40' N 29°18'
D. Lat. 34'
D. Lon. 58'
In Mean Lat. 36° dep. = 46.9 M
D. Lat. 34'. 1 and Dep. 46.9 are found on
Traverse Table for 54°, against distance 58 miles.
S 54° W (names same as D. Lat. and D. Lon.)
= 234° T.
196
18. Celestial Navigation
In celestial or astro navigation the yacht's reduction tables now available (referred to later)
position is established using heavenly bodies simplify the calculations immensely.
instead of terrestrial objects. When within sight of Exactly as with sights from terrestrial objects, a
identifiable objects on land, a position line single observation of a single heavenly body will
established by a bearing (or a vertical sextant provide only a position line, somewhere on which
angle) of a single object, or a fix by bearings, is the observer's position. To obtain an "observed
horizontal sextant angles or VSA's of two or more position" (so called to distinguish it from a fix
such objects will give the most accurate result. obtained by terrestrial objects), it is necessary
When out of sight of land, various radio methods (Fig 11 9.) either to observe two (or more)
of position finding may be available, but accuracy heavenly bodies (almost) simultaneously, or to
decreases with distance from the station, and observe one body (usually the sun), then to
(except with the most sophisticated equipment) proceed until the body's position in the sky has
they are valueless mid-ocean. If any heavenly
in materially moved when a second observation is
body and the horizon can be seen anywhere in the taken. The second position line should make a
world a position line can be established within wide angle to the first (ideally about 90°). The
1 0—1 5 minutes. Accuracy to within 1 miles is direction and distance the yacht has sailed since
possible under rough conditions, and to within the first observation was taken. (Fig 1 20.) This is
2 miles under moderate to favorable conditions. precisely analogous to the "running fix."
By day, the sun, often the moon, and Some navigators use the sun exclusively, since
occasionally a planet can be used. Moon, this is the easiest and most freouently visible. The
planets and stars can be used at twilight, and ability toshoot the moon, planets and stars is an
under very favorable conditions of light can also advantage, as it enables an observed position to be
be used in darkness. The body must of course be found at once without having to wait for a second
visible, either in a clear sky or through gaps in sight after a run of some hours, as must be done
clouds. if only the sun is used. If three (or more)
No higher mathematics are involved: simple heavenly bodies are observed (nearly)
straightforward formulae are used which anyone simultaneously, the position line given by each
can soon master. Taking sights with a sextant should theoretically cross all others at a point. As
needs practice but tolerable accuracy should be with compass bearings of three or more terrestrial
possible after an hour or so. The rapid sight Objects they seldom do so, but form a "cocked
197
T=^- —
hat," the size of which gives a good guide as to

the accuracy of the sights. (Fig 1 21 .)
Ocean passages
A large yacht, sail or power, equipped with the
latest hyperbolic radio position finding equipment,
could cross an ocean and make a good landfall
without taking a celestial observation. Without
such equipment, an ocean-going yachtsman must
be capable of taking celestial sights. It is
interesting to note than many captains of
passenger liners insist on their watch-keeping
officers taking celestial sights daily and on the
ship's position being checked in spite of the ship
using the very latest radio and other devices
which pin-point the position exactly. This is
partly to keep the watch-keeping officers "in
training," and partly to ensure the radio fixing
equipment is working correctly.
For these reasons it is fair to say that any yacht Fig 1 1 9. Two simultaneous sights : moon and one star.
however well equipped, should have the means Construction line (c) is actual bearing to celestial body.
Position line is at right angles to it.
and skill aboard to enable accurate fixes by
sextant observations of celestial bodies to be
made, if it is proposed to make an ocean passage.
Long-distance semi-coastal passages

Here we are considering such passages as
from Annapolis, Maryland to Edgartown on Martha's
Vineyard, from San Francisco to Vancouver, or
in Europe from England to Gibraltar. These
passages have often been safely made without

the use of celestial navigation. Radio beacons can
be used at various points (but by no means at all
stages of the passage), and careful working up of
the position by dead reckoning can be employed.
However, the EP can be seriously in error
perhaps dangerously so —
if for any reason a fix by
DF beacons or by observations of land objects

cannot be established for several days. This could
occur if the yacht were obliged to lie a-hull in
198
celestial navigation
heavy weather, or had engine trouble, or the

radio became unserviceable. If fixes by land
objects are being relied upon there is a tendency
for the course to be laid perhaps imprudently
close inshore. If there is any risk of heavy weather
a yacht is safest well off-shore. An offing of
50 miles isnone too great if the coast is liable to
be a lee shore, bearing in mind that a yacht lying
a-hull may drift downwind at 1 kn or more.
The ability to take celestial sights encourages
the setting of a course well offshore, with the
knowledge that the position can probably be
observed at frequent intervals only dependent on
visibility of the sun or any other heavenly body.
Celestial sights taken 50 or more miles from the
shore should provide more accurate positions
than any taken from radio beacons or Consolan
stations.
Short coastal or sea passages

Celestial sights areseldom necessary on short
coastal passages, taking only up to perhaps 36
hours. Nevertheless, occasions do arise when a
celestial observation can be of real value. On
Fig 1 20. Two sun sights, but with a run of 20 miles 240°
between them. The position (top right) has been transferred to
double arrowed line to give intersection which is position.
Fig 121 Three simultaneous sights. Each position line

. is
obtained from a different star: they intersect to give an

observed position. '''
199
Fig 1 22. Crossing DF

bearings with a celestial observation.
The DF Head and Round Island are so much
stations at Mizzen
in line with yacht's position that she is only known to be in
shaded area. But when crossed by position line from morning

sun sight, a fix is obtained in red circle
200
celestial navigation
a trip across the Bay of Fundy to Halifax, Nova A traditional sextant costs upwards of $300 new,
Scotia, one may have a slow passage and be very glad and well over half of this price second hand. A
to establish the boat's position well off land. micrometer sextant is much to be preferred to a
Or to take an example from European waters, vernier sextant because of the ease of reading the
the crossing from Land's End, England to Fastnet former, but a good second hand vernier sextant
Rock lighthouse in southern Ireland is about can be cheaper) it just
just as accurate (and is
180 miles. There is a good RDF station ahead (at takes a few more moments to read. There is an
Mizzen Head) and another nearly astern (Round excellent micrometer sextant on the market made
Island) but DF stations abeam (needed to of specially stabilized plastic which is accurate to
establish the position along the track line) are too well within 2' of arc. Using this, the author has
far off to be of value. A celestial observation along got position lines to the same degree of accuracy
this line can be of great help. (Fig 1 22.) as with traditional sextants, since the limiting
Apart from the occasions —
admittedly factor is the stability of the "platform" used — the
infrequent — where celestial observations are of yacht's deck, and the visibility of the horizon,
value when coastal passage making, the rather than the accuracy of the sextant.
knowledge that such sights can be taken is itself Bubble sextants designed for use on aircraft are
satisfying and rewarding. No skipper or navigator on offer. Even in the hands of an expert, accuracy
can claim to be fully competent if he is not able to within 1 miles is unlikely even in a calm sea,
to take, and use, celestial observations. and they are unusable in seas producing sizeable
waves, so are not recommended on yachts.
Accuracy of positions Except for sights taken for latitude (when the
The accuracy of an observed position will body is crossing the observer's meridian) exact
naturally depend first on the experience of the time is essential. By exact is meant within about
observer, and secondly on the sea conditions and 5 seconds. (It is not correct that an error in time
size of the yacht. As a broad guide, the average of one second equals one nautical mile). Around
"week end" yachtsman in a 30 ft sailing yacht the equator, where the sun's altitude moves most
in a moderate sea, say, up to Beaufort force 4 or 5, rapidly, an error of 5 seconds of time gives a
should obtain a position line to within 5 miles. A maximum error of about 1 \ miles, and in latitude
practised yachtsman should get equal accuracy 50° an error of six seconds gives an error of under
up to force 7 if is clear. These are
the sky a mile. These errors are within f he degree of
conservative figures. have taken sun sights from
I accuracy with which sights can normally be
a known position (near a landfall buoy) to taken at sea.
within 1 mile in a 30 ft yacht in force 5 If a radio capable of picking up time signals is
while singlehanded. carried, a deck watch, or an ordinary good pocket

The only essential equipment needed for or wristwatch can be used provided it has a
celestial sights is: seconds hand and keeps time to within a few
(a) A sextant. seconds a day. It is, of course, not necessary to
(b) A deck watch or chronometer, or good keep altering the watch to correspond exactly
timepiece and radio. with the time signal. The error of the watch
(c) A nautical almanac and table book. (minutes and seconds fast or slow of the zone
201
time) should be logged daily or more often, the passages, interesting and adds a new dimension
rate of gain or loss established, and all watch to open-water sailing.
times adjusted by the current error (fast or slow) 2. The most expensive item required is a good
to give exact zone time. timepiece. If capable of picking up time
a radio
In addition to a notebook for recording and signals is aboard, a good watch can be used.
calculating sextant sights, several alternative The only other items for celestial work are
books are necessary. All commented on here will books as mentioned and a sextant, which will
enable sights of the sun, moon, planets and 60 not be costly if one of the plastic type (such as
stars of use to the navigator to be worked out. the Ebbco) is used.
The alternative combinations are: 3. Celestial Navigationis not difficult; there is no
"black magic" about There is less to learn than

(a) Almanac for current year — Nautical it.
in coastal navigation. There are many good text

almanac or Air almanac
books on the subject, and many courses and
Navigational Tables
classes are available. Uniform with this volume, is
or (b) Almanac for current year — (Nautical or Air)
Ocean Yacht Navigator by the same author.
Sight Reduction Tables — Air) either
(for
H0249 (two volumes cover the world), or
H0229 (four volumes cover the world
upto60°N and S)
or (c) Reeds' Nautical Almanac for current year.
The advantages and disadvantages of each

alternative are:
(a) Only two books required to cover the

world. The use of haversines and logarithms
(though straightforward) requires more time.
Approximate time to work out a sight, 1 0—1 5
minutes.
(b) The quickest and easiest method. Each
Sight Reduction Table volume covers a band of
latitudes, so the number of books needed depends
upon areas sailed.
Only the single book is required, but the
(c)
procedure involves the use of versines and
logarithms, and is the slowest with which to work
a sight, taking 20 minutes or more.
If you want to know whether to study celestial
navigation remember:
1 . The ability to take celestial observations is
essential for ocean passages, desirable for short
202
-
-«s=
Index
Aero Radiobeacons 35. 138 correction of 32. 167

Anchoring, in fog 187 datum (CD.) 22
Apparent wind 160 depths 96
indicator 71 gnomonic projection 18
Arc of visibility 23 harbour plans 20
Astro navigation 197. 204 isogonic 20
Atlas, tidal stream 84. 167 lattice 20. 142
Autofix, RDF. 67 mercator projection 18
Anemometer 72 navigational 16
non-navigational 19
Barometer 49. 70 ocean 20
Beacons, radar 149 polar 18
Beat frequency oscillator 137. 140 projections 17
Bearings, compass 80. 1 1 5 radiobeacon 6. 20. 134
cross- 115 reading the 32
magnetic 76. 81 routing 19
relative 14. 137 scales of 20
to lay off 47 storage of 33. 2
Beaufort wind scale 164 symbols 20

Bell buoy 35 table for 36
Betalight 64 types of 16
Binoculars 49. 69 Check lists 172
Books & tables 32 Chronometer 201
Bottom, seabed types 35 Circle, degrees in 13
Bottom, types of 35 of position 121, 130
"Bowditch" 16 Clock 9.70. 174
British Admiralty charts 17 Clutter, radar 146
Bubble sextant 201 Coastal passage, a 175
Buoyage list 170. 172 refraction. RDF. 136
systems 27. 29 Cocked hat 115. 138
Buoys 23. 30 Collision, avoidance by radar 152
radar 149 Compass adjusting 76
bearings 50. 115
Cable, distance 14 bulkhead reading 56
Calibration. D.F. sets 137 Danforth White 57
Cardinalbuoyage system 27. 29 errors of the 73
Catalogue of charts 17 grid steering 52,54
Celestial navigation 197 hand bearing 49.63
Characteristics of lights 23. 34. 129 high speed, for 56
Chart datum 22. 102. 104 lighting 57
Charts, abbreviations 17 remote control 55
care of 33 siting the 51
catalogues 17 steering 49.50

coastal 20 Compasses, drawing 36.40
co-tidal & co-range 20 Computer, performance 72
204
Composite fixes 133 station pointer 125
Consolan. RDF. 140 Echo sounder 60.96
Contours 22. 173 Efficiency indicator 72
Correction of charts 32 Eldridge tide and pilot book 23
Course notes 168 Electra magnetic log 59
lay off a 47 Electrascan 153
shape a 82. 86. 90 Equator 13
track- 86 Errors of the compass 73
plotting the 92 Estimated position 94
wake- 86 Explosive, fog signals 35
Cross-bearings 115
Currents 23.85. 115 Factor. Height of tide 103
Currents, tidal 17. 101. 104 Fathoms 15. 22. 111
Cyclone 70 Ferrite rod aerial 66
Fix, providing a 92. 114. 123. 126.130
Danger angle, sextant 128 running 119
Dead reckoning, position by 92.94 Flares 183
Decca. RDF. 141 Fog. navigation in 182
Decimetre 22 signals 35. 183
Deck log book 163. 164 list of 168. 172
Deck watch 49. 201 Four-point bearing 120
Departure (& D.Lon:) 192
Departure preparations 173 Geographical pole 13
point of 92 range of light 130
Depths 5. 21. 22.96 Gimbals 50
Depth meter 49. 60. 62 Gnomonic projection 18
Degrees 13 Graphic display meters 62
Deviation 77, 90.94 Great circle 12. 18
card 80 Grid steering compass 52.54
causes of 74 Gulf stream 23. 85
check in emergency 80 Gun. fog signal 35
finding the 78
swing ship for 78 Hand bearing compass 49.63
Diaphone 35 Harbour plans 20
Direction 13 Height of objects on land 21. 22
Direction finding radio 49. 134 tide 96. 101. 173. 180. 181
Display unit, radar 144 Homologue compass 56
Distance, measurement of 14.43. 58. 59 Horatio 72
meters 49. 58 Horizontal sextant angle 121
rising & dipping 128 Hurst plotting protractor 47
off 120 Hydrographic Center 17
by VSA&HSA 121, 126 Hydrographic department 17
Diurnal tides 97, 102 Hyperbolic RDF systems 138
Dividers, drawing 36,40,43,44
Doppler log 59 Ice limits 19
Douglas protractor 24. 36.46. 124.150 InterScan, radar 146
Drift, surface 88 Interval, tides 102
of tidal stream 94 Isogonic lines 20.74
Drying heights 22.98. 104 Instruments for chart table 36
Duration of tide 102 yacht 49
Dutton's navigation 16
Knot, unit of speed 15
Ebbco sextant 202
205
Landfall preparations 173 Obstructing large vessels 26
Lateral buoyage system 27. 29 Ocean charts 20
Latitude 12. 13 currents 19
Lattice charts. RDF 20. 142 Omega. RDF 143
Lee bow. to 159
Leeway 82. 85.92 Parallel rule 36. 40. 41
Life preservers 183 Parallel of latitude 13
Light float 24. 150 Passage making 175
house 22.23. 26. 130 Patent log 58
tower 25 Pelorus 49.62
vessel 24 Pencils 37
Lighting, chart table 36 Period of lights 23. 129. 130. 168
compass 57 Pilotage 11
Lights, characteristics 30. 34. 129 Pilot books 17.33.84
colour of 34 Plan position indicator, radar 144
list of 21. 32. 168 Plotting the course 95
Line of soundings 131 position 114
Lobes, radar 147 Points, of the compass 51
Log books 163. 176 Polar charts 18
electroscan 59 Port approach charts 20
patent 58 Port entry signals 170
reading the 92 Position, methods od describing 13
Longitude 13 .. finding 114
Loop aerial. RDF 66 DR & EP 94
Loran. C 141 a circle of 115. 121. 128
Lowest astronomical tide 22.96 line of 114
Lubber line 50.51.73 by sextant 121. 126. 197
Luffing error 90 Predictions, of tide 101
Preparations for passage 167
Magnetic bearings 73.81 Projections, chart 17
Magnets, correcting compass 76 Protractor. Hurst 37.81
Magnifying glass 36.49 Sestrel 38.81
Mercator projection 18 Weems 46
Meridians 13
Meters 15. 22. 111 Quadrantal bearings 51
Micrometer sextant 201 error. RDF 136
Mile, nautical or sea- ; statute 14
Minute of arc 13 Racon 149. 151
Radar buoys with reflectors 35.148. 154
National Ocean Survey tables 16 principles of 145
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 101 Radiobeacons 20. 35.66. 138
Nautical mile 14 charts 16
Nautophone 35 Radio direction finding 66. 1 34. et seq
Navigational marks 23 Radio refraction 136
Navigators log book 164. 165. 177 time signals 201
Neap tides 99. 172 Radome. radar 149
Night effect. RDF 136 Ramark 150
Notation. 360° 13 Range, methods of finding 121. 126.128
quadrantal 194 by radar 146. 150. 154
Note books 36 Range of tide 102.105 1
Null. RDF 67. 137 consolan stations 141 "
Reed's Nautical Almanac 21.33.84.109.202

Observed position 197 Reflector, radar 152. 154.183
206
Refraction. RDF 136 charts 23.84
Relative bearing 14. 134. 150. 152 Tide, causes of 97
Remote control compass 55 curve 105
Rhumbline 18 duration, and interval of 102
Rising & dipping distances 128 form for finding height 111
Routing charts 19 height of 22. 96. 105. 109
Rule, parallel 40 patterns of 97
roller 42 predictions of 101
Rule of twelve 112 range of 102
Running fix 119 rise of 108
rule-of-twelve 112
Sailing performance computer 72 tables 102
Scale of charts 20 terms used 104
Scanner, radar 144 Tracing paper, use of 124. 131
Seascribe depth meter 61 Track 82.86.92. 131. 167
Secondary ports, tides 103. 107. 108 Transceiver, radar 144
Sectors, of lights 24 Transducer 59. 60. 96. 98
Semi-diurnal tides 97 Transit 24. 115
Separation zones 167 Traverse tables, use of 1 91 et seq
Sestrel Luard protractor 38. 91 True N. bearings 13. 73.76
Sestrel Moore compass 51. 54
Sextant, bubble 201 Uniform buoyage system 26. 29
danger angle 128 Ursa Minor, radar 149
HSA&VSA 201 U.S. chart agencies 17
plastic 201.202
use of 49.70. 197 Variation, applying 77.90
Shape a course, to 82.86. 90 definition 73
Ship's head 85.91. 94 finding 74
Ship's log book 163 Vector, tide 86. 88. 131
Siren 35 wind 161
Soundings 21. 96. 131. 190 Vernier, sextant 126
line of 131 Vertical sextant angle 126
Speed made good 91
Speed, unit of 15 Wake course 85. 94. 95. 131
indicator, water- 59. 60 Water speed indicator 59.72
wind 99 Wave guide, radar 144
Spring tides 99 Weather forecasts 67. 174
Station pointer 123. 125 Whistle buoy 35
Statute mile 14 Wind direction indicator 71
Standard ports, tides 1 03 et seq recording 164
Stop watch 49. 69 speed indicator 72
Sumlog 59 Windward sailing 155
Surface drift 88
Swing for deviation 74.78
Symbols, chart 20
navigator's 179
Tables & books 33. 84. 102. 202

Tack limiting lines 156
Target, radar 145
Tidal current atlas 84. 167
allowance for 82. 94. 131 169. 172. 190. 195
causes of 97
207
Kenneth Wilkes operates a navigational
school in England giving private tuition
and correspondence courses from his
chartroom overlooking the Hamble
River. Many of his students have
subsequently made extensive coastal and
ocean passages. He has been a yacht
owner himself for many years and cruised
mainly in the waters of England, France,
Ireland and Canada. A qualified
Yacht Master (coastal and ocean), he
has also been navigator on a large
number of ocean races including the
Fastnet and been professionally engaged
as skipper-navigator by other owners.
Prior to engaging in fulltime teaching of

navigation, the author was an
accountant. He has always been
associated with the sea, and as a small
child he made two round-the-world
voyages with his father who commanded
a 2,000 ton square rigged ship.
Jacket photograph by Brian Manby
DAVID McKAY COMPANY, INO

750 Third Avenue
New York, New York 100 17
Printed in Great Britain

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yacht

This is a complete manual on how to

How to use small radar sets is dealt with,

explanation of the pilotage problem

The book is ideal when studying

DAVID McKAY COMPANY, INC.

Copyright © 1 978 by H. Kenneth Wilkes M. R.I.N.

First American edition, 1 978

Congress Catalog Card Number: 77-75995

Printed in Great Britain

1 Lost on the water 9

2. The mariner's map 16

3. Equipment to find the way 36

5. North, south, east, west 73

7. Plotting the course 92

8. How high is the tide ? 96

9. This is the position 1 1 4

10. How the radio helps 134

14. Off to sea 167

1 5. Coastal passage 175

16. Blinded but not lost : fog ! 182

18. Celestial navigation 197

Log book examples:

where to go next. navigating your yacht.

practical yacht navigator

Off we went on a reach. Later than had expected

the only sensible thing had done all night:

times every season. With fine weather —

Tick every sign and figure when checked.

practical yacht navigator

Fig 2. Parallels of latitude.

60 minutes (60') in a degree. Fractions of a Direction. A direction in the business of navigating

figure). Any named by this angle, in

practical yacht navigator

Fig 4. Bearings are given clockwise in degrees.

Fig 5. Relative bearings from ship's head: 45°

Fig 6. Relative bearings as given by the Navy:

If the bearing is measured in relation to the

(see Chapter 5).

Distance. All distances are measured in nautical

The new unit of depth, used on most new charts

Bearings on charts and lists of lights

Although these agencies are less important chart

Chart projections roughly spherical. So every attempt to make a chart is a

clearly impossible to flatten out an orange skin —

or stretching it in some way. The same applies to

the mariner's map

Fig 9. In Mercator projection, a course can be laid off as a

Fig 10. Gnomonic projection: great circle is now represented

his position along the great circle line. A yacht on

Winds. The directions and strengths of the winds

practical yacht navigator

fully discussed in Chapter 5. Port approach charts covering 1 2 to 24 miles across.

500,000' larger the scale the more detail. small scale

graduation marks one minute of latitude, each

lines connecting all points of a similar height.

addition, the sea areas of a chart give the heights

practical yacht navigator

indicates that over some arc or arcs the color