an ETG Brand

GT-100
Essential Knowledge & Skills
For Green Technologies

Jay and Annie Warmke

Solar Photovoltaic Installer

Certification Guide
Green Power Technologies
 PREFACE
PURPOSE

Several factors have come together to create a push for a greener world. These factors include¾accumulation of pollutants in our
atmosphere, lands and waters, an increasingly crowded planet due to rapid population growth worldwide, a marked increase in the
standard of living in many countries of the world, and diminishing resources that have historically been used to advance
civilization.

These factors have led to increasingly scarce and more-expensive energy supplies, accelerated extinction of plant and animal
types, greater differences between energy have and have-not countries, political balances based on energy relationships (instead
of mutual interests and progress), and increasing climate and environmental changes. These factors have come together to push
the green movement to the forefront of political and educational activities.

One of the main components of the green technology movement is the production of electrical power that does not involve or
produce carbon-based products or byproducts. Photovoltaic devices (devices used to generate electricity from solar energy) have
long been the most common alternative energy generation sources. What makes solar energy so interesting as an alternative
energy source is that the amount of solar energy being absorbed by the Earth (atmosphere, lands and oceans) in one hour is more
energy than the world uses in a year. This fact makes solar PV systems one of the most interesting and commercially-viable
alternative energy options.

One of the most highly touted advantages of the green movement is the large number of new jobs and job roles expected to be
created by the industry. The PV solar industry is at the forefront of this Green Collar jobs market.

This course is designed to prepare readers for jobs in the Solar PV workforce. This is accomplished by combining a solid Solar PV
theory course with a highly realistic collection of hands on lab procedures. In addition, the course prepares the reader to challenge
the industry standard PV Installer certification exam from the Electronic Technicians Association (ETA) as well as the Certified
Energy Practitioners (CEP) exam from the NABCEP.

Pedagogical Features
The pedagogical features of this book were carefully developed to provide readers with key content information, as well as review
and testing opportunities. These include:

· Over 250 diagrams and tables designed to provide regular visual reinforcement and clarity of the concepts being
discussed.

· The text follows closely the principles of STEM learning, exploring the basic Science that provides the foundation for
each Technology discussed. The Engineering principles that make the technology work are explored in detail, as are the
Mathematical concepts and equations that students must be able to complete if they are to have a well-rounded
understanding of the technology.

· Each chapter begins with a list of learning objectives that establishes a foundation and preview of important concepts
explored within the chapter.

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 · Key terms are presented in bold and highlighted in the margin for easy reference. They are also each defined in context
within the chapter.

· Each chapter concludes with a 10-question multiple-choice section and a 15-question section of open-ended review
questions. The multiple-choice questions test the knowledge of basic concepts presented within the chapter. The
open-ended questions are designed to test and demonstrate critical thinking abilities.

· Special Let’s Do The Math and Science Note inserts call attention to STEM features throughout the book.
· Appendix A contains the Photovoltaic (PV) Installer Objective Map.
· Appendix B is a comprehensive Glossary of terms to provide quick, easy access to key term definitions that appear
throughout the text. The key terms highlighted throughout the text work in conjunction with the Glossary.

· Appendix C provides a list of common acronyms used in the green technology industry.

Organization
This section explains the reasons the Green Movement has taken on such importance in a relatively short amount of time. It
describes the breath of the green movement and then focuses on the Green Power technology portion of the movement.

Chapter 1 - Alternative Energy Generation begins with a discussion of the atom and describes why electrons are important to the
generation of power that can be used to perform work. It also describes the Ohms Law relationship that exists between the four
major quantities of electricity¾voltage (push), current (flow), resistance (load) and power (ability to do work).

Chapter 2 - Safety introduces the student to the safety concerns faced by cable technicians in the normal flow of their work. It
begins by discussing different types of protective gear available and the circumstances under which each type should be used. It
also examines a number of safety issues related to the working environment. The chapter concludes with an extended presentation
of emergency response information.

Chapter 3 - Energy and Power provides much of the fundamental physical science upon which all Green Technology systems
are based. Students will develop a general understanding of the various forms of energy and understand the various physical laws
of conservation of energy and thermodynamics, and their relevance to alternative power systems. This chapter also gets into basic
electrical concepts such as Ohm’s Law and the relationship between amps, volts and watts. Students will develop a working
knowledge of electrical circuits, how batteries function and the difference between AC and DC power.

Chapter 4 - Passive Solar Systems outlines the important basic concepts of passive and active solar energy systems that serve as
the basis for some forms of green technology - including green building. They will also understand how passive daylighting
systems, thermal mass, thermal lag, and the thermal storage capacity of building materials are an effective energy source.
Attention is focused on the importance of the angle and location of the Sun in relation to a specific location and how to calculate
the Sun’s position. Students will also learn the difference between direct, indirect and isolated solar gain. Solar cooling systems
are also addressed in this chapter.

Chapter 5 - Active Solar Systems begins by exploring the science behind photovoltaics. Students will learn the components that
comprise a typical PV system (as well as their function within the system) and the advantages and disadvantages of the various
system configurations. They will also develop a working knowledge of solar thermal systems, focusing on the various compo-
nents and configurations of these water-heating systems, as well as sizing, maintenance, and safety concerns. The student will be
able to complete an economic analysis of the various systems under a number of circumstances. Utility-scale solar electric sys-
tems are also discussed.

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Chapter 6 - Installing and Designing Residential-Scale Photovoltaic Systems focuses on the “nuts and bolts” of actually
installing a typical residential photovoltaic system. The student will walk through the complete process, from conducting a site
survey, to mounting the system, and orienting it properly. Students will also learn how to assess the load requirements, select the
equipment required, and size the system appropriately (taking into account factors such as wiring sizing, voltage drop, inverter
selection, and battery bank considerations). Students will also learn how to test and maintain the system once it is installed.

Chapter 7 – Troubleshooting PV Systems presents diagnostic and troubleshooting procedures and techniques applicable to
photovoltaic power generation systems. These procedures include step to measure, test and verify key system parameters to
identify and correct problems in photovoltaic power generating systems. Students will also learn how to use and update system
documentation and how to identify points of demarcation with other workers or organizations.

Chapter 8 – Building Codes and Compliance introduces you to the most common standards and regulations associated with
installing PV generation systems.There are many levels of rules (standards, codes, regulations and laws) associated with
installing PV generation systems. These regulations vary from location to location and may come from different levels of
authority. However, they must be complied with to have a legal installation.

Chapter 9 - Understanding Blueprints offers a basic knowledge of blueprint reading. This final chapter is essential. Without
blueprints, PV installations would be haphazard and unruly. To understand blueprints is to have clarity for the PV installer. The
hands-on procedure in this chapter provides an activity in examining and identifying items associated with blueprints.

The Hands-On Lab Procedures

The second half of the GT-1000 Text/Lab Guide contains an excellent set of hands on procedures that build upon the wealth of
theoretical materials from the front of the book to prepare the reader for a successful career in the Solar PV workforce.

The lab guide section of the book contains four types of labs¾multiple hands on labs designed to provide an introduction to the
major technologies commonly found in the PV installation workplace. A Guided Research lab that expands the reader’s
knowledge base of current and extended PV systems follows the hands on labs. This lab procedure is followed by one or more
Guided Design labs that present a scenario and expected outcomes and asks the reader to apply their acquired knowledge from the
hands-on and research labs to evaluate, design and implement the requested scenario. The final lab procedure is a hands-on,
guided “Let’s Take It Outside” procedure that enables the reader to implement a PV generation system outside the lab setting.

Lab Procedure 1 – Introduction to Electrical Systems – This procedure introduces the reader to basic hands-on processes associ-
ated with electrical and electronic circuitry – including making different types of electrical connections and using electrical test
equipment to measure voltage, current and resistance.

Lab Procedure 2 – Introduction to Photovoltaic Panels – In this procedure, you will be introduced to installing PV panels and the
support components typically used in residential PV installations.

Lab Procedure 3 – Off-Grid Photovoltaic Power Systems – The power output of a PV panel or array is not steady. The voltage
and current levels produced from the panels varies with the time of day, time of year and atmospheric conditions. Therefore, the
PV array alone is not dependable as the primary source of power for most applications. In most residential, the output of the PV ar-
ray is either used to charge a bank of storage batteries. In this procedure, you will become familiar with common configurations
and devices employed in Off-Grid installations, including charge, and load controllers, and load diverters as well as common bat-
tery configurations for meeting different load requirements.

Lab Procedure 4 – Grid-Tied Photovoltaic Power Systems – PV panel arrays are also commonly used to supplement power com-
ing in from the commercial power grid (or to actually supply power to the grid through a net metering arrangement with the power
utility. This lab procedure will introduce you to specialized equipment and techniques used to connect the local PV generation
system to the power grid and monitor its impact on the local usage and net metering opportunities.

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Lab Procedure 5 – Solar Power Research – This guided Research lab is designed to guide you into deeper investigations of the
current PV power generation market, its equipment, requirements and regulations.

Lab Procedure 6 – PV System Design – The guided Design lab(s) ask you to apply the knowledge you’ve acquired throughout
the hands-on and research procedures to a real world scenario to evaluate and provide an acceptable design that will meet the
requirements of the project scenario.

Lab Procedure 7 – Understanding Blueprints – In this procedure you will examine an actual blueprint of a commercial facility
and be asked to locate and identify standard blueprint symbols.

Lab Procedure 8 – PV System Troubleshooting – This procedure is designed to allow instructors to create problems and failures
in their PV power generating systems so that students can conduct diagnostic testing and troubleshooting procedures on the
system. These efforts provide the student with real hands on troubleshooting experience as well as familiarization with common
troubleshooting procedures and equipment.

Lab Procedure 9 – Let’s Take It Outside – Photovoltaic Panels – This procedure is designed to guide you through an independent
outside installation process. This process can be performed using the components from the GT-1000 Solar PV Technology
experiment panel, equipment from other sources, or a combination of the two.

Teacher Support Materials

A full-featured instructor’s guide is available for the course. The instructor’s guide includes:

· Answers for all of the end-of-chapter quiz questions are included along with a reference point in the chapter where a
particular item is covered.

· Sample schedules are included as guidelines for possible course implementations.

· Answers to all lab review questions and fill-in-the-blank steps are provided so that there is an indication of what the
expected outcomes should be.

· Full Power Point Slide Presentations including every graphic, table, question, objective and key text segment in the book.
These slide sets can be edited to fit the class length and your delivery preference.

· An electronic copy of the textbook is included on the Instructor's Guide CD-ROM disc.

Optional System Support

· Student Practice Test CD¾ETG/Marcraft offers Practice Test CDs to prepare students to challenge the new ETA
(Electronics Technicians Association) Wind and Solar Installers and Integrator Certification exams.

· Online LMS Delivery and Management System¾ETG/Marcraft also provides interactive, online classrooms and self
study seats for all of its products. The LMS tracks student progress, automatically grades exams and quizzes and places the
scores in the electronic grade book.

· Online Updates System¾All the latest updates for all ETG/Marcraft curriculum is available online at
http://updates.etg-corp.com. The first time you access the site, you will need to register by providing your email address
and the ISBN numbers for each book you wish to see the updated pages for. Be sure to always provide the same email
address and password when accessing the updates, this way you can see all updates for the ISBN numbers you have
registered. The pages are in PDF format and can be printed out. You will want to check this site often to make sure you
always have the latest information.

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 Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 TOOLS, SAFETY AND FIRST AID
OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
PROTECTIVE GEAR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Eye Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Head Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Maintenance of Hard Hats and Suspensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Hand Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Foot Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Breathing Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Hearing Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Hearing Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Ergonomic Safety Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
THE WORKING ENVIRONMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Designating the Work Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Emergency Planning and Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Ladder Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Ladder Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Using Step Ladders Safely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Using Extension Ladders Safely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Ladder Safety Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Scaffolding Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Scaffolding Accident Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fall Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
OSHA Body Restraint Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Body Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Fall Arrest Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
OSHA Personal Fall Arrest Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Hand Tool and Power Tool Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Lifting and Handling Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Low-Voltage Wiring Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Wiring Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Wiring Safety Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
The Final Electrical Inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
FIRST AID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Calling “911” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Medical Alert Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
DR. ABC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
First Aid Hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Limiting the Spread of Infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Basic Human Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
The Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
The Cardiovascular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
The Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
The Musculoskeletal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

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 Basic First Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Primary Examinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Secondary Examinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Expired Air Resuscitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Performing EAR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
CPR Hand Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
CPR Hand Position for Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Performing CPR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Performing CPR on Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Two-Person CPR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
CPR Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Trauma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Wound Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Puncture Wounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Amputation (Avulsion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Burns and Scalds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Electrical Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Residential Voltage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
High Voltage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Fractures (Broken Bone) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Heat Exhaustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Head Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Identifying Head Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Eye Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Minor Eye Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Major Eye Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Welder’s Flash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
REVIEW QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
EXAM QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

CHAPTER 2 BUILDING CODES AND COMPLIANCE

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
GREEN TECHNOLOGY REQUIREMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
BUILDING CODES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
National Fire Protection Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
The National Electrical Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
The International Building Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
International Energy Conservation Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
NFPA 5000: Building Construction and Safety Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Underwriters Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Governmental Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
The Environmental Protection Agency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Occupational Safety and Health Act. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Army Corps of Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Construction Specifications Institute Master Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
State and Local Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
The Final Electrical Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Industry Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
International Residential Code. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

vi
 Conduit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Thin-Walled Conduit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Conduit Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Hazardous Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
REVIEW QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
EXAM QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

CHAPTER 3 ALTERNATIVE ENERGY GENERATION

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
WHAT IS GREEN? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Green Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Why Go Green? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
RISING WORLD POPULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
A Rising World Middle Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
DIMINISHING WORLD RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
DIRTY FUELS AND CLEAN FUELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
GENERATING CLEAN ELECTRONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
ATOMIC STRUCTURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Electrical Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
ELECTRICAL LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Load Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
POWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Power Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Kilowatt-Hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Real Power and Apparent Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
MAKING ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
National Electrical Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
NEC Wire Size and Ampacity Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Fuses and Circuit Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
MEASURING ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Measuring Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
DC Voltage Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Voltage Source Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Measuring Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Measuring Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
REVIEW QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
EXAM QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

CHAPTER 4 ENERGY AND POWER

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
POTENTIAL ENERGY AND KINETIC ENERGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Potential Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Molecules and Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Covalent Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Energy Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
TYPES OF ENERGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

vii
 Chemical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Thermal Energy (Heat) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Radiation (Light) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Properties Affecting the Absorption of Radiant Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Albedo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
The Effect of Atmosphere on Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Mechanical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Electrical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Electrical Charges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Coulombs, Amps, Volts and Watts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Difference between Power and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Ohm’s Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Electrical Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Open Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Parallel and Series Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Parallel and Series Battery Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
How Batteries Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Direct and Alternating Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Hertz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Electrical Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Fission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
REVIEW QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
EXAM QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

CHAPTER 5 PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
ACTIVE VERSUS PASSIVE SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Passive Solar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Daylighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Where is the Sun? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Angle of the Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Reflected Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Skylights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Light Tubes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Clerestory Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Passive Solar Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Thermal Mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Black Body Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Specific Heat Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Thermal Storage Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Thermal Lag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Thermal Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Direct, Indirect and Isolated Solar Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

viii
 Passive Solar Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Shading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Convective Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Increasing Air Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Introducing Cooler Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Evaporative Cooling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
REVIEW QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
EXAM QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

CHAPTER 6 ACTIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
PHOTOVOLTAIC ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Types of System Designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Stand-Alone Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Grid-Tied Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Hybrid Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
How Photovoltaics Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Solar Cell Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Other Factors Affecting Solar Cell Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
PV Modules (Solar Panels) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Monocrystalline PV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Polycrystalline PV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Amorphous PV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Inverters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Waveform Types of Inverters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Balance of System (BOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Thermal Solar - Heating Liquid using the Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Parts of a Solar Hot Water Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Direct vs Closed Loop Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Closed Loop Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Thermal Collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Integrated Collector Storage (ICS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Flat Plate Solar Collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Evacuated Tube Collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Common System Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Sizing Solar Thermal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Selecting a Solar Hot Water System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Maintaining the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Solar Thermal Safety Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Cost Factors Affecting PV Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Compared to Other Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Overcoming Cost Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
The Rising Cost of Non-Solar Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
PV SYSTEMS AS A UTILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Advantages of Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Disadvantages of Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Pricing Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Storing Sunshine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Parabolic Trough Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Solar Dish Concentrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Solar Power Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Barriers to Acceptance of Solar Thermal Power Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

ix
 Market Forecast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
REVIEW QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
EXAM QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

CHAPTER 7 INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
SITE ASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Locating True (Solar) South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Shading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Mounting the PV Modules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Roof Mounted Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Available Roof Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Roof Structure and Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Stand Off Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Ground Mount Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Pole Mounted Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Building Integrated PV (BIPV) Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Determine Available Sunlight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Array Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Tracking Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Angle (Tilt) of the Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Other Factors Affecting Panel Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Sizing a PV System Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Determine the Average Daily Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Cycling Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Phantom Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Surge Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Estimating Number of Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Standard Test Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
External Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Solar Panel Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Connecting PV Modules Together. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
PV Array Safety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
PV Array Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Selecting and Sizing Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Wire Size and Ampacity Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
How Low Voltage Affects Wiring Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Voltage Drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Calculating Maximum Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Temperature Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Conduit Fill Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Grounding (Earthing). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Ground Fault Interrupters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Equipment Grounding Conductors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
DC Grounding Electrode Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Battery Systems and Wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Types of Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Deep Discharge Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Liquid Vented Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Battery Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Amp-Hour Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Depth of Discharge (DOD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

x
 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Battery Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Battery Bank Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
How Batteries are Charged. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Bulk Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Absorption Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Floating Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Battery Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Battery Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Measuring the Battery State of Charge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Battery Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Battery Wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
PV Charge Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Shunt Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Single Stage Controllers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Multi-Stage Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Pulse Width Modulated Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Other Features that may be Incorporated into Charge Controllers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Sizing a Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Low Voltage Disconnect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
DC Disconnect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Overcurrent Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Overcurrent Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Inverters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Selecting an Inverter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Inverter Waveform Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Operational Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Inverter Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Inverter Safety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
AC Disconnect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Connecting to the Grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Troubleshooting the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Using a Multimeter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Measuring Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Measuring Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Measuring Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
REVIEW QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
EXAM QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

CHAPTER 8 UNDERSTANDING BLUEPRINTS

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
DRAWING STAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Schematic Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Preliminary Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Working Drawings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Cover Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Title Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Revisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Registration Stamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

xi
 Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Building Material Symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Topographic Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Electrical Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Plumbing Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Climate-Control Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Architectural Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Drawing Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Architect’s Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Engineer’s Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
ABBREVIATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
CHAPTER SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
REVIEW QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
EXAM QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC LAB PROCEDURES

INTRODUCTION TO LAB PROCEDURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
GT-1000 SOLAR PV TECHNOLOGY PANEL ORIENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Accessory Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

LAB PROCEDURE 1 - INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Making Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Measuring Voltage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Measuring Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Measuring Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
LAB QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

LAB PROCEDURE 2 - INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Solar Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
PV Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Electrical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
PV Device Ratings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
PV Array Mounting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Tracking Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Safety Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Introduction To Photovoltaic Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Mounting the PV Panels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Create the PV Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Attach the PV Array to the Mounting Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

xii
 Wiring the Solar Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Initial Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Solar Panel Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Examining the Control Panel Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Wiring the Control Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Testing the PV Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Testing the PV Panels Under Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Testing Angular Light Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Configuring PV Panels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Testing PV Panel Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
LAB QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

LAB PROCEDURE 3 - OFF-GRID PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEMS

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Battery Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Safety Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Battery Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Preparing the Battery Storage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Connecting the PV Array Directly to the Storage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Output Regulators and Load Diverters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
External Voltage Regulator/Load Diverter Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Connecting the Load Diverter/Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
LAB QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

LAB PROCEDURE 4 - GRID-TIED PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEMS

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Net Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
The Grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Residential Wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Ground and Neutral Wire Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Inverters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Inverter Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Inverter Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Safety Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Examining the Grid-Tie Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Connecting the Inverter to the PV Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Verifying the Operation of the Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Observing AC Power Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
LAB QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

LAB PROCEDURE 5 - SOLAR POWER RESEARCH

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

xiii
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Applicable Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Local. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Federal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Energy and Environmental Research Center (EERC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
LAB QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

LAB PROCEDURE 6 - PV SYSTEM DESIGN

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
ABOUT THE AUTHOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

LAB PROCEDURE 7 - UNDERSTANDING BLUEPRINTS

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
LAB QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

LAB PROCEDURE 8 - LET'S TAKE IT OUTSIDE - PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Defining the Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Determining the PV Array Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Determining Mounting Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Designing the Control Panel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Connectors and Cabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Determining the Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Installing the Solar PV System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412

APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

APPENDIX B
ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

xiv
 OBJECTIVES

U pon completion of this chapter and its related lab procedures you will be
able to perform the following tasks:

1. Be able to conduct a complete site assessment for a small residential PV

system.
2. Understand the issues and options involved in mounting PV systems on
structures.
3. Be able to recommend array orientation and tracking options for a given
location.
4. Assess loads and size PV arrays for typical residential applications.
5. Understand and be able to communicate to customers solar panel
specifications.
6. Calculate wiring size and voltage drop for a typical installation.
7. Understand the concepts of bonding and grounding as they relate to active PV
systems.
8. Be able to calculate battery bank sizing requirements.
9. Understand cost factors which effect the selection of and sizing of solar
thermal and PV systems.
10 Discuss the future prospects of utility-scale solar power systems.

214 CHAPTER 7
 CHAPTER 7

Installing And Designing Residential-Scale

Photovoltic Systems
INTRODUCTION

W ith a good theoretical understanding of solar power well in hand, it is time to explore
the very practical task of designing and installing a typical residential-scale PV
system. Before worrying through all the issues surrounding placing a PV system at a given
location¾it is necessary to decide if that location will even support a PV system. The first
question to answer is, “Is the site suitable?” A cabin completely shaded by evergreen trees
may simply not be a candidate for a PV system¾no matter how much the owner wants to use
that location.

So what are some of the design considerations?

· Site suitability (can a PV system work at this location?)

· Electrical generation requirements (how big a system is needed?)
· Placement of the panels and other system components (where will everything be
located?)

· How will the panels be mounted? (roof mounted, pole, ground?)

· What voltage should this system be?
· Will this be a stand-alone, grid-tied, or hybrid system?
· Maintenance issues (clearing snow and ice, keeping it from overheating, access to
equipment)

SITE ASSESSMENT
Not every home or building is suitable for PV systems. In most cases, the only way to know if
a given location is appropriate is to physically examine the site. This is done by conducting a
site assessment. A site assessment is little more than physically looking at the property to see site assessment
if a PV system will work at that location. During a site assessment, the following should be
determined.

· Where should the panels be placed?

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 215

 · Is there anything blocking the sun from reaching the spot where solar panels are to be
placed?

· How will the solar array (a group of panels) be mounted?

· Where is the rest of the system going to go?
· Is there room for everything?
· How will this electrical system work with the existing electrical system (if there is
one)?

· Unusual conditions (such as heavy snow or wind loading).

Locating True (Solar) South

Magnetic south (the direction indicated by a compass) and true south are not the same thing.
In fact, these will vary dramatically depending on where the measurements are made. The
difference between true south and magnetic south is known as the Declination. The
Declination efficiencies of any PV system will be greatly enhanced if it can be oriented as close to true (or
solar) south as possible.

Maps are available or a local surveyor can be consulted to determine the deviation for each
site. More generalized declination maps are available, such as Figure 7-1 which shows ad-
justments for the United States or Figure 7-2 which demonstrate the worldwide magnetic
declination.

Figure 7-1:
USA Declination

216 CHAPTER 7
 Figure 7-2:
Worldwide Declination

Once this deviation is determined, then adjustments may be made in orientation to site true
south for any given location. For example, the orientation of an array sited in New York may
need to be adjusted 15º west of magnetic south to be oriented towards true south. A site in
New Mexico may need to be adjusted 10º east of magnetic south to face true south.

Another way of locating true south is simply to observe it for any specific location. This is solar noon
accomplished by orienting the PV array towards the sun at solar noon.

LET'S DO THE MATH:

SOLAR NOON AND TRUE SOUTH
Just as magnetic south is not true south, noon (the time on the clock) is not necessarily solar noon (the time of day when the
sun is highest in the sky for any location). When siting a PV system, we really don’t care what time it is. We are worried about
when the sun is highest in the sky.

Depending on a site’s location within a given time zone, the deviation between noon (according to the local clock) and solar
noon can be quite different.

Fortunately this is pretty easy to figure out. For the day on which the observation will be made, get the official time of sunrise
and sunset (these times are typically available from local newspapers or online) for the location.

To determine solar noon, just figure out the number of hours and minutes between sunrise and sunset. Then divide that
number in half, and add it to the time of sunrise (or, if you’re feeling contrary, subtract it from time of sunset). The result will
be solar noon.

For example, if we want to put in a PV system in New York, NY and we are going to check for solar noon on March 5th. We
know the location and the date, we just need to know the official time of sunrise and sunset.

So we look it up in the paper and find that sunrise for New York, NY on March 5th is at 6:24 AM and sunset for the same day
is 5:50 PM, the resulting daylight period is 11 hours 26 minutes. Divide this number in half, giving a result of 5 hours 43
minutes. Add this to 6:24 AM and the result will be that on March 5 th, solar noon for NYC will be 12:07 PM.

Once you have figured out solar noon, stand where the array is to be located and simply look to the heavens at that precise
time of day. The sun will be located at true south in relation to the array. Make sure to find some way to mark this (either by
spotting a landmark or laying down some sort of marker) since time marches on and so does the sun.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 217

 Shading
Even a little bit of shade can significantly decrease the effectiveness of a PV system. If just
one cell (out of 72) is blocked from the sun, the PV module may only generate 25% the power
it is capable of producing. Table 7-1 shows the effects of shading on a PV module.

Table 7-1: Effects

PERCENT OF ONE CELL SHADED PERCENT OF MODULE POWER LOSS
of Shading on a PV
Module
0.00% 0.00%

25.00% 25.00%

50.00% 50.00%

75.00% 66.00%

100.00% 75.00%

(Source: Solar Energy International) 3 cells shaded 93.00%

Unwanted shading can come from nearby trees, poles, buildings and even overhead wires.
Ideally the site will be free of these possible sources of shading from 9:00 AM to 3:00 PM
Solar Window each day throughout the year. This period of time is known as the Solar Window, and is
considered the optimum time frame for collecting solar radiation.

Shading is typically more of an issue during the winter months when the sun tracks lower
towards the horizon, increasing the chance that trees or structures in front of the solar array
will cast a shadow. So during the site assessment it must be determined that no shading will
occur during the solar window during the “worst case” month of the year.

TECHNOLOGY NOTE:
SUN CHARTS
There are formulas that can be used to determine where the sun shines at any time and
place on earth. To do these calculations, it would take a tremendous amount of time and
effort to plot the sun’s track across the sky for every moment of every day throughout the
year for any given location.

Fortunately there are tools out there (both computer and mechanical) that make these cal-
culations unnecessary. In fact, they take all those numbers and combine them in an easy
to understand diagram that shows the path the sun takes across the sky for any given loca-
tion and for any time of year. The resulting graphic is called a Sun Chart.

To make things even easier, you can even buy tools that incorporate a sun chart and a
compass (like the one in Figure 7-3) so you can just point it towards the south and see if
there is going to be a shading problem at your location, because the reflection of trees and
such shows up along with the path the sun will take.

218 CHAPTER 7
 Figure 7-3:
Sun Chart on Solar
Pathfinder

While it likely isn’t necessary to need to know how to do these calculations, it is important to
know how to read them. The location of the sun is typically given in degrees. Just as one can
find any location on the globe in degrees North or South of the Equator and degrees East or
West of the Prime Meridian¾the location of the sun is expressed in terms of degrees of
azimuth and degrees of altitude.

· Azimuth: When the location of the sun is described in terms of direction (east, west,
north and south) this is described in degrees Azimuth (usually denoted by the Greek Azimuth
symbol Y Psi). Imagine the earth as perfectly flat; due south would be considered 0
degrees Azimuth. South for these purposes is true south (or Solar South), which is Solar South
not the same as magnetic south.

As Figure 7-4 indicates, due

east is considered 90 degrees
Azimuth, while north is 180
degrees. Continuing around the
compass of directions, west
could be expressed as 270
degrees¾but typically it is
referred to as -90 degrees. So as
the sun tracks from east to west,
its Azimuth would go from 90
degrees (due east) declining
until it reaches true South (zero
degrees). One degree later, the
Azimuth would be -1 degree,
continuing to fall until reaching
-90 degrees when it reaches
true west.

Figure 7-4: Azimuth Diagram

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 219

 Altitude · Altitude: The second measurement used when referring to the sun’s location in the
sky is more intuitive. The Altitude refers to its location (angle) in relation to the
horizon. It is typically symbolized by the Greek letter a (alpha).

Zenith At sunrise, when the sun is on the horizon, the altitude would be zero degrees. At noon, if the
sun is directly overhead its altitude will be 90 degrees (known as the Zenith). At sunset, the
altitude will once again be at zero.

While the sun is shining, such as shown in Figure 7-5, everywhere on earth, the altitude will
be some number between zero and 90 degrees (in the northern hemisphere this number will
be based on its position in relation to the southern horizon, in the southern hemisphere, this
number will be based on its position in relation to the northern horizon).

Figure 7-5: Altitude

Diagram

Once true south for the site has been established, and a sun track for the location obtained,
calculations may be made to determine if any structures or trees will create a shading
problem. Remember, these calculations must be made for the “worst case” situation. Using a
protractor it is possible to determine if any nearby objects will fall within the sun track.

If the blocking objects can not be removed (as in the case of cutting down trees), the solar
array may need to be sited at a more accommodating location.

Fortunately there are many tools now available that incorporate sun charts and latitudes,
providing a quick (and nearly painless) way to determine the suitability of a specific location
(with regards to shading issues). See Figure 7-3.

Now that a suitable site has been found for the solar array, caution must be taken to avoid
creating a shading problem with the array itself.

If solar arrays are installed in rows, and angled in relation to the surface where they are
placed, the row closest to the sun may cast a shadow upon the row behind, as shown in Figure
inter-row shading 7-6. This is known as inter-row shading and can easily be avoided by allowing an adequate
distance between rows where the panels are angled with relation to the underlying surface
(fairly common in ground mounted systems as well as systems mounted on flat or low-pitch
roofs).

220 CHAPTER 7
 Figure 7-6:
Inter-row Shading Diagram

Mounting the PV Modules

Solar panels are typically either mounted on the roof of a building, or on the ground. They
roof
are also typically designed to remain fixed (once in place, they do not move) or adjustable
(can be physically adjusted, changing the angle for winter or summer¾for example). They
might also track with the movement of the sun (these systems vary from simple passive ground
settings that must be adjusted by hand a few times each year - to a very sophisticated
computer controlled tracking system that constantly adjusts the panels to maximize the fixed
amount of sunshine hitting them at all times).
track
Regardless of which system is used for a specific location, there are a number of factors that
must be considered when mounting an array:

· Determine the maximum wind speed required by code (this can be as much as 140
mph in hurricane prone regions) and ensure that the installation can physically
withstand such pressures.

· Determine the size of the needed array and determine if the site selected can
accommodate the array.

· Determine if the structure can accommodate the live and dead loads the array will
place upon it. In this example, the dead load would simply be the weight of the array
itself. The live load may add considerably to the forces exerted on the structure, and
can include loads created by wind, snow, rain, and other probable events.

· Factor in any other local conditions, such as the probability of earthquakes,

excessive snow, etc.

· Confirm that all your mounting systems meet local requirements and codes.
· Be sure to follow all the manufacturer’s instructions¾as they are critical if the
system is to perform as designed.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 221

 Roof Mounted Systems
In the northern hemisphere, southern facing roof tops are typically the first place considered
to mount solar arrays. This makes sense for several reasons.

First, solar arrays currently take up a substantial amount of space. The site may not have
enough space in the yard¾or homeowner restrictions might prohibit making the solar array
the focal point of the landscaping. The roof is a large, out-of-the way place to put this struc-
ture.

Placing the array, such as the one pictured in Figure 7-7, on the roof will protect it (hopefully)
from damage by people or animals. Solar panels are also very expensive, so theft is always a
concern. Placing the panels on the roof may serve as a considerable deterrent to would-be
thieves.

Figure 7-7: A Roof

Mounted System

There are disadvantages as well to placing an array on the roof. Maintenance and adjustment
of these panels is more difficult (and potentially dangerous) since someone will need to
climb up on the roof to access them. This may be a particular problem in areas that receive a
large amount of snow.

Available Roof Area

Solar arrays can take up a large amount of space. Is there enough roof area to support the size
of the system required? A quick check to see if the roof area is adequate can be made by using
the following formula:

Calculate the square footage of the properly oriented portion of the roof (typically no
more than 45 degrees off true south for installations in the Northern hemisphere).

For rectangular surfaces, this is quite simple (length x width).

222 CHAPTER 7
For irregular shaped roofs, calculations may be a bit more complex. Only about 50%-80% of
the roof area will be available for panels after subtracting space needed for access, wire and
aesthetics are taken into account. So, assuming only 65% of the roof area is available for use,
if the southern exposed roof surface is 60 ft x 20 ft (18 meters x 6 meters), there would be
1,200 sq ft (110 sq m)x .65 = 780 sq ft (72 sq m) of usable space available for panels.

While panels vary in efficiency and size, a good rule of thumb is that traditional crystalline
panels will generate 10 watts per square foot (100 watts per square meter). So the roof area
(in this example) would support a system generating 7,800 watts (7.8 kW).

Roof Structure and Condition

Structural issues are also an important consideration. Is the roof strong enough to support the
system?

Solar roof installations are typically quite light, usually adding less than 4 lbs/sq ft (19.5
kg/sq m)of weight load to the structure. But this can be misleading. It is not just the weight of
the panel and rack that must be considered.

Wind Load refers to the force the wind will place as it interacts with the solar panel. Imagine
air flowing over the wing of an airplane. At a certain speed, the airflow will create enough lift
to raise the airplane off the ground. So high winds can exert an enormous amount of pressure Wind Load
on the roof, either lifting or pushing down on the solar panels.

The effect of wind load is determined by several factors:

· The speed of the wind.

· How large a gap there is between the roof and the panel.
· How far the panel is away from the edge of the roof.
So in high wind areas, bear this in mind and design the system accordingly.

If wind were the only issue, the panels would be mounted as close to the roof as possible. But
heat is also a consideration. Solar cells generate a tremendous amount of heat (all the radiant
energy that is not converted into electricity is converted into heat). And as the temperature
increases, the efficiency of the panel declines. For this reason, the panels must be mounted
away from the roof to allow air to flow under the¾helping to keep the array cool.

If there is any doubt that the structure of the roof will not support the weight of the array (with
or without wind load), or the weight of people as they install or maintain the system, consult
an architect or structural engineer. It may be necessary to enhance the physical support
structure of the roof before it can adequately support the array.

Stand Off Mounting

The most typical mounting system for residential homes is Stand Off Mounting (also
referred to as Flush Mounting). In order to help keep the arrays cool, panels are mounted on Stand Off Mounting
brackets or rails that are then attached directly to the supporting structures of the roof. A
distance of about 3-6 inches (8 – 15 cm) is maintained between the roof and the panels to Flush Mounting
allow for air flow and help keep the panel cool.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 223

 One of the main purposes of a roof on any building is to keep the rain and weather out. Once
any item is attached to the roof¾there is always the potential for creating leaks. Care must
certainly be taken to ensure that these attachments are properly weather proofed.

As systems become larger or more flexibility (for service and maintenance) is needed.
Racks, as shown in Figure 7-8, are often mounted to the roof¾then individual panels can be
attached to that rack. Some racks designed for flat roofs are kept in place by weights¾so no
anchor actually penetrates the roof membrane.

Figure 7-8:
A Rack System

Ground Mount Systems

The next most common method of mounting solar arrays is to simply place them on the
ground, such as the system illustrated in Figure 7-9. While this will certainly make them
easier to access, it creates another set of problems. Ease of access may also result in
vandalism or theft (these panels can be quite expensive). They might also be damaged by
flying debris kicked out by lawn mowers or passing traffic. This is a consideration when
designing the system.

Figure 7-9: A
Ground Mounted Unit

224 CHAPTER 7
Ground Mount Systems are often used for large commercial systems, and are typically
enclosed in some sort of security fencing to restrict access. Regardless of where they are
located, all panels should be secured against theft and damage.

Pole Mounted Systems

Solar arrays can be attached to a pole, raising them well off the ground. There are a number of
reasons why this might be a good idea for a particular installation.

First, as the systems is balanced at one point, it can easily be adjusted throughout the year to
more effectively gather solar radiation (a basic form of a tracking system). The array might
simply need to be raised above some low-lying obstacle, such as shrubs or a small building,
that might otherwise block the sun. Or, as in some smaller commercial applications, there
may be a need to raise the panels up out of harms way (to avoid theft or damage).

The pole mounted system pictured in Figure 7-10 takes advantage of reflected light off the
pond to increase power production. The angle of the array can also be adjusted throughout
the year to accept greater solar radiation.

Figure 7-10:
Pole Mounted Systems

Building Integrated PV (BIPV) Systems

As solar arrays have become more common, building designers continue to try to figure out
ways to incorporate them into the design of the building itself. Solar panel “shingles” are an
example of this type of application, so that the panel also serves as an integral part of the roof
design.

Other examples may include panels used as awnings or carports. The ways designers will in-
tegrate PV systems into the building design will certainly increase as amorphous systems be-
come more efficient, allowing for a great deal of flexibility in design.

The CIS Tower in Manchester, England, as shown in Figure 7-11, took this concept to the
extreme. Its entire south side tower exterior is clad in PV, making the entire building an
electrical generating plant.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 225

 Figure 7-11:
The CIS Tower

solar isolation map Determine Available Sunlight

Different locations receive different amounts
of sunlight. A map of global sunlight
averages is shown in Figure 7-12. In order to
measure the amount of sunlight that hits
every place on the earth, calculations could
be made that result in a solar isolation map
that will show the amounts of sunlight for any
given location. Fortunately these maps have
already been created.

Of course these average amounts of sunlight

Figure 7-12: Global Available Sunlight
vary, not only by place, but by time of year.
Often in the winter there is much less
sunshine than in the summer (for example).
So there is a need to select the “worst case
scenario”¾selecting the month with the
least amount of sunlight as a guide. If the
system works well during the time of year
when there is the least sunshine, it is assumed
it will work equally well (or hopefully even
better) when there is more sunshine.

226 CHAPTER 7
Array Orientation
How the panel faces in relation to the sun will have a tremendous impact on just how much
solar energy it collects.

To obtain the most solar gain possible, the panel needs to be placed where it will receive the
most sun for the longest period of time each day. Unfortunately the sun does not remain in
one place (probably a good thing for many other reasons).

The sun’s position is measured in terms of its azimuth (its east, west, south, north location)
and its altitude¾angle of elevation as compared with the horizon (0 degrees on the horizon,
90 degrees directly overhead).

If the system is to be effective, it is generally considered critical that the sun shine on a
particular location as it tracks east to west from 9 AM to 3 PM (solar time). The time period
that the sun can physically shine on a given location without being blocked is called the Solar Window
Solar Window. This “window” of time when the sun is shining on a given location will vary
based on latitude, time of year, and geographical features. For example, a building located in
a mountain valley, as shown in Figure 7-13, will have a much shorter solar window than a
home located on top of a nearby mountain.

Figure 7-13:
Topography will Affect
Solar Window

For fixed arrays (systems that are not designed to move after they are mounted in place),
these systems will only directly face the sun at one point during each day. In the northern
hemisphere, they will always get the maximum solar gain when oriented towards true south.
However, this may not always be possible. The roof, for example, might actually face any-
where from east to west (a north-facing roof should not even be considered as it will prove
totally unsuitable for PV purposes). The further from true south the array faces, the less effi-
cient it will be in gathering solar energy. It is best to try to orient the array within 45 degrees
of true south. The closer to true south, the better.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 227

 Tracking Systems
In order to maximize the amount of sunshine collected as the sun tracks across the sky, some
systems employ passive or active systems that turn the entire array to stay facing the sun for
as long as possible.

A perfect system would face directly east at sunrise on the spring or autumn equinox, and
track with the sun all day, facing due West at sunset (the direction of orientation would be
slightly different depending on latitude and time of year on all other days of the year). Such a
dual axis tracking system, as shown in Figure 7-14, is known as a dual axis tracking system, a system that
system tracks not only the azimuth but the altitude as well.

Figure 7-14:
Dual Axis Tracking
System

Systems that seek to track only the azimuth (east to west movement) such as that illustrated in
single axis tracking Figure 7-15 are referred to as single axis tracking systems. Most single axis tracking
systems systems are passive in nature, using the sunlight to heat a refrigerant fluid sealed within tubes
to assist in tracking the sun. The fluid on the sunlit side of the unit boils, changes to gas,
which then condenses on the side of the unit in shadow. The system is designed to utilize the
shifting weight of this fluid to control and move the unit.

Figure 7-15:
Single Axis Tracking
Systems

228 CHAPTER 7
So, what are the advantages of a tracking system? During summer months, these systems can
actually increase electrical production by as much as 50%. In fact, the longer the solar
window (the amount of time the sun shines on the panels) the more benefit received from a
tracking system. The amount of increased production will be less during the winter
(10-20%) as the arc of the sun is lower in the horizon, so the arc is smaller (the higher the
latitude, the smaller this arc will become).

Tracking systems can be expensive. So, if the peak load requirements are during the summer
months, a tracking system might make financial sense. But if the peak load requirements are
experienced during the winter, the benefits might not offset the expense. It might be a better
solution to simply add more panels to the system, rather than purchasing a tracking system.

Another consideration is that a tracking system moves. One of the advantages of solar panels
(from a maintenance perspective) is that they contain no moving parts¾so they are very
reliable. Most solar panels are expected to last 30 years or more. A moving tracking system
will certainly require maintenance more often than a fixed array.

Angle (Tilt) of the Panels

Just as the sun moves (or appears to move) across the sky each day (its azimuth) it also
changes its altitude throughout the day and throughout the year. At sunrise, when the altitude
of the sun is at zero degrees, the optimal tilt of the panel would be 90 degrees (facing the sun).
If the sun were directly overhead (at 90 degrees) then the optimal angle of the panel would be
zero degrees (lying flat). At any point between these two extremes, the optimal angle can be
determined by subtracting the altitude from 90 degrees.

Fixed systems can not always be tilted at the optimal angle at all times. As with array
orientation, an optimal setting is desired to maximize exposure. As demonstrated in Figure
7-16, if the panel is adjusted at an angle that is too high or too low, some of the energy of the
sun will be lost.

Figure 7-16:
Tilt

If the system is designed for a non-tropical area that needs to perform best during the winter
(when sunlight is typically in shortest supply), a good rule of thumb is to angle the array at the
site’s latitude plus 15 degrees.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 229

 For example, if a PV system is installed in Columbus, Ohio¾located at about 40 degrees
north latitude¾then the array will be angled at 55 degrees (latitude plus 15 degrees).

For peak performance during the summer, take the latitude and subtract 15 degrees. For the
same system located in Columbus, Ohio that is designed to perform best during the summer,
the angle of the array is set to 25 degrees (latitude minus 15 degrees).

It is quite possible to adjust the angle of the array to maximize solar gain. A very simple
adjustable system adjustable system would allow a change in the angle from 55 degrees (for optimal
orientation during the winter) to 25 degrees (for optimal orientation during the summer). The
more often the angle is adjusted (assuming it is done properly) during the year, the more
effective the panels will be in converting solar radiation into electricity.

Just as with azimuth (east to west tracking), there are systems that will adjust the array to the
tracking systems altitude of the sun as it changes throughout the day and throughout the year. Again, as with
tracking systems that adjust for azimuth, it is important to compare the costs to the benefits of
these tracking systems.

Other Factors Affecting Panel Collection

Several other factors will either increase or decrease the amount of solar radiation that strikes
a PV array in a given location. These are illustrated in Figure 7-17 and include:

· Cloud Cover: More than half the available solar radiation (40%-90%) can be
scattered and reflected by clouds. Areas that experience extensive cloud cover (such
as mountainsides where condensation occurs due to prevailing winds) may not be
appropriate for a PV installation.

· Edge Effect: Just as clouds can reflect solar radiation away from PV arrays, they can
also reflect additional energy onto the panel, serving as a natural concentrator.

· Ground Reflection: The surface cover directly in front of a PV array can impact the
amount of energy that strikes the array. Surfaces with a high albedo (such as snow or
calm water) may serve to increase the amount of power the array can generate.

Figure 7-17:
Edge Effect,
Ground Reflection

230 CHAPTER 7
Sizing a PV System Array
The larger the surface area of a solar panel, the more energy it can produce in the form of
electricity. Even more power can be produced by connecting several panels together, creat- array
ing an array of solar modules.

A solar calculator needs less power to operate than does a large home or office building. The
solar panels attached to a calculator would be much smaller. The larger the PV array, the
more electricity it will produce.

How is the size of the PV array determined for any given application? As with most things, it
is a matter of balance. First, the minimum power needs of the application must be
determined. If the system will not provide even the minimum requirements, then it is simply
unacceptable. From this minimum point, the designer must balance the cost of adding more
panels with the needs of the building.

Each solar cell (by itself) does not produce a large amount of energy. A typical solar cell may
produce a direct current (dc) voltage equal to about .5 volts and a current in the range of 1 to 8
amps. By connecting many cells (usually 36 to 72) in series, a panel can generate between 20
to 45 volts of electrical energy.

Sizes and power output of various PV modules will vary depending on manufacturer and
production method. Early 120-watt (made of crystalline silicon) PV modules measured
about 15 sq ft, (1.4 sq m) and weighed about 35 lbs (16 kg). Larger panels may weigh as
much as 100 lbs (45 kg) and generate 300 watts.

Determine the Average Daily Load

Before it is possible to figure out what size solar panel array is needed, it is necessary to de-
termine how much power the system will need to generate. To do this, it is necessary to make
a number of assumptions to figure out the average daily load of the home or office. The load average daily load
includes pretty much everything you use that consumes electricity. How much electricity do
all the lights, appliances, and electrical heaters use (on average) on a typical day.

Typically, all electrical appliances are not used all the time. So it will be necessary to multiply
the watts each item uses by the number of hours it is used each day. Some appliances may not
tell how many watts they require to operate, but this can be easily calculated by multiplying
the amperes by the volts. Examples of electrical requirements for typical appliances can be
found in Table 7-2.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 231

Table 7-2:
APPLIANCE TYPICAL WATTAGE CALCULATED USE DAILY WH USE
Examples of
Electricity
Air Conditioning - (1 ton) 1500 8 hrs per day 12,000 W
Requirements
Clothes Washer 1450 1 hr 1,450 W

Coffee Maker 1200 1 hr 1,200 W

Dishwasher 1500 1 hr 1,500 W

Hand held Hair Dryers 1000 10 minutes 167 W

One 100 watt bulb 100 10 hours 1,000 W

Television - Color 130 6 hrs 780 W

Desktop Computer 120 24 hrs 2,880 W

Microwave 1000 20 minutes 333 W

No matter how good the estimate of electrical use, it will likely be wrong. Habits change, and
so do energy needs. So it might be a good idea to take the estimate and multiply it by a factor
(such as 1.25 or 1.5) to give the system a bit of breathing space.

If the electricity is not required everyday¾for example the system is designed for a week-
end cabin¾simply multiply the load requirements by the number of days each week the sys-
tem will need the power, divided by seven (days in a week). The size of the system required
will be smaller, as power will be stored for 5 days each week and only used two days each
week. For example, if it is determined that 1,000 watt hrs per day are needed, then 1000 x 2/7
= 285 watt hrs. So for occasional-use systems, smaller systems may be appropriate.

Certain appliances consume more electricity than others. A number of high-consumption

appliances may simply not be economical to power using a PV source¾their energy con-
sumption will require too many panels to generate enough power. These include space heat-
ers, air conditioners, clothes washer/dryers, electric ranges, electric water heaters and large
power tools.

Of course, the most cost-effective power is the power that is not used. So energy-efficient ap-
pliances and lifestyle behaviors are a good strategy to reduce load requirements.

If the system is designed for an existing home that already has electrical service (for a net me-
tering system, for example), just look at recent electrical bills. Why go through all the calcu-
lations when they have already been done by the utility company?

Cycling Loads

Not all appliances use electricity the entire time they are operating. For example, a refrigera-
tor automatically turns on and off (or cycles) based on its internal temperature. A refrigerator
may only draw energy 50-60% of the time it is operating, depending on its efficiency and
how often the door is opened. So bear these cycling loads in mind when calculating the num-
ber of hours a specific appliance is operating.

232 CHAPTER 7
Phantom Loads

Don’t forget to take into account the energy drain imposed by appliances that draw power
even when they are turned off. The small loads that allow a television to instantly turn on, or
the glowing light of the microwave may not consume a great deal of power individually, but
in combination the power drain can be significant. Each appliance will draw about 10-15 wH
even when not in use (24/7). In combination it is estimated that these phantom loads phantom loads
account for 6% of all the electrical energy consumed.

TECHNOLOY NOTE: PHANTOM LOADS

The US government estimates that 75% of all the power used by home electronics is used
when the thing isn’t even turned on!

More power is used by microwave ovens when they are off, than when they are actually
cooking food (I know, they do use more power when cooking¾but you only cook for a
few minutes each day and the phantom load just keeps on sucking up the power day and
night).

An effective way to reduce this wasteful use of power (and reduce the size of the PV
system required) is to attach the appliances to power strips that can be switched off when
it’s not in use. Just plug ‘em in and turn ‘em off when you don’t need ‘em. Why pay for
something you’re not using?

Surge Requirements

Tools and appliances with motors may require significantly more power during start up than
while operating. A standard guideline for these surge requirements is to multiply the watts
used while operating by three to figure out the surge load. So a motor that may draw 800
watts while operating may draw 2,400 watts during start up. Check with the manufacturer
when estimating for specific equipment.

The amount of electrical energy a household uses will vary tremendously. The size and age
of the building will be a factor. Where the building is located (what part of the world or coun-
try) will also have an effect on how much power will be needed. And of course, the behavior
of those using the building will have a huge impact on how much power is consumed. The
more power used, the larger (and therefore more expensive) the PV system required.

Estimating Number of Panels

If it has been determined that a given installation requires 2,500 watts of power each day (for
example) the next step is to determine how many panels will be required to generate this
amount of power. Different panels from different manufacturers are rated as producing
different amounts of electricity.

A panel that is rated as generating 100 watts simply means that the manufacturer has
determined that this panel, under certain conditions will generate about 100 watts of
electricity every hour it is exposed to strong sunlight.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 233

 It is generally safe to assume that a panel that says it generates 100 watts will in fact generate
that much power for every hour the sun is shining (assuming it is purchased from a reliable
manufacturer). But external factors will very likely affect the actual amount of usable power
that this panel will produce.

If the site and weather conditions always exactly matched the conditions under which the
panel was tested in the laboratory, determining the size of the array would be relatively easy.
If the solar isolation map (or computer program) indicated that during the month with the
lowest average hours of sunshine in the selected area there were 5.2 hours of sunshine on
average each day¾then simply multiply 100 watts x 5.2 (hours) to get 520 watts generated
each day from each panel.

Since it was determined that there was a need to generate 2,500 watts (for this example), the
system would require 5 panels to generate the necessary power.

Standard Test Conditions

A panel that was rated at 100 watts is measured under “certain conditions.” These conditions
are referred to as Standard Test Conditions (STC). When manufacturers test their
Standard Test
products, they typically do so in a laboratory. Since different environmental factors can
Conditions (STC)
affect how well these products perform, outcomes could be manipulated by simply changing
the conditions under which they are tested (for example, most solar cells do not perform as
well as their temperature increases. So simply lowering the temperature during testing will
result in a solar panel that appears to work better).

In order to compare apples to apples, the solar industry has come up with some standard test
conditions. Under these conditions, the solar cell temperature should equal 25ºC (77ºF). The
solar irradiance solar irradiance (intensity) should equal 1000 W/m2¾this is often called peak sunlight
intensity, and a measurement of 1000 w/m2 is roughly the same as might be expected on a
peak sunlight clear summer’s day at noon at sea level.
intensity
In addition to temperature and intensity, the sun’s energy can also be affected by how much
atmosphere it has to travel through before it hits the solar panel. So STC assumes it passes
through 1.5 thickness of atmosphere (the approximate thickness of the atmosphere at sea
level at the equator).

And since all panels (even by the same manufacturer with the same rating) are not created
equal, these ratings typically come with a “fudge factor”. For example, they may be rated 100
watts, +/- 5%. This means that under STC conditions, the panels tested fell within a range of
producing between 95 – 105 watts of energy.

But life rarely operates under ideal conditions. Temperatures vary and cannot be controlled.
The intensity of the available sunlight will also vary. And altitude will certainly affect the
thickness of the atmosphere. So, depending on the situation, a panel rated at 100 watts may
only produce 90 watts¾or less.

234 CHAPTER 7
External Factors
External factors include:

· Temperature: Increases in operating temperature will degrade a panel’s temperature

performance.

As a solar cell converts light to electricity, much of this light energy is also converted
into heat (in fact, if the cell is only 15% efficient, 85% of the light’s energy will be
converted to heat). The panels can generate a tremendous amount of heat, reaching
internal temperatures of 125-170°F (50-75°C).

For this reason, the anticipated output of the solar cell must be reduced by some
factor (a factor of 89% is recommended by the Californian Energy Commission). So
the output from a solar panel rated at 100-watts is reduced to only 89-watts when
operating temperatures are accounted for.

· Dirt and Dust: Another factor that will reduce panel output is plain old dirt and dust. Dirt
Things that are left outside get dirty. It is true that rain will wash some of this dust
off¾but not all of it and not all the time. Dirt and dust that accumulate on top of a
solar panel will block some of the sun’s rays¾making it less efficient. Some
estimates calculate that 7% of the panel’s efficiency will be lost due to dirt and dust.

· Connectivity Issues: Assume that five 100-watt panels are connected together in an
array. Each of these panels does not perform exactly the same as any of the other
panels in the array. There are small mismatches in performance that result in a loss of
efficiency.

Estimates are that each panel will loose about 2% of its output just because it is
hooked up to another panel. And speaking of hooking them together, power will also
be lost to the resistance of the wiring that is used to connect them together. If great
care is taken in hooking everything together, it might be able to keep this reduction to
connectivity issues
3% or less. But industry experts suggest a factor 5% loss of power due to
connectivity issues is more realistic.

· Converter Inefficiencies: The solar panels are just one part of a complete PV system.
The rest of the system will also affect how much power that is produced by the PV
array can actually be used.

Solar panels generate power in the form of DC (direct current). Most household appliances
require AC (alternating current) power. So in order to actually use the power generated, it
must pass it through a converter¾whose job it is to turn the DC into AC. Converters are not converter
100% efficient. In fact, for every ten watts of DC power going in, only about nine watts of
AC power will be available for use to power load requirements.

So, not even factoring in battery issues (that can eat up another 15% of the system’s power),
the original 100-watt panel is actually generating only about 67 watts in actual usable elec-
tricity.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 235

 LET'S DO THE MATH:
PV INEFFICIENCIES
We already know that a good solar panel is only about 15% efficient. So before we even
get started about 85% of the sun’s energy that hits the panel has been wasted. But it does-
n’t stop there.

Let’s assume we have a panel that is rated as generating 100 watts. The rating on that
panel might vary depending on how well it was made (the workers might have been
having a bad day). So if the rating is 100 watts, +- 5%, we have to assume the worst. So
we can only assume it will produce 95 watts (5% less than its rating).

Then we have to subtract for temperature, dirt, connectivity issues and we loose still
more energy. If there are batteries in the system, we will lose even more. But ignoring
batteries for the moment, our inverter is going to lose even more power as it converts the
energy from DC to AC. So our equation will be:

100 watts x .95 (worst case original rating) x .89 (temperature factor) x .93 (dirt and
dust) x .95 (connectivity issues) x .90 (converter) = 67 watts of usable power.

So only about two-thirds of the power that leaves the panel actually reaches the electrical
outlet. Obviously there is a lot of room for improvement.

So, in this example, will five 100-watt panels really be enough to generate 2,500 watts of us-
able power? If each 100-watt panel is actually only generating 67 watts, then the modified
equation would be x(number of panels required) = 2500 / (67 x 5.2) = 7.17. Since it is not
possible to install a fraction of a panel, it will require 8 panels to generate the needed amount
of electrical energy.

Solar Panel Specifications

When purchasing a car, the characteristics of a particular vehicle are described in terms of
nominal voltage miles-per-hour (mpg), horsepower, or engine size (cubic centimeters). When purchasing a
solar panel, they are typically distinguished by characteristics such as nominal voltage,
open circuit voltage open circuit voltage (Voc), short circuit current (Isc), maximum power voltage (Vmp),
(Voc) and maximum power current (Imp). PV product literature (a sample of which appears in
Table 7-3) provides a great deal of information but only if each individual specification is
short circuit current clearly understood.
(Isc)

maximum power
voltage (Vmp)

maximum power
current (Imp)

236 CHAPTER 7
 Table 7-3: Solar Panel
ELECTRICAL DATA
Specifications
Peak Power (+/-5%) Pmax 225 W

Rated Voltage Vmp 41.0 V

Rated Current Imp 5.49 A

Open Circuit Voltage Voc 48.5 V

Short Circuit Current Isc 5.87 A

Maximum System Voltage IEC, UL 1000 V, 600 V

Temperature Coefficients

Power –0.38% /°C

Voltage (Voc) –132.5 mV/°C

Current (Isc) 3.5 mA/°C

Series Fuse Rating 20 A

Peak Power per Unit Area 181 W/m², 16.8 W/ft²

CEC PTC Rating 207.1 W

2
NOTE: Measured at Standard Test Conditions (STC): irradiance of 1000/m air mass 1.5g, and cell temperature 25° C

· Nominal Voltage - At one time, PV modules were primarily offered as 12-volt (V),
24 V or 48 V modules. This is the Nominal Voltage of the panel. The nominal voltage Nominal Voltage
number simply refers to the voltage of the battery the panel is best suited to charge.

The nominal voltage of a panel that is utilized in a grid-tied system is less relevant (as
no batteries are being charged) provided it is within the specification limits of the rest
of the system. What is of primary concern to the designer is the watts the panel will
produce.

Many factors can affect the amount of energy a panel may produce at any given time.
A solar panel that does not receive any sunlight, generates no energy or zero volts.
That same panel might generate 17 V or more during optimal solar conditions, and of
course produce at a range of voltages between these two extremes. So the actual
voltage produced by a PV module is constantly changing. Nominal voltage is used as
a sort of “shorthand” to refer to a panel for compatibility purposes.
Open Circuit Voltage
· Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) - When a solar panel is tested with a voltmeter in (Voc)
maximum sunlight and ideal temperature and weather conditions, while this panel is
not connected to anything else, the resulting measurement is the panel’s Open Circuit
Voltage. In theory, this is the maximum amount of voltage the panel is capable of
producing, as it is tested under ideal conditions and no other portion of the system is
negatively affecting its performance.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 237

Short Circuit Current · Short Circuit Current (Isc) - Similarly, if a panel is tested for current (Amps) while
(Isc) the panel is disconnected from the system (effectively creating a short circuit with the
tester), the resulting measurement is referred to as the short circuit current. Again,
this is theoretically the maximum current that can be generated by a particular PV
panel.

Just as the array is sized based on the minimum amount of sunlight expected, many
components in the PV system (such as wiring, fuses, switches, etc) must be sized
based on the maximum voltages and amps they may be required to handle. All these
components must be compatible with each other to ensure the system works safely
and properly.

· Maximum Power Voltage (Vmp) - It is important to know the maximum power

Maximum Power output that a panel is capable of producing when operating under ideal conditions at
Voltage (Vmp) peak efficiency. This is referred to as the Maximum Power Voltage. Several factors
will effect the voltage a system will operate under, such as if the system is operating
under load (using power), how fully charged the batteries are, weather conditions,
etc.

· Maximum Power Currents (Imp) - Just as it is important to know the maximum

Maximum Power voltage level the panel produces under ideal conditions, it is also very important to
Currents (Imp) know how strong that current might be when the panel is operating under peak
efficiency.

· I-V Curve - If the output of any given module is plotted (to show the relationship
I-V Curve between output amps and volts) the result is referred to as the module’s I-V curve.
Typical I-V curves such as the one illustrated in Figure 7-18 demonstrate a specific
panel’s performance under standard test conditions (STC). The performance curve
of the panel may vary significantly if the conditions are changed, such as when the
panel’s performance is measured when operating at different temperatures.

PV panels operate at peak efficiency when operating as close to the maximum power
point as possible. This point of maximum efficiency can be found at the point on the
curve where the maximum watts are being produced by the panel. In the example
above, it can then be determined that the maximum power point for this particular
panel is when it is producing 17.3 volts (the maximum power voltage or Vmp) and
operating at 2.5 Amps (the maximum power current, or Imp).

Figure 7-18:
I-V Curve
(12Vdc Nominal)

238 CHAPTER 7
Connecting PV Modules Together
Any number of compatible PV modules can be connected together into an array. The system
is limited only by the time available for installation, money and space to accommodate them.
Each added panel will add more energy into the working system. But how they are physically
connected together will affect the resulting voltages and amperes the array produces.

The goal is to deliver the watts to the appliances or lights or heaters. The higher the volts, the
less amps are required to transfer the same watts along a circuit.

Watts = Volts (intensity) x Amps (current, or flow rate).

For instance

100 watts = 12 volts x 8.33 amps

100 watts = 24 volts x 4.167 amps

100 watts = 48 volts x 2.083 amps and so on, and so on

When connecting PV modules together in series, as shown in Figure 7-19, the voltage of the
resulting array will equal the sum of all the individual voltage output of each panel. For
instance, if two 12-volt panels (rated at 70 watts) are connected together in series, a 24-volt
array is created. If four similar12-volt panels are connected together, a 48-volt array is
created (producing 280 watts under ideal conditions).

Figure 7-19: Panel Array

Connected in Series

The amps required to transport the 280 watts can be determined as 280/48 = 5.83 amps.

If these same four 12-volt panels are connected in parallel, as indicated in Figure 7-20, their
nominal voltage does not change. The entire system remains at 12 volts. But the amps must
increase to allow the same amount of energy to flow through the circuit. In this case, the re-
sulting equation would be 280/12 = 23.33 amps.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 239

Figure 7-20: PV arrays can be (and often are) wired in combination. Combining series and parallel wiring
Panel Array Connected in to create an array operating at the desired voltage with the appropriate power requirements.
Parallel An example of this wiring scheme can be seen in Figure 7-21.

Figure 7-21:
Series And Parallel

PV Array Safety Considerations

High DC voltages can be present from the PV module terminals, combiner boxes and DC dis-
connect switches. Arcing, burning and even electrocution may result from touching these con-
nections. Also, terminals on both the PV and the line sides (if connected to the grid, the side that
may receive power from the electric utility) of fuses and disconnect switches may still be ener-
gized. This can be the case even when the fuse is pulled and/or the switch is in the open posi-
tion. Always wear insulating gloves and eye protection when working with the array.

PV Array Maintenance
In a typical solar panel array, there are no moving parts. So fortunately, maintenance of these
systems are fairly easy. But there are still a few maintenance tasks required to keep them
functioning at optimal levels.

240 CHAPTER 7
During long dry periods, the panels can become dirty or dusty. Frequent rain will generally
keep them clean, but it may be necessary to periodically wash the surface to remove dirt, dust
and (ugh) bird droppings.

Some panels require manual angle adjustments during the year (winter/summer settings, for
example).

Vegetation just continues to grow. Be sure to keep any plants or trees trimmed back so they
do not shade the panels.

Inspect panels periodically to make sure they have not been physically damaged by wind or
storms (especially hail). Also, inspect all connections to ensure they are still tight.

During the winter, snow may need to be removed from the panel. Use a soft brush to do this
(to avoid scratching). Ice should not be chipped off, but rather allowed to melt. Chipping it
may cause damage to the panel.

Selecting and Sizing Wire

In the United States, wire is usually measured in terms of AWG (American Wire Gauge). It is
logical to believe that the larger the number (for example, 14AWG) the larger the wire. But
this is not the case. It is actually the opposite. 12 AWG is larger in diameter than is 14 AWG
wire, and 8 AWG is larger still.

Wire gauges vary in size from 000000 AWG, which measures about ½ inch in diameter (11.7
mm), down to 40 AWG, which measures about 0.003 inches (0.08 mm) in diameter. The
larger the wire diameter, the larger the current that wire is capable of carrying (amps). In siz-
ing wires and connectors, the system must be able to carry the maximum load that will be
transmitted (plus a safety margin), but no more (as larger wire, connectors and junction
boxes are more expensive).

For wires smaller than 8 AWG, multiple conductors are commonly enclosed in an insulated
sheath. These conductors may be solid or stranded. Copper conductors are recommended.

Many different materials are used to make the sheath that covers the conductors. Which
sheath material is selected will be determined by the conditions to which the cable will be
subjected. If the cable is exposed to the sun, sunlight resistant wire is required. If the wire is
to be buried in the ground, the cable must be rated for direct burial. The NEC spells out
which wires should be used for which applications. In many cases, the component manufac-
turer will also specify the cable type needed for the installation.

PV modules are often connected by wires installed within conduits. Since these conduits are
exposed to the elements, they are considered a wet environment. Wet-rated cables with at
least a 90°C (194°F) temperature rating should be used.

Wires are often identified by letters or numbers representing certain characteristics or prop-
erties. These include:

· T = Thermoplastic Insulation
· R = Thermoset Insulation (rubber or synthetic rubber)
· X = Cross-Linked Synthetic Polymer Insulation
· H = High Temperature Rated (usually 75°C /167°F) when damp or dry

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 241

 · HH = Even Higher Temperature Rated (usually 90°C /194°F) when damp or dry
· W = Moisture Resistant
· N = Nylon Jacket
· - 2 = High Temperature (usually 90°C /194°F) AND Moisture Resistant

Some types of wire commonly used in PV installations include:

· Underground Service Entrance (USE): 75°C (167°F), wet insulation rating. Heat
and moisture resistant. Sunlight resistant as well, but not usually marked as such.
May be used in battery enclosures.

· USE-2: Same as USE, but with a 95°C (203°F) rating. This is the most commonly
recommended PV module wiring.

· Underground Feeder (UF): 60°C (140°F), wet insulation rating. Not sunlight
resistant unless marked. May be used for interconnecting balance-of-systems (BOS)
but not recommended for use within battery enclosures. Not widely available and
generally not recommended due to its low heat rating.

· THWN-2: Moisture and heat resistant thermoplastic 90°C (194°F) wet or dry rating.
THHN is very similar and interchangeable in many instances, but indicates it is not
suitable for wet conditions (including within exposed conduits).

Table 7-4: Wire Gauge vs. · THW-2: Moisture and heat resistant thermoplastic 90°C (194°F) wet or dry rating.
Maximum Current Capacity May also be labeled as THHW.

· RHW-2: Moisture and heat resistant thermoset (rubber) 90°C (194°F)

AWG 120 Vac 240 Vdc 12 Vdc wet or dry rating. May also be labeled as USE-2 or RHH.
22 5A 2.5A 5A · XHHW-2: Moisture and heat resistant thermoset (cross-linked synthetic
polymer) 90°C (194°F) wet or dry rating.
20 7.5A 3.75A 8A
· Tray Cable (TC): multi-conductor TC wire may be used for
18 10A 5A 10A
interconnecting BOS; TC has good resistance to sunlight but may not be
marked as such.
16 13A 6.5A 20A

14 17A 8.5A 40A

12 23A 11.5A 60A Wire Size and Ampacity Standards

10 33A 16.5A 100A
The NEC outlines the maximum load each particular wire or conductor can
8 46A 23A 150A safely carry. The amount of electrical current that a conductor can carry is mea-
sured in Ampacity, a term for ampere-capacity. The size of electrical wiring is
6 60A 30A N/A directly related to its capacity to carry electrical current. The larger the wire, the
larger the current it can safely conduct.
4 80A 40A N/A
Table 7-4 provides a generic guide to wire sizes used for various current levels in
2 100A 50A N/A
12 Vdc and 120 Vac circuits. More detailed guidelines are available in the NEC.
1 125A 62.5A N/A Due to variables such as wire length, ambient temperature, and connection qual-
ity, an important safety practice is to use only 80% of the wire’s maximum cur-
0 150A 75A N/A rent carrying capacity.

00 190A 95A N/A

000 240A 120A N/A

0000 300A 150A N/A

242 CHAPTER 7
 TECHNOLOGY NOTE: WIRE GAUGES
How did they ever come up with a system of measuring wire where the larger the number¾the smaller the wire?

Well, it is thought that this measuring system started back in the early early days of manufacturing wire. There was a standard size
wire (I guess they figured that was zero). When they wanted to make it smaller in diameter, they heated it up and pulled it through a
smaller hole.

If they needed it smaller, they drew it through even smaller holes. The more holes it was drawn through (each smaller than the
other), the smaller the diameter of the resulting wire.

Wire drawn through one hole was referred to as #1 wire. Draw that wire through a second hole, it becomes #2 wire, and so on and so
on.

SCIENCE NOTE: WIRE SIZE

How Low Voltage Affects Wiring Size
Ultimately, the goal of a PV array is to deliver watts (volts x amps) to
the outlet in the building. The current under which these watts are
transported can be modified by changing the voltage of the system.
The higher the voltage (intensity), the lower the amps (current) needed
to carry the same amount of power (watts).
In electricity, as with water, the more amps required (a larger current),
the larger the wire (pipe) needed to deliver it. So a 12-volt system re-
quires larger wires and connectors than would a 24-volt system to
transfer the same number of watts.
It might be helpful to imagine that the PV system is trans-
ferring water rather than electricity. Let’s assume that the
panel has 4 gallons (15 liters) of water that it has to get to
the home in a fixed amount of time¾say 10 minutes.
The smaller the pipe we use, the more force will be neces-
sary to push the water through in the time allowed.
Using this analogy, the higher the volts (the more intense
the pressure), the smaller the pipe that can be used (the
stream is smaller, but “faster”). Alternatively, if we lower
the voltage (less pressure), we will need a larger pipe to
get the work done in time.

Voltage Drop
The distance the electricity must travel will also affect the sizing of the wire required. This is
due to resistance that is inherent in any conductor.

Sticking with the water analogy, imagine that the friction from the sides for the hose or pipe
continually cause the water to slow just a bit as it travels through it. The longer the pipe, the
more friction (or resistance) will be applied to the water as it gets from the beginning of the
pipe to the end.

So as the electricity moves through the wire (and other connectors in the system), it will loose
some of its power due to resistance. This loss of power is known as voltage drop. Voltage voltage drop
drop is not a safety issue¾but is an efficiency issue. The more electricity generated that can
actually be used, the cheaper that utilized electricity is to produce.

As resistance increases, the voltage drop will also increase. This resistance (and its
corresponding loss of power) can be reduced either by increasing the diameter of the wire (a
bigger pipe) or by shortening the length of the wire run. Additionally, changing the material
used to make the selected wire (usually cooper or aluminum), may also reduce the amount of
resistance in the system. But typically it is wire size and distance that designers adjust to
minimize resistance.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 243

 Generally speaking, the higher the voltage of a system, the less voltage drop is a factor.
While the voltage lost due to voltage drop remains the same, the impact on the delivery of
power is less in higher voltage systems. For example, a 12-volt PV panel that experiences a
2-volt drop will be reduced in efficiency by 2/12 = 16.67%. However, a 60-volt PV panel
experiencing the same 2-volt loss will only experience a 2/60 = 3.33% drop in efficiency.

The temperature of the wire will also affect how much power will be lost as the current
moves from one place to another. The higher the temperature, the higher the resistance. This
increase in temperature can come from several sources.

One source might simply be the temperature of the air. On a warm summer’s day, the wire
will naturally be warmer than on a cold winter’s day. Sunlight striking a conduit in which
cables are placed can also increase the temperature by as much as 30°F (17°C). The smaller
the wire as compared to the current flowing through it, the more energy will be lost through
heat.

In order to minimize the resistance of the connector wires, do one or more of the following:

· Reduce the operating temperature

· Increase the size of the wire
· Shorten the distance from the PV module to the electrical panel
· Change the material used to make the wire.
Typically PV designers and installers cannot control the weather, or the manufacturing
process of the wire¾so the two things that can be controlled are the size and length of the
wires used.

Another thing that can be controlled are the number of connections in the system. Most con-
Table 7-5: Characteristics of nections are necessary and critical for the system to work. But each connection adds just a lit-
Four Panels in Array Example tle bit of voltage drop to the system. Keep these connections to a minimum.

When calculating voltage drop, it is generally ac-

CHARACTERISTICS OF FOUR PANELS IN ARRAY EXAMPLE cepted that the maximum loss should be no more
than 5%. Some loss is unavoidable, but keeping that
Voc (STC) 21.0 V loss to a minimum will make the system more effi-
cient and ultimately save money.
Isc (STC) 7.2 A

Vmp (STC) 17.1 V

Imp (STC) 7.0 A Calculating Maximum Load

Pmax (STC) 7.2 A So how is this maximum load calculated? In this ex-
ample, assume there are four panels in the array with
Voltage 120 W the following characteristics, as shown in Table 7-5.

Temperature Coefficient -0.5 %/ degrees C In this case, the most current this panel might pro-
duce is 7.2 A (its short circuit current). If these panels
Dimensions 66 cm x 142 cm are connected in series, then the voltage will in-
crease, but the current (amps) will remain the same.
Weight 24 lb So the resulting nominal 48-volt system will still
have a maximum amp requirement of 7.2 A.

244 CHAPTER 7
But under certain conditions (such as sunny cold days), these panels can actually perform at a
higher rate than measured under standard test conditions (STC). So this number must be
multiplied by 1.25 to account for this possibility (just in case).

If the system behaves properly, this calculation should be enough. But problems happen.
Circuits can be short circuited, modules may fail, the load (electrical demand) may suddenly
spike. All these factors could result in an overcurrent, where the flow over the system overcurrent
exceeds expectations. So just to be safe, add another 1.25 multiplier to the equation to
account for possible overcurrent.

Now the anticipated maximum amps will be = 7.2 A x 1.25 x 1.25 = 11.23 A.

One might think that the calculations are now finished and simply select a wire that will
allow for the flow of 11.23 A. But alas, adjustments must also be made for the temperature.

Temperature Adjustments
The temperature under which wires operate will also affect their ability to handle current.
NEC Table 310.16 provides the allowable amperes for cables.

All these ratings are based on a system that is operating at 86°F (30°C). If the ambient
(outside air) temperature is greater than this, the capacity of the cable will be less. If the
ambient temperature is less, the capacity may be more. NEC Table 310.16 provides
temperature adjustment factors for cables.

For example, an AWG 12 THWN cable type is rated to handle up to 25 amps when operating
in an environment that is 86°F (30°C). But the temperature inside a conduit that is exposed to
sunlight will be much hotter than the outside temperature (the radiant energy will continue to
build within the confined space). In fact the inside temperature can be as much as 30°F
(17°C) more than the external temperature.

Assume the outside temperature will never get above 105°F (40°C). But at this temperature,
the cable will actually be exposed to temperatures of 134°F (57°C) inside the conduit. So
rather than safely carrying 25 amps, the capacity must be adjusted by a factor of .58 when
temperature is taken into account. The cable in this environment is only rated to carry up to
14.5 amps.

Manufacturers specify the temperatures the insulation of their wires can safely withstand. Be
sure the wire selected will perform under the anticipated temperature conditions.

Conduit Fill Adjustments

The NEC also requires that no more than three conductors be placed in a conduit without
accounting for the increased temperatures they will produce during operation. In NEC Table
310.15(B)(2)(a) these adjustments are listed.

If three or fewer wires are run in a conduit, no conduit fill adjustment is required. But if five
wires are run in the above system, the rating will have to be further adjusted by a factor of .80
(or 80%). So the cable that might otherwise be rated to carry 14.5 amps will only be rated at
14.5 x .80 = 11.6 amps just because more than three are placed in the same conduit.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 245

 LET'S DO THE MATH:
CALCULATING VOLTAGE DROP
Okay, so now we are going to get into some equations that may seem a bit complex, but are actually relatively
simple and important if you are going to make sure the wire and connectors you install do not loose too much
voltage, thereby wasting money (as we know, power is money).

First, we must determine how long our circuit is. For this example, we will simply measure the length of wire
from the PV module to the AC circuit breaker in the home. But remember, the circuit is actually a loop (there are
two wires in that cable) so we need to double this distance.

So we will say that d = the wire distance (in feet)

Our old friend Ohm’s Law will serve as the base equation we use to calculate voltage drop.

Vd = I x R

So let’s define some of our terms:

Vd = the voltage drop

I = the maximum current, which in this case would be the Isc of the PV Array
R = the length of the wire (measured as a fraction of 1000 feet) x the resistance of the wire you have
selected (measured in terms ohms/1000 feet and is presented in NEC Chapter 9, Table 8)

(Isc ´ 2d)
So we could re-write Ohm’s law as follows: Vd = ´R
1000

So let’s plug in some numbers to see how this works. Assume we are thinking of using 14 AWG wire. We look
up this wire in the table in the National Electrical Code (Chapter 9, Table 8) and find that its resistance is 3.14
ohm/1000 feet.

Let’s also assume Isc is 7.2 (based on what the manufacturer told us) and we have measured the distance
between the panel and the home’s circuit box and it is 90 feet.

( 7.2 ´ 2 ´ 90)
So our equation will now be: Vd = ´ 314
. = 1296
. ´ 314
. = 4.06944
1000

So our voltage drop is 4.06944. But what we are really interested in is how much of the anticipated voltage of
the system is being lost due to voltage drop. So we express this as a percentage.

Vd
In this case, the equation would be: %Vdrop = ´ 100%
Vnom

4.06944
So in our example, assuming this is a 24 volt nominal system: %Vdrop = ´ 100% = 16.95%
24

Obviously, losing nearly 17% of your power is quite a waste of energy. So, how could we adjust our design to
minimize loss? Well, what do we have control over? In this case, the length of the wire, the diameter of the wire,
voltage of the system.

246 CHAPTER 7
So let’s experiment a bit.

If we change the distance from 90 feet to 40 feet (by moving the panels closer to the location of the household circuit box). Then our
equation becomes:

( 7.2 ´ 2 ´ 40)
Vd = ´ 314
. = .576 ´ 314
. = 180864
.
1000

1.80864
%Vdrop = ´ 100% = 7.536%
24

As you can see, changing the length of your cable run will make a huge difference in loss. But sometimes you cannot change the
distance, so let’s change the voltage of the system.

If we were to change from a 24-volt nominal system to a 12-volt nominal system (by running the panels in parallel rather than in
series), what will be the effect? We will assume that the cable run is still 90 feet.

( 7.2 ´ 2 ´ 90)
Vd = ´ 314
. = 1296
. ´ 314
. = 4.06944
1000

As you can see, the voltage drop of the system remains the same. But let’s see what happens when we look at the percentage drop.

4.06944
%Vdrop = ´ 100% = 33.912%
12

In this case, over one-third of all the energy generated by the panel is lost before it ever can be used. Not a very efficient design. If
we increase the voltage to 48-volts, the result will be:

4.06944
%Vdrop = ´ 100% = 8.478%
48

So, as the voltage of the system increases, your total system is less prone to losses due to voltage drop. For this reason, as your
power needs increase, a higher voltage system is typically recommended.

Of course, the other factor we can typically control is to simply select a larger diameter wire. The larger the wire, the lower its
resistance. In our example above, we looked in the NEC table and found that 14 AWG wire has a resistance of 3.14 per 1000 feet. If
we select 8 AWG wire, we will find that it has .778.

So if we used 8 AWG wire instead of 14 AWG, we will find that our original 90 foot long, 24-volt system design would give us:

( 7.2 ´ 2 ´ 90)
Vd = ´ 314
. = 1296
. ´ .778 = 1008
.
1000

1.008
%Vdrop = ´ 100% = 4.2%
24

Such a percentage voltage drop is below the 5% we are looking for.

But our PV system does not consist of PV panels directly connected to the service panel. There are a number of connections in
between. So we need to measure the distance between each connection, calculate the maximum current flowing between these
connections, then calculate the percentage voltage drop for each section of the system. When we add them up, we hope we will find
that we have lost less than 5% of our voltage from source (the solar panel) to load (the electrical outlet).

There are smaller parts of the system (such as fuses, breakers and switches) that will also introduce additional voltage drop, but are
impractical to try to measure. But these may add as much as .5% voltage drop in a 24 volt system. So bear this in mind.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 247

 Grounding (Earthing)
In every system, electrical or otherwise, things can go wrong. The unexpected happens. In an
electrical system (such as our PV system), this could result in electrical build-up or electrical
power flowing where it is not wanted. For this reason, it is important that the system be
properly grounded to avoid damage to the building or system and serious injury to people.
grounded
An effective way to avoid these problems is to allow a way for this excess or unwanted
energy to flow to somewhere safe, where it can be absorbed without damage or injury to
those around it. The large, safe place selected to absorb this energy is the earth itself.

Typically, properly grounded electrical systems incorporate a long metal device driven into
the earth, usually an 8-foot (2.5-meter) copper rod. Everything in the system (wires, metal
racks, boxes, equipment, etc) that can conduct electricity must be connected together and
ultimately connected to this buried rod. Any unwanted power will then simply flow down
these grounding wires and be absorbed into the earth.

Grounding serves a number of functions. It can drain off voltages that may be the result of
lightning strikes or unintended contact with a source of high-voltage power. This excess
power is given a safe path to ground through the grounding system.

The grounding system also stabilizes voltages, providing the earth as a common reference
point. The earth is considered to have a zero-voltage charge. So all other voltages are
measured against this constant.

The earth is also considered an unlimited charge sink. It can absorb an unlimited amount of
voltage without changing its charge. So it gives a path for overcurrent devices to channel
power during a surge without affecting its ability to serve as a common reference point.

Unwanted electrical charges can enter your PV system from many sources. A few of these
might include:

· Lightning - Solar panels are typically enclosed in a metal frame. By their very nature,
they are located away from trees or any other structures that might block the sun. So
they are effectively an unobstructed metal object placed high up on a roof… in other
words, a lightning rod.

· Power Lines - Much of a typical PV system is outdoors. Also outdoors are other
sources of electricity, such as power lines. These power lines may accidentally come
in contact with the PV system (such as blowing down in a storm).

· System Deterioration - PV panels are very robust. Many are expected to last and
work well for 30 or 40 or even 50 years. They will continue to crank out power even
though the rest of the system (the wires, connectors, panels and switches) may begin
to deteriorate. Any worn component may result in a short circuit or ground fault.

· Loss of Insulation - Rodents love to chew on wires. Also, things move and rub
against each other. Over time, well-insulated wires might become less well insulated.

These are simply a few ways a system might, over time, come in contact with unwanted
power. There are many others. As a result, the entire system (wires, racks, equipment, con-
duits, junction boxes) must be properly grounded (requirements can be found in the NEC).

248 CHAPTER 7
Ground Fault Interrupters
Roof-mounted residential PV arrays are required to provide ground fault protection (NEC ground fault
690.5). A ground fault interrupter is a piece of equipment installed to detect the presence of a protection
ground fault. Once the unintended ground is found, the ground fault protector is designed to
interrupt the current, open the ungrounded PV conductors (break the circuit) and then
indicate that a ground fault has occurred in the system.

A ground fault occurs when an unintended pathway opens between the source of the current ground fault
(in this case the PV array) and a grounded surface. Electricity is “leaking” somewhere and
escaping to the ground. This can lead to a very dangerous situation. A ground fault
interrupter (GFI) senses this flow to ground and shuts down the system.

SCIENCE NOTE:
GROUND FAULT INTERRUPTERS
Say, for example, that a mouse has been chewing on the insulation of a wire in our PV system (rodents
love to do this, by the way). And say that bare wire is now touching the metal case that holds the
inverter.

If this metal case is properly grounded (which it should be), then that mouse has just created a ground
fault. Some of the power from the panel is going down into the ground.

This could go on for quite a while¾until I decide to check to see why the system isn’t working as well
as it should. I go to check the inverter. As soon as I touch the box, another ground has been created
(namely¾ME). Needless to say, this could be quite an unpleasant experience.

If the system had a ground fault interrupter (GFI) in place, it would have felt the initial ground fault as
soon as it happened, shut down the system, and given some sort of indication that there was a problem
(sometimes this is a light, or a buzzer, or such).

Equipment Grounding Conductors

The size of grounding wires for a PV system is defined in the National Electrical Code
(NEC). If the system incorporates ground fault protection, the equipment grounding
conductors can be as large as the current-carrying wires (the positive and the negative wires).
The NEC Table 250.122 describes the size of the conductors that may be used, based on the
amp rating of the overcurrent (breakers or fuses) protection of the circuit.

If the current-carrying wires have been oversized to account for voltage drop, then this must
be taken into account and the grounding wires must be oversized as well. All this is spelled
out in NEC Table 250.122(b).

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 249

 If the system does not have ground fault interruption installed, the equipment grounding
wires must be sized to carry no less than 125% of the short circuit current of the PV array.
Again, if the conducting wires have been oversized to accommodate voltage drop, the
grounding wire must be oversized accordingly.

DC Grounding Electrode Conductors

The DC system grounding electrode conductor is a bare copper wire that connects the
negative wire and/or the equipment grounding conductor to the ground rod (the long metal
rod buried in the ground). This wire cannot be smaller than #6 AWG aluminum, #8 AWG
copper or the largest conductor within the system (this is defined in NEC 250.16).

System Bonding: The grounding system works in part by creating a common voltage
reference (the earth). So every part of the grounding system must be connected together
(bonded).

Often the grounding systems for the DC and the AC portions of the PV system utilize the
same grounding rod (grounding electrode). By connecting these two grounding systems to
the same grounding rod, it effectively bonds the system together (creating a common
reference point).

But some systems may incorporate two grounding rods (one for the DC grounding system
and one for the AC grounding system). When this is done, the two rods must be bonded to-
gether (connected via an appropriately sized wire¾NEC 690.47). An example of a properly
grounded and bonded system can be seen in Figure 7-22.

Figure 7-22: Properly Bonded and Grounded System with Two Grounding Rods

250 CHAPTER 7
Battery Systems and Wiring
Stand-alone PV systems require some way to store the electrical energy so that it is available
at night and on days when there is not enough sunshine to provide all the power needed. In a
PV System, this energy is stored in batteries.

A battery system includes more than just batteries. There are several other components to the
battery system as well. These systems include:

· The battery (or usually several batteries connected together)

· The wire that connects them together.
· A charge controller.
· A low-voltage disconnect.

Batteries do more than just provide power when there is no sunlight¾they also serve to even
out the supply to meet demand.

In most cases, power is not used evenly throughout the day. Appliances are turned on. They
are turned off. There may be long periods of time when little power is used (for instance, the
home’s occupant may be at school or at work), and then periods of time when a lot of electric-
ity is used. So the batteries serve to even out the flow of electricity, providing extra power
(even when the sun is shining) when needed, and storing extra power when the PV array is
generating more electricity than is currently being used.

The batteries are often the most troublesome portion of any PV system, requiring the most
frequent maintenance and/or replacement. For this reason, batteries can be a considerable
portion of the expense of a PV system, even in addition to their original cost. Reducing or
eliminating them altogether (as in a grid-tied system) can significantly reduce the cost of a
PV system.

Types of Batteries
It seems that, increasingly, batteries are everywhere. They are used in flashlights, watches,
MP3 players, portable computers, clock radios¾and of course, cars. They come in various
shapes, sizes, voltages and structure. The type required by PV systems are called deep deep discharge type
discharge type batteries (also called deep cell or deep cycle batteries). batteries

A typical car battery, is designed to generate a fairly large amount of power frequently (to
start the car). But this power is only required for a short period of time.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 251

 Deep Discharge Batteries
Deep Discharge
Deep Discharge Batteries, such as the one illustrated in Figure 7-23, are designed to
Batteries
discharge up to 80% of their stored energy over a longer period of time (discharging power
from deep within the battery cell). This kind of use would very quickly wear out a normal car
battery¾which is why they are unsuitable for use with a PV system. Batteries used in golf
carts are often used in inexpensive PV systems.

Figure 7-23:
Battery System

These batteries are typically lead-acid type “wet” batteries, but occasionally PV systems will
use alkaline-type batteries such as nickel-cadmium, nickel-iron, or nickel-metal-hydride.
Lead-acid batteries (by far the most popular in today’s PV systems) are rechargeable,
relatively inexpensive and widely available in a variety of sizes, voltages and options.
liquid vented
Lead-acid batteries are typically described as either liquid vented, or sealed. The sealed
sealed variety commonly used in PV systems are either gel cell or absorbed glass mat (AGM).

gel cell
Liquid Vented Batteries
absorbed glass mat
(AGM) Liquid vented batteries are very much like batteries used in automobiles. They contain
positive and negative lead plates that are immersed in an electrolyte solution of sulfuric acid
Liquid vented and water. As the battery charges, hydrogen gas is produced and escapes through vents in the
batteries battery. Water vapor also escapes during this process, so the water levels must occasionally
be checked and refilled.

Contrary to popular belief, sealed batteries are not truly sealed. They still contain valves and
vents that allow gas to escape in case of overcharging. For this reason they are typically
valve regulated lead referred to as valve regulated lead acid batteries (VRLA). Since the electrolytes cannot be
acid batteries (VRLA) accessed, they are often marketed as maintenance-free (although every system requires
maintenance).

Sealed batteries typically do not use a liquid solution. The two major types of sealed batteries
used in PV systems are gel cell and absorbed glass mat (AGM) batteries. In gel cell batteries,
a silica gel is used to thicken the electrolyte solution into a mass. In AGV batteries, a fibrous
silica glass mat suspends the electrolyte solution (almost like a sponge).

252 CHAPTER 7
An advantage of these sealed batteries is that the sulphuric acid based electrolyte solution
will not spill during handling and/or transportation. They also require a bit less maintenance.
They are, however, more expensive than standard liquid vented batteries.

More expensive still are alkaline-type batteries such as nickel-cadmium batteries. These
batteries utilize nickel and cadmium plates (rather than lead) and potassium hydroxide alkaline-type batteries
electrolyte solution (rather than hydrochloric acid). The advantage of these systems is that
they are less effected by cold temperatures than typical lead-acid batteries. For this reason
they are often used in applications that will be subject to extremely cold temperatures of
-50ºF (-46ºC) or less.

Each type of battery, and even batteries within each category manufactured by different
companies will charge and discharge differently.

Battery Voltage
Calculating battery array voltage is very similar to how PV module array voltage is calcu-
lated. In fact, when incorporating batteries into a PV system, the nominal voltage of the PV
array must be matched to the nominal voltage of the battery array.

Lead-acid batteries typically supply about 2.14 volts from each cell within the battery. So a
typical nominal 12-volt battery will generate 12.6 to 12.8 Volts. Just as with PV modules, if
these batteries are connected together in series, the voltage of the battery array (or battery
bank) is the sum of the individual batteries. So connecting two 12-volt batteries in series will
effectively create a single 24-volt battery. Connecting four 12-volt batteries in series will
create an array operating at 48 volts (and so on and so on).

Likewise, these same batteries connected together in parallel will not affect the voltage of the
system (which will remain the same as the individual battery, but will increase the overall
watts produced by increasing the current (amps). The effect on voltage by wiring battery
banks in series or in parallel can be seen in Figure 7-24.

Figure 7-24: Batteries Connected in Series and Parallel

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 253

 Amp-Hour Storage
The storage capacity of a battery is measured in terms of amp-hours (AH). A 12-volt battery
amp-hours (AH) that is rated at 180 amp-hours means that this battery (when fully charged) will supply one
amp of power for 180 hours until it is considered fully discharged (or 2 amps for 90 hours, or
4 amps for 45 hours, etc).

However, the rate of discharge (how fast the power is used) will affect how much power is
rate of discharge available (the battery’s capacity). For example, the above mentioned battery may supply 180
amps if discharged over a period of 24 hours, but if all that power is used more quickly, the
capacity of the battery will be less.

In this example, if the power stored within the battery is used in just 8 hours, the battery’s ca-
pacity might only be 154 AH. Similarly, if the power were used more slowly, this battery’s
capacity might be 192 AH if used over a 72-hour time period.

To provide a way of comparing various batteries, a discharge rate of 20 hours (all the avail-
discharge rate able power is drained from the battery over a 20-hour period of time) is used (referred to as
the C/20 rate). This rating is important, not only in understanding the capacity of the battery
C/20 rate (based on rate of discharge), but also as a reference point when charging batteries.

Lead-acid batteries should never be charged at a rate faster than C/5 (which would charge a
completely dead battery in five hours). In this example, a battery rated at 180 AH at C/20
should not be charged at a rate higher than 45 amps (180 / 5). Gel-cell type batteries, how-
ever, should never be charged at a rate higher than their C/20 specification.

Once the nominal voltage of the system has been determined (24-volt system, 48-volt sys-
tem, etc), more batteries (individual batteries or “strings” of batteries connected together in
series that equal the system’s voltage) may be added, connected in parallel, to increase the
stored capacity of the battery bank.

Depth of Discharge (DOD)

Depth of Discharge The Depth of Discharge (DOD) of a battery typically refers to the percentage of the bat-
(DOD) tery’s stored capacity that has been used (or discharged). When fully charged, the battery
holds 100% of its power capacity. If one-quarter the power is then used, the battery’s capac-
charging cycle ity is now at 75% or a DOD of 25%. The battery may then begin to recharge, eventually
reaching 100% again. This charging/discharging process is referred to as the charging cy-
cle.

How “deeply” the battery cycles during this process (how much of the capacity is used in
each cycle) will affect the life of the battery. Shallow cycling (only discharging the battery by
10-20% before recharging it) will vastly increase the life of the battery. A battery that typi-
cally discharges at a 10% DOD rate will last five times as long as a battery that routinely dis-
charges at a 50% DOD rate. Likewise, a battery that discharges at a 50% DOD rate will last
twice as long as one that routinely discharges at a 80% DOD rate.

Another factor to consider, aside from increasing the life expectancy of the battery bank, is
that a system that routinely discharges at a great depth (such as 80% DOD) will not have
much storage capacity available to handle unusually long periods of cloudy weather.

254 CHAPTER 7
So why not design a huge battery bank that almost never cycles below 10% DOD? One
factor may be cost. Batteries are expensive and purchasing more than are necessary may
increase the cost of the PV system dramatically.

A second reason, however, is that a very large battery bank may not recharge quickly enough
to bring it back to full capacity. This will result in sulfation of the batteries and will likewise sulfation
reduce the life expectancy of the batteries.

Designers have found that a practical balance (storage capacity versus cost) is to design for a
50% DOD rate for the battery bank.

Temperature
Battery performance is extremely sensitive to temperature. As the temperature increases, so
does the battery’s storage capacity. This is why a car might start on a warm sunny afternoon,
but then not start the next morning when it is cold, snowy and miserable.

The storage rating for batteries (measured in amp hours) is based upon how it performs at
room temperature¾determined to be 77ºF (25ºC). If the battery gets colder than this
temperature, it will not perform as well. A battery operating at 32ºF (0ºC) may only achieve
65-85% of its rated capacity. So a battery that was rated as having a 200 AH capacity might
only hold 130 AH if the battery is stored outdoors during the winter at temperatures
approaching freezing.

When specifying the battery bank capacity, compensate for temperature variations by incor-
porating a battery temperature multiplier, as shown in Table 7-6, into the equation. For ex-
ample, a bank that was sized (based on manufacturer specification) to provide 1,000 AH of
storage capacity at 77ºF (25ºC) would need to be sized at 1,400 AH (1,000 x 1.40) to provide
the same stored capacity if operating at 30ºF (-1.1ºC).
Table 7-6: Battery
TEMPERATURE MULTIPLIER Temperature Multiplier
Table
80°F (26.7°C) 1

70°F (21.2°C) 1.04

60°F (15.6°C) 1.11

50°F (10.0°C) 1.19

40°F (4.4°C) 1.3

30°F (-1.1°C) 1.4

20°F (-6.7°C) 1.59 (Source: Solar Energy International)

Additionally, lead-acid batteries contain a liquid that might freeze (damaging the battery) if
exposed to extreme temperatures. When fully discharged, the electrolyte solution is almost
entirely water. This solution will freeze at 17ºF (-8ºC). When fully charged, the liquid is al-
most entirely sulfuric acid, which freezes at a lower temperature of -71ºF (-57ºC). Relative
freeze points can be found in Table 7-7.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 255

 Table 7-7: Freeze Point STATE OF CHARGE VOLTAGE FREEZE POINT
of Batteries
100.00% 12.7 -71°F (-57.2°C)

75.00% 12.5 -35°F (-37.2°C)

50.00% 12.3 -10°F (-23.3°C)

25.00% 12 3°F (-16.1°C)

(Source: Solar Energy International) 0.00% 11.7 17°F (-8.3°C)

In order to safely protect lead-acid batteries from freezing, they should be maintained in a
well insulated container that will not be subject to temperatures lower than 20ºF (-7ºC).
Nicad and sealed batteries are not subject to freeze damage and are therefore often specified
in extremely cold environments.

However, while batteries perform better at higher temperatures, they will not last as long.
The battery may loose as much as 50% of its life expectancy for every 15ºF (8ºC) under
which they operate above room temperature. In a typical installation, however, this tends to
even out over the course of a year, as they operate at lower temperatures during the winter
and higher temperatures during the summer months.

Battery Banks
The nominal voltage of a battery bank must match the PV-array nominal voltage. The
capacity, however, can be increased by adding additional “strings” of batteries to the bank.
When connected, these battery banks behave as a single unit. For this reason, it is important
that each battery behaves exactly like all the other batteries in the array. They must charge
and discharge in exactly the same manner.

It is therefore critical that all batteries in the bank be identical. They should be from the same
manufacturer, the same age, the same type and be maintained at the same temperature.

It is typically not a good idea to add a new battery into an existing array. The internal cell
resistance is greater in the older battery, and will actually draw down the performance of the
new battery to match the lower performance of the older battery. For this reason, most
battery banks are installed as a unit (all at the same time) and replaced as a unit.

Battery Bank Sizing

In a stand-alone PV system, batteries provide power when the sun is not shining. The larger
the capacity of the battery bank, the longer it can supply the needed power. So a system might
be designed to incorporate one-day’s worth of stored capacity where all the electrical needs
are provided by the batteries alone (this would assume zero or very low power generation
from the sun).

256 CHAPTER 7
But one-day’s power needs might not be enough. A prolonged bad spell of weather might
require two, or even three days of storage capacity from the battery array. How much
capacity is required will depend on how critical the need for uninterrupted power (for
instance medical equipment might be in place that the user literally cannot live without), how
much power is normally used, and other available sources (other than the PV array) that
supply power to the system (such as a generator, a windmill or even the electrical power
grid).

As temperature greatly effects battery performance, manufacturers test their products under
standard conditions, providing specifications, such as those shown in Table 7-8.
Understanding these specifications is critical in selecting the appropriate battery size and
quantity for the system.

Table 7-8: Battery

BATTERY SPECIFICATIONS
Specifications
Volts 12

OVERALL DIMENSIONS

Length 20.76 in / 527 mm

Width 10.89 in / 277 mm

Height 9.73 in / 247 mm

Unit Weight 165 lbs / 75 kg

NOMINAL CAPACITY AMPERE HOURS @ 25º C (77º F) TO 1.75 VOLTS

PER CELL

1 hour Rate 165

2 hour Rate 209

4 hour Rate 214

8 Hour Rate 236

24 Hour Rate 258

48 Hour Rate 285

72 Hour Rate 295

120 Hour Rate 305

All batteries tend to degrade as they age. So battery banks should initially be sized larger than
is needed in anticipation of this loss of capacity as the system ages.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 257

 LET'S DO THE MATH:
SIZING A BATTERY BANK
Let’s assume that we are designing a PV system that has no other source of power (it is
not connected to the grid and does not have a back-up generator, for example). It is for a
home that uses 900 watts hours of AC power each day (we already figured that out, so we
don’t have to go through that exercise again). We have also decided that this is going to
be a 24-volt (nominal) system and the inverter that we bought operates at a 90%
efficiency. Also, we are going to store the batteries in a place that is always 77ºF
(25ºC)¾I know this isn’t very likely, but it will make our calculations a lot easier.

Now we are ready to make some other decisions. How many days of power do we think
we need to store? At what depth of discharge are we willing to let our batteries cycle?
What kind of batteries are we going to use?

So let’s say that we decide that we need two days of stored capacity. We are going to let
our batteries cycle at 50% DOD and we are going to buy 12-volt batteries rated at 100
amp-hours. So, now we are ready to go.

First, we take the AC Average Load ( 900) and divide it by the Inverter Efficiency (.90)
which = 1,000 watts (the amount of DC power we need to have available to get our
required amount when factoring in the inefficiencies of the inverter.

We now divide this number of watts we are generating by the system voltage to get the
amp/hours required = 1,000 / 24 = 41.67 average amp/hours per day.

But we want two day’s supply of energy, so we need to multiply this number by two. The
result is 41.67 AH x 2 days = 83.34 AH. But we are not done yet.

Remember, we want only to cycle through about half (50% DOD) of the battery’s
capacity between charges, so we need to divide our number by our discharge level =
83.34 AH / .50 DOD = 166.67 AH. Now we know how many amp hours of capacity we
will need.

So next we take this number (166.67 AH) and divide it by the rated AH for the battery
(100 AH) and we get 1.67. Since you can’t buy two-thirds of a battery, we will safely
assume we need two 24-volt strings (batteries in series) to generate enough capacity.

We had decided that we were purchasing 12-volt batteries, so it will take two of these
connected in series to produce a 24-volt current. So, bottom line, we will need four
batteries to generate the power we require.

You can use a worksheet like the one in Table 7-9 to help keep track of your work. It’s
easy to get lost in the equations without some helpful guide to keep you on track.

258 CHAPTER 7
 Table 7-9: Battery Sizing Worksheet

AC Average
Daily Load ¸ Inverter
Efficiency + DC Average
Daily Load ¸ DC System
Voltage = Average Amp-
Hours/Day

[( ¸ ) + ¸ ] =
Average Amp-
Hours/Day X
Days of
Autonomy ¸ Discharge
Limit ¸ Battery AH
Capacity = Batteries in
Parallel

X ¸ ¸ =
DC System
Voltage ¸ Battery
Voltage = Batteries in
Series X
Batteries in
Parallel = Total
Batteries

¸ = X =
Battery Specification: Make: Model:

How Batteries are Charged

So just how does our system put energy into and draw energy from the batteries? To under-
stand this, let’s assume the PV array is working on a typically sunny day. It is generating
power that is being used in the home.

If the batteries are fully charged, and the array is generating as much power or more than is
currently being used, the power bypasses the batteries. If the system is generating more
power than is being used (and are not hooked up to an electrical utility) then the extra power
is either wasted or diverted to a load dump. Sometimes systems are hooked up to heat water
with this extra power, such as in the system illustrated in Figure 7-25.

Figure 7-25: Energy Diverted

to a Hot Water Heater (Load
Dump)

Then, assume the sun is blocked by clouds. The output from the panels decline, and there is
suddenly need for more power than the system is generating. The extra needed power is now
pulled from the batteries. This power comes from the top portion of the battery.

The clouds depart, and once again the system is generating more power than required. The
excess power will now be stored in the battery (which is no longer fully charged). This will
continue, the power levels in the battery bank “floats” within an ideal range of operation Floating Stage
(usually between 80% and 100% of capacity). This is referred to as the Floating Stage of
battery charging.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 259

 But now, the sun sets. The need for power does not stop simply because there is no longer any
sunlight. In fact, typically the need increases (for lights, heat, etc). So during the night, power
is drawn from the battery bank to meet these load requirements.

Assuming during the night that the energy level within the battery bank has drained to well
below a certain Depth of Discharge (DOD). When this occurs, the system will behave
Bulk Voltage Setting differently than just described. This point is often referred to as the Bulk Voltage Setting.

Bulk Charge

As the sun rises and power begins to flow from the PV array, ALL the electrical energy
generated will flow into the battery bank to recharge it.

So even though the PV array is now generating power, the load demands from the home will
still be met by the battery bank while the PV array is focused exclusively on recharging the
batteries. For this reason, if the home is powered by a stand-alone system and the battery
bank is allowed to drain down too low, the entire system may need to be shut down until the
batteries are recharged.

WARNING HAZARD:
EXPLODING BATTERIES
When batteries are charged, they give off hydrogen gas. When everything is working properly, this gas
vents out of each cell in the battery and escapes into the air. The air already has a lot of hydrogen (in fact,
hydrogen is the most common element in the universe) so this usually doesn’t cause a problem.

But if there is too much hydrogen, it’s another story. Remember the Hindenburg Disaster? A bunch of
hydrogen meets a bit of oxygen and an electric spark and¾BOOM¾no more zeppelin!

Important safety tip. Batteries can explode. Another thing to remember¾batteries contain acid. So not
a good idea for the unprotected body, an exploding acid-filled box. So a few things to keep in mind
when working with batteries.

· Always store them in a well-ventilated area so the hydrogen gas does not build up.
· Keep the batteries clean. Dirt and gunk can block the vents, preventing the hydrogen from
getting out. This can build up quite a lot of pressure inside the battery. If you ever see a battery
that is bulging (the sides bubbling out like it is about to explode), don’t mess with it (because it
might really be ready to explode). Shut down the system, disconnect everything and get
someone to get rid of it that has been trained to deal with these things.

· Keep sparks and flames away from batteries. It only takes one little spark to set them off if there
is enough hydrogen in the area.

· Keep ‘em cool. Not only will the battery work better, but there is less risk of explosion.
· Don’t connect “live” batteries. As you are messing with getting them all hooked up, you might
cause some sparks. So be careful.

· Wear gloves and eye protection when working with batteries. If the thing does explode, you
want to minimize the damage (to you¾at that point, who cares about the battery).

260 CHAPTER 7
Absorption Charge
Once the stored charge reaches the Bulk Voltage Setting (again, this is typically about 80%
Bulk Voltage Setting
of capacity) then the system will kick into absorption (or tapering) mode. When a battery
reaches this stage of charge, some of the electrolytes inside begin to boil, converting to gas.
In order to minimize this, the system will lower its voltage for a period of time (usually an absorption
hour or two).

During this period of time, the excess electricity is still not available to power even an elec-
tric toothbrush. So unless the system is designed with some sort of energy sink (like a hot wa-
ter heater) to accept this excess energy, it will simply be wasted by the system.

Floating Charge
After the absorption charge period has ended, the controller will begin to divert some of the
energy from the PV panels directly to the load (bypassing the batteries). As the battery gets
closer to being fully charged, more and more of the load will be diverted until, when the
battery is fully charged, all the PV module generated electricity will go directly to the load.
And the cycle begins again.

Battery Storage
A certain amount of gassing occurs during the normal operation of the battery. Even “sealed”
batteries (or no-maintenance) have vents that will allow this gas to escape. Typically, vented
batteries are a bit less expensive but require more maintenance and typically release larger
amounts of gas. Fluid levels must be checked periodically and distilled water added as
needed (the gassing of the battery releases hydrogen, oxygen and corrosive gases).
gassing
Hydrogen is a gas that is lighter than air, and it is also explosive under the right conditions.
For this reason, as well as health concerns raised by breathing gases generated by batteries,
batteries should be stored in an enclosed area that is well-ventilated to the outside air, as
illustrated in Figure 7-26.

Figure 7-26: Storage Area

with Venting

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 261

 Care must be taken in storing batteries for several other reasons as well.

First, batteries carry an electrical charge. If the voltage is high enough, that charge (if
touched accidentally) could cause significant injury or even death. Any battery array that is
connected in series to produce more than 48 volts must be stored in containers that do not
conduct electricity.

If batteries are stored on a metal rack (an obvious conductor) then the metal on the rack has to
be at least 6 inches (15 centimeters) away from the battery terminals. This is required by the
NEC to help avoid injury.

In addition to storing batteries in a manner that will avoid electrical shocks, batteries also
produce gases that are explosive or toxic if allowed to remain concentrated. So the storage
area should be well vented to the outside (or even placed outside).

Health and safety concerns must take precedence, but how batteries are stored may also
affect their efficiency. Extremes in temperature (too hot or too cold) can dramatically affect
their performance¾and in very extreme temperatures, permanently damage them.

Batteries must also be maintained from time-to-time. So they should be stored in a manner
that allows relatively easy access.

Battery Maintenance
In a PV system, the battery is typically the part of the system that requires the most
maintenance. Disconnect the battery bank from the PV array (or any other power source)
as well as from the load before testing or maintaining the batteries. This battery-disconnect
must be a full-load rated switch or circuit breaker.

For all batteries, the first step in maintenance should be to visually inspect the battery
bank. Check for loose or corroded wires or connections, corroded battery terminals, or
posts; dirty or wet battery top; or a leaking, cracked or damaged battery case. Tighten and
clean all connections as necessary. Have baking soda available to neutralize any acid that has
spilled or might spill.

Lead-acid batteries are subject to acid stratification at the bottom of the cell when
under-charged. So periodically the battery must be “equalized.” When the specific gravity
of a cell falls below 1.237 (75 % charge), sulfation begins within the battery. Sulfation
hardens the battery plates, reducing and eventually destroying the ability of the battery to
generate Volts and Amps. To avoid serious damage, maintain efficiency and prolong the life
of the battery, this sulfation must periodically be “scrubbed” from the battery plates.

Equalization is typically performed once every six months or so by raising the charging volt-
age to equalization levels for a period of time (1-2 hours) without allowing excessive heat to
build within the battery. In most systems the charge controller will perform this function au-
tomatically, but if not, check with the manufacturer as to the recommended method to equal-
ize the battery.

262 CHAPTER 7
Vented liquid lead-acid batteries vent gas as they charge. So they will require that distilled
water must periodically be added (to replace the water that escapes as gas). Please note,
use DISTILLED WATER ONLY from non-metal containers. Impurities in the water from
the tap will greatly reduce the performance of the battery. How often water needs to be added
will depend on the battery and its use. So a regular maintenance check is necessary to view
electrolyte levels.

Maintaining the proper fluid level is very important. The plates need to be covered at all
times to prevent sulfation and reduce the possibility of an internal battery explosion.

Measuring the Battery State of Charge

There are two standard methods for measuring the state of charge of a battery. Both require
that the battery be disconnected from the system (at rest) for several hours prior to testing.
Table 7-10: Battery State of
A voltmeter can be used to test the voltage present within the battery. Table 7-10 may then be Charge (Voltage)
referenced to find the state of charge based on the voltage present.

STATE OF VOLTAGE VOLTAGE VOLTAGE

CHARGE (12 V BATTERY) (24 V BATTERY) (48 V BATTERY)

Lead-Acid Gel-Cell Lead-Acid Gel-Cell Lead-Acid Gel-Cell

100.00% 12.7 V 12.5 V 25.4 V 25.0 V 50.8 V 50.0 V

75.00% 12.5 V 12.3 V 25.0 V 24.6 V 50.0 V 49.2 V

50.00% 12.3 V 12.1 V 24.6 V 24.2 V 49.2 V 48.4 V

25.00% 12.0 V 11.8 V 24.0 V 23.6 V 48.0 V 47.2 V

0.00% 11.7 V 11.5 V 23.4 V 23.0 V 46.8 V 46.0 V

Alternatively, unsealed liquid lead-acid batteries may be tested using a hydrometer. A

hydrometer is a bulb-type syringe that measures the specific gravity of the electrolyte within hydrometer
the cell. In measuring the specific gravity, what is really being measured is the amount of
sulfuric acid that is present in the electrolyte solution. The higher the sulfuric acid content,
the higher the specific gravity and the more fully charged the battery.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 263

 Table 7-11 may be used to determine charge based on specific gravity.

Table 7-11: Battery STATE OF CHARGE SPECIFIC GRAVITY

State of Charge (Specific
Gravity) 100.00% 1.260

75.00% 1.237

50.00% 1.200

25.00% 1.150

0.00% 1.100

Hydrometer readings should not vary more than .05 differences between cells. Some sealed
batteries incorporate a built-in hydrometer that displays the condition of only one cell. Prob-
lems may exist with one of the other cells, but that problem may not be readily apparent since
only one cell is monitored.

Hydrometer floats and voltage meters are set to read at a specific temperature, usually 80°F
(26.7°C) so readings will need to be adjusted for temperature as indicated in Table 7-12.

Table 7-12: Battery State of

BATTERY ADD OR SUBTRACT ADD OR SUBTRACT TO
Charge Temperature TEMPERATURE TO HYDROMETER’S DIGITAL VOLTMETER’S
Adjustments SG READING READING

120°F (48.9°C) +0.016 -0.013

110°F (43.3° °C) +0.012 -0.011

100°F (37.8°C) +0.008 -0.008

90°F (32.2 °C) +0.004 -0.005

80°F (26.7 °C) 0 0

70°F (21.1 °C) -0.004 +0.007

60°F (15.6 °C) -0.008 +0.016

50°F (10 °C) -0.012 +0.028

40°F (4.4 °C) -0.016 +0.044

30°F (-1.1 °C) -0.020 +0.062

20°F (-6.7 °C) -0.024 +0.084

10°F (-12.2 °C) -0.028 +0.108

0°F (-17.8 °C) -0.032 +0.134

264 CHAPTER 7
Battery Safety
Great care must be taken in the handling, installing and maintenance of batteries to avoid
personal injury as well as damage to property.

Hazards include burns from corrosive chemicals (as well as potentially high voltage and
current), explosion, inhaling toxic gases and from the fact that batteries can be very heavy to
lift (back injuries and damage due to batteries falling during transport or from improper
installation).

Battery voltages typically range from12-volts to more than 60-volts. Direct current (DC)
causes muscles to contract that may prevent the victim from letting go. The shock from even
these relatively low levels of electricity can eventually kill or damage internal organs (often
leading to heart attacks).

Batteries also present a flash hazard. During short circuits, a battery bank can deliver
currents in excess of 6,000 amps. This current is enough to vaporize metal and cause severe
burns (and death).

And of course liquid lead-acid batteries contain sulphuric acid, which can cause serious skin
and eye injury.

Read and follow all the safety instructions provided by the battery manufacturer. Also, when
handling batteries:

· Always wear insulated gloves and safety goggles.

· Use the proper tools when assembling battery banks.
· Ensure the battery bank storage area is properly vented at all times.
· Remove all watches and metallic jewelry before working with batteries.
· Discharge all static electricity before touching batteries.
· Ensure there are no open flames (no smoking) in the area.
· Lift batteries from the bottom or use carrying straps to avoid damage to the casing.
· Use non-metal or insulated tools to avoid accidental short circuits.
· Have ample clean water available to flush skin and/or eyes in case of accidental
contact with the electrolyte solution.

· Also have baking soda available to neutralize acid in the event of a spill.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 265

 Battery Wiring
Since the goal is that each and every battery in the battery bank charges and discharges at the
same rate, careful attention must be paid to the voltage drop between batteries. For this
reason they are connected using very large wire (2/0 or 4/0 battery cable) to minimize
resistance. There are also a number of techniques to wire the batteries together that keep the
lengths of cable consistent. These wiring schemes are typically noted in the literature that
comes with the batteries. Figure 7-27 gives an indication of the wire size as well as layout.

Figure 7-27: An Example

of Battery Bank Wiring

Battery wiring and disconnect switches must be sized at 125% of the maximum of either the
load current (typically coming from the solar array) or the charging current (coming from the
batteries), whichever is greatest. Any devices used in this circuit for overcurrent protection
must be able to interrupt any battery short-circuit current.

PV Charge Controller
The charging of the battery bank is controlled by the charge controller. The charge
charge controller controller determines how much energy is directed into the battery array, controls when to
shift from the bulk voltage setting to absorption charge phase, to the floating setting, and also
(in some cases) periodically equalizes the batteries.

The charge controller may also serve as the traffic cop, diverting all or some of the electrical
energy to the batteries or to the load. In systems that divert excess energy generated during
the absorption stage of charging to a energy sink of some sort (such as a hot water heater), the
charge performer will perform this task as well.

An important function of the charge controller is to keep the batteries from overcharging. If a
lead-acid battery receives more charge than it is designed to handle, the electrolyte in the
battery will eventually begin to boil. Not only can this damage or ruin the battery, the
resulting gas can be a serious health risk.

266 CHAPTER 7
Shunt Controllers
Small PV systems may simply incorporate a shunt controller that prevents the overcharg-
ing of the batteries by bypassing them (shunting) when they are fully charged. The excess shunt controller
power is then dissipated in the form of heat. These simple and inexpensive controllers may
also incorporate a blocking diode that will prevent the back flow of electricity. This diode
prevents power from draining from the batteries back to the solar array at night or other times back flow of
when the array is not producing sufficient power. electricity

Single Stage Controllers

Another type of controller is designed to switch off the current when the battery voltage
reaches a pre-set level called the charge termination set point (CTSP). The battery is then charge termination
reconnected to the array as the battery drains and reaches another pre-set charge resump- set point (CTSP)
tion set point (CRSP). A simple thermostat on a furnace uses this process to control the tem-
perature in a room. The system turns on when it hits a certain temperature, turns off at charge resumption
another pre-set temperature. set point (CRSP)

Single-stage controllers have a greater capacity than do most shunt controllers. They also do
not need to incorporate large heat sinks and typically do not require ventilation (as do shunt
controllers).

Multi-Stage Controllers
Multi-stage controllers are designed to accommodate the various charging stages of a bat- Multi-stage
tery and will significantly prolong the life of the battery as compared with the previous two controllers
controller types. The controller allows the full charge of the battery during the bulk charging
stage, steps down the charge level during the absorption stage, and then controls smaller
amounts of current to the batteries during the floating stage of charge.

Pulse Width Modulated Controllers

These controllers have the added feature of rapidly turning the charge off and on (pulse) as
the battery reaches maximum charge, allowing it to completely charge more efficiently. As
the battery gets closer to maximum charge, the pulses gradually decrease, “easing” the bat-
tery to full charge.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 267

 Other Features that may be Incorporated into Charge
Controllers
Controllers may also incorporate additional features that serve to either prolong the life of
the battery bank, or allow the user to better monitor the system performance. These features
may include: temperature compensation (adjusting charging current based on the ambient
temperature of the battery bank), load circuit breaker, low voltage warning buzzers, a volt
meter (to display the battery’s charge), ammeter (displaying the array’s current or load),
maximum power point tracking, automatic equalization, and more. Additionally, the
controller may also incorporate the low voltage disconnect.

Sizing a Controller
First and foremost, the controller must match the maximum voltage output of the system.
These voltages are typically referenced as nominal voltages, so a 12-volt system should
incorporate a 12-volt controller, a 24-volt system a 24-volt controller, and so on.

The controller must also be capable of handling the maximum amperage that may pass
through it. As power is used in the home, the electric load placed on the system will increase.
The maximum DC load under which the system operates will need to be calculated to ensure
the controller is sized adequately for the system.

Thirdly the controller must be able to accommodate the maximum current generated by the
solar array (in which case calculate it using the short circuit current). Also, since operating
conditions may actually (on occasion) produce power levels in excess of STC (standard test
conditions), it is wise to increase these maximums by 25%.

Some hybrid systems may incorporate other DC sources, such as a windmill or micro-hydro
system. Make sure the system can accommodate the current from these sources or the
combined current from all sources if they operate simultaneously.

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

Whether built into a charge controller, or as a stand alone unit, a maximum power point
tracking system can help boost the efficiency of a PV system that incorporates battery banks.
Each array has a specific voltage and amp level at which it functions at peak efficiency. It is
at this balance of voltage and amperes where the panel is designed to produce the most watts.

When a system is charging a battery bank, left to its own devices the voltage pulled from the
panels will match the voltage of the battery. This voltage will most likely not correspond to
the maximum power point of the array. The MPPT, as shown in Figure 7-28, is a DC to DC
power converter designed to modify the voltage load to match the maximum power point of
the array.

268 CHAPTER 7
 Figure 7-28:
MPPT

For example, a system that does not include an MPPT will draw power at 12 volts to charge a
nominal 12-volt battery bank. At this level, the PV array will only produce about 53W of
power. But if an MPPT is incorporated into the design, it will “boost” the voltage to about
17.5 volts, generating the array’s full 75W of power. The MPPT then conditions this power
to match the requirements of the battery bank. In this example, the array efficiency is in-
crease by over 41% [(75-53)/53 x 100%] simply by incorporating an MPPT in the system.

Low Voltage Disconnect

To keep batteries from running too low, the battery system will also need to include a low low voltage
voltage disconnect. This is a piece of equipment that monitors the stored energy in the disconnect
battery array and shuts down the system when the power levels reach a certain minimum
level. The system is then without power until the batteries are sufficiently recharged.

If a battery is allowed to discharge 80% of its fully charged capacity, it can become
damaged¾or even ruined. The lower the discharge, and the more often it reaches these low
levels, the harder it is on the battery. So the low voltage disconnect serves an important
function¾protecting the battery from damage. Often these systems are set to allow the
batteries to go below 50% DOD, but higher settings may be optimal in an adequately sized
system to prolong the life of the battery array.

DC Disconnect
For every source of power, common sense and codes require that there be some way to
disconnect the system and/or shut it down quickly during surges of power (overcurrent
protection). One such example is a circuit breaker box in a typical home.

A standard circuit breaker performs this function for AC power coming from the utility grid.
Power can be disconnected (flip the main disconnect switch or breaker) or may disconnect
automatically if there is a problem.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 269

 A similar system, such as the one in Figure 7-29, is required for DC power. In this way, the
inverter (and systems beyond) can be isolated from the DC power generating system.

Figure 7-29:
DC Disconnect

All disconnects in the system (not just the DC disconnect) must be easily accessible, well
labeled, contained (no exposed parts or wires) and rated for the voltage and current they will
potentially handle.

Overcurrent Protection
Every electrical system must have some way to open the circuit (shut down the flow of
electricity) if the current exceeds the capacity of the wire or other attached components.

This overcurrent protection is required and the NEC specifies maximums for each wire size.
fuses Typically this protection is in the form of either fuses or circuit breakers. Both systems
must be UL (Underwriter’s Laboratories) listed and DC rated if used with DC currents (and
circuit breakers AC rated for AC currents).

Fuses typically contain a wire that burns through (or “blows”) when a preset maximum
current flows through. At this point the circuit is then opened and the flow of electricity
stops. Blown fuses must be replaced before the current can be restored.

Circuit Breakers function in a similar manner as do fuses, but can simply be “reset” rather
than replaced. Before replacing fuses or resetting circuit breakers, the cause of the
interruption should first be determined.

Typically overcurrent protection will come into play for two reasons.

1. Overload¾too many devices (load) are drawing power on the circuit.

2. Short circuit or ground fault¾this may be caused by poorly designed or damaged
wiring as well as faulty equipment.

270 CHAPTER 7
Placement
The NEC 690.9A requires that any ungrounded conductor must be protected by an
overcurrent device. In a DC system, the positive conductor is ungrounded. If the system has
multiple sources of power, the overcurrent devices must be in place for each source, as illus-
trated in Figure 7-30. These devices must be placed as near as possible to the potential source
of overcurrent for any installed conductor (next to the PV array rather than next to the charge
controller, for example).

Figure 7-30: Proper

Placement with PV Panel
and Batteries

Blocking diodes, controllers and inverters are NOT considered overcurrent devices. If the
PV system is directly connected to the load without battery storage or other source of power,
then no overcurrent protection is required if the conductors are sized at 156% of the
short-circuit current.

Overcurrent Sizing
It is commonly believed that fuses and circuit breakers are designed to protect equipment.
This is not the case. They are sized to protect the wire, keeping it from overheating and
potentially causing a fire. To do this the fuses or breakers must be rated at less than or equal to
the amp capacity of the selected wire.

The designer of a PV system typically must balance the sizing of overcurrent protection be-
tween a minimum overcurrent level, calculated by the potential load (plus a safety margin)
that may be on the circuit, and a maximum overcurrent level, which is the amp rating of the
wire actually used. The lower the overcurrent level selected, the more protection. However
too low a level may result in frequent “nuisance” tripping of the circuit, resulting in unneces-
sary power interruptions.

To calculate the proper fuse size, calculate the maximum amount of current that the PV panel
(or array) is designed to provide and select a fuse with the closest current rating to this value.
The fuse is a protective device so you should select a lower fuse rating rather than a higher
value if an exact fuse size is not available.

The fuse must also have a proper voltage rating for the voltages present in the circuit where it
is used. In PV systems, the minimum and maximum size of the series fuse is determined by
the electrical ratings of the PV module as well as by UL and National Electrical Code (NEC)
requirements. Be sure to consult with the PV module manufacturer for appropriate fuse
ratings.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 271

 Although the maximum current ratings for #14, #12 and #10 THHN wires are 25, 30 and 40
amperes, respectively, the maximum fuse or circuit breaker size allowed by the NEC are 15,
20 and 30 amperes, respectively.

Often, PV modules or series strings of modules are connected in parallel. As the conductor
size used in the array wiring increases to accommodate the higher short-circuit currents of
paralleled modules, each conductor size must be protected by an appropriately sized
overcurrent device.

Inverters
An inverter is a key component of any PV system. It’s primary purpose is to convert DC
inverter electrical current from the PV array or the battery bank into AC power that household appli-
ances require.

Selecting an Inverter
The key characteristics of an inverter that should be identified during the selection process
include:

· Waveform type · Output voltage and current limits

· Operational modes · Power rating
· Input voltage and current limits

InverterWaveform Types
There are three basic types of inverters. These are characterized by the type of electrical
wave they produce. Square waves, modified square waves (also called modified sine
waves), and sine waves are illustrated in Figure 7-31.

Figure 7-31: Square Wave, Modified Sine Wave and Sine Wave

272 CHAPTER 7
The power produced by square wave inverters tends to cause high harmonic distortions
(that annoying buzzing sound heard from some electrical appliances). Square wave inverters square wave
tend to overheat electrical motors and are not compatible with most electronic equipment. inverters
Unless there is a very specific application that requires this type of inverter, they should be
avoided. They are considered an “old” technology and are very rarely used.

The old square wave inverter has evolved, or been modified over the years. Today, many
stand-alone PV systems use a modified square wave (also called a modified sine wave) in- modified square
verter. The advantage of this type of inverter is that the harmonic distortions are lessened. wave
These wave forms will work with most devices, however they still may not be suitable for de-
vices such as light dimmers, laser printers, chargers for cordless tools or smoke detectors.
They are also not appropriate for grid-tied systems, as their output is not compatible with
utility electric.

Ideally, the system will utilize a sine-wave inverter (which is the only choice if the system is sine-wave inverter
grid-tied). With this system, the harmonic distortion is at a minimum and all appliances that
operate with grid-supplied electricity should function in a similar manner using power
generated by this inverter.

These inverters will also produce power that can be “sold back” to the grid. Inverters of this
type typically incorporate a function that periodically checks the grid to make sure it is still
supplying power (that there is no power outage). If the grid shuts down, the inverter will
automatically disconnect from the grid to ensure that the system does not create an islanding
effect by continuing to supply power to a grid that is not functioning (possibly injuring a
utility worker who believes the wires are “dead”.

Operational Modes
Sine-wave inverters are capable of operating in various ways, or modes. They can be used in
a stand-alone system, in which they have no interaction with the utility grid. Or, some
inverters are capable of consolidating power from several sources in a hybrid PV
system¾such as wind or a generator.

Other sine wave inverters are designed specifically to interact with utility power systems.
These inverters might allow the use of power from the grid to charge batteries, or control
how excess power is “sold back” to the utility company. An inverter should be selected that
allows for the operational modes required by the system design.

The type of system (stand-alone or grid-tied) may affect which type of inverter needed. Each
inverted is rated for its application, so care must be taken to ensure that the right inverted is
used with its appropriate system.

Inverter Efficiency
Inverters are not 100% efficient. Some energy is lost during the conversion process.
Inverters are typically referred to as 93% efficient, or 95% efficient¾meaning that on
average, 93% of the DC power going in is converted into AC power coming out. But this is
an average.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 273

 Inverters tend to operate at maximum efficiency when they are operating near their maxi-
mum output. So a 1,000-watt inverter is operating more efficiently when it is powering a
950-watt load than when it is powering a 150-watt load. But loads vary (different appliances
are used at different times). So select an inverter that operates efficiently over a wider range
of output levels or one that most closely matches the most frequently anticipated load level.

Other Considerations
There are factors other than inverter efficiency to consider when selecting an inverter.

If installing a grid-tied system, the utility provider may have very specific requirements re-
garding which inverter is acceptable. It will be necessary to check with them to ensure that
the inverter is compatible. Other factors to consider include:

· Watts Output: This measurement indicates the amount of power the inverter can
supply during normal operations. It is critical that the inverter be capable of
supplying enough power to satisfy peak load requirements.

· Voltage Input or Battery Voltage: It is important that the inverter match the nominal
voltage of the PV system. With systems that incorporate battery banks, this nominal
voltage will typically be 12-volt, 24-volt or 48-volts. But grid-tied systems with no
battery bank may produce at a much higher nominal voltage. It is important that the
inverter be sized to match the voltage produced by the array.

· Surge Capacity: When electrical motors start up, they may considerably exceed their
operating wattage for a brief period of time. Most inverters factor this need for an
occasional quick burst of energy into their design, and can exceed their rated wattage
during these brief surges. While specific products will vary (consult with the
manufacturer) at minimum plan that surge loads will multiply the power
requirements by three. Make sure the inverter is capable of handling these increased
loads.

· Frequency: Most loads in the United States operate at 60 Hz (the wavelength

frequency). But frequencies vary around the world. Make sure your inverter operates
at the appropriate frequency for the appliances it will power as well as matching the
utility company’s specifications.

Modern inverters might also incorporate many of the other functions previously discussed
that are necessary for a well designed PV system. These include:

· Battery charging (from the grid) control

· Low and high voltage alarms and disconnection (the low voltage disconnect
operation)

· Automatic control of backup energy sources (such as a generator)

· Maximum Power Point Tracking
· Safety disconnects
· Energy saving functions

274 CHAPTER 7
Inverter Safety Considerations
High DC and/or AC voltages may be present at the inputs of inverters. Circuits connected to
an inverter can deliver extremely high currents (amps) as well, capable of vaporizing metal
and causing extreme injury or death.

Open all disconnects and breakers when working on the inverter and verify the current is not
present through “hot testing.” Also, it is possible that the circuit may remain energized even
when switches are in the open position. Work carefully, making sure to hot test the system
periodically for current. Also, always wear well insulated electrical gloves and safety
glasses.

AC Disconnect
On either side of the inverter (the DC and the AC) a disconnect switch or panel such as the
one in Figure 7-32 must be installed so that the equipment may be isolated from power.
Again, this can be a simple switch or circuit breaker box.

Figure 7-32:
AC Disconnect

Connecting to the Grid

When connecting the PV system to the electrical grid, it essentially becomes a very small
utility power plant. With this power (both figuratively and literally) comes responsibility. A
number of requirements are imposed, and these vary from location to location. So early in the
planning process contact the local electrical utility company as well as other governing bod-
ies to find out what rules and restrictions may apply. Typically these include:

· Permits (depending upon location, the state, city, county, and even home owner’s
association may require a permit to install the system)

· Utility Grid Interconnection agreements (these are generally required to connect to

the utility grid)

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 275

 · Insurance (most agreements require a certain amount of insurance, in case things go
wrong)

· Net Metering agreements (this will outline pricing issues)

· Final Inspections & Signatures. The utility company will inspect the connection to
make sure it conforms with the agreement. They may require the use of a certain
inverter or connection device to ensure the quality of the power as well as avoid
islanding. A special meter might also be required that monitors energy flow in both
directions.

Troubleshooting the System

Things always go wrong. PV systems are no different. Even a well-maintained, well-de-
signed and installed system will periodically experience problems. The most common of
these are blown fuses, tripped breakers, or bad connections (did something come un-
plugged?). Other common problems include low or empty batteries.

If the system fails, determine:

· Has it been cloudy for several days? Maybe the battery bank simply needs
recharging.

· Is the array blocked (shaded) by something, or is it dirty?

· Are any fuses or circuit breakers blown or tripped?
· Any loose connections?
· Are any connections corroded?
· Is the wiring system operating with proper polarity?
· Is the system operating under proper voltage and current?
· Are the modules and batteries properly connected (series and parallel
configuration)?

· Are any of the components physically damaged?

multimeter Many of these questions can easily be answered simply by looking at the system. But for
some, specific tools will be required.
voltage (V)

current

resistance
Using a Multimeter
One of the most basic pieces of electronic troubleshooting equipment is the multimeter.
VOMs (Volt- These test instruments are available in both analog and digital readout form and can be used
Ohm-Milliammeters)
to directly measure values of voltage (V), current in milliamperes (mA) or amperes (A), and
resistance in ohms (W). Therefore, these devices are referred to as VOMs
DMMs (Digital
(Volt-Ohm-Milliammeters) for analog types, or DMMs (Digital MultiMeters) for digital
MultiMeters)
types. Figure 7-33 depicts a digital multimeter.

276 CHAPTER 7
 Figure 7-33:
Digital Multimeter

With a little practice, you can use this device to check wiring, components, voltage sources,
and current flow. Some DMM models contain facilities built into the meter to test transistors
and diodes. These facilities are in addition to its standard functions of current, voltage, and functions
resistance measurement.

In the cases of current and voltage, you will need to select between alternating and direct
current measurements. This selection is typically determined through the meter’s function
selection switch.

Measuring Voltages
The multimeter’s DC voltage function is used to take measurements in live DC circuits. In
most troubleshooting applications, fully 99% of the tests made are DC voltage readings. DC voltage function

To take a voltage reading, the meter must be connected in parallel with the device being
checked. This could mean connecting the reference lead (black lead) to a ground point and
the measuring lead (red lead) to a test point to take a measurement, as illustrated in Figure
7-34.

Figure 7-34:
DC Voltage Check

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 277

 As an approximate value is detected, you can decrease the range setting to achieve a more ac-
curate reading. Most meters allow for over-voltage protection. However, it is still a good
safety practice to decrease the range of the meter after you have achieved an initial value.

WARNING
Setting the meter¾It is normal practice to first set the meter to its highest voltage range
to make certain that the voltage level being measured does not damage the meter.

Only a couple of situations involve using the AC voltage function. The primary use of this
function is to check the commercial power being applied to the power supply unit. As with
AC voltage function any measurement, it is important to select the correct measurement range. However, the
lethal voltage levels typically associated with types of measurements call for additional
caution. Figure 7-35 depicts a multimeter properly configured to check the power supply
from a commercial 120 Vac outlet.

Figure 7-35:
Testing an Outlet

Measuring Resistance
The second most employed meter test is the resistance, or continuity test.
resistance

continuity test
WARNING
Power off¾Unlike the voltage check, resistance checks are always made with power
removed from the system.

Failure to turn off the power when making resistance checks can cause serious damage to the
meter and can pose a potential risk to the user. Resistance checks also require that you electri-
cally isolate the component being tested from the system. For most components this means
de-soldering or disconnecting at least one end from the circuit.

278 CHAPTER 7
The resistance check is very useful in isolating some types of problems in the system. One of
the main uses of the resistance function is to test fuses. You must disconnect at least one end
of the fuse from the system to test its continuity. You should set the meter on the 1-kilohm
resistance setting. If the fuse is good, the meter should read near 0 ohms. If it is bad, the meter
reads infinite.

The resistance function also is useful in checking cables and connectors. By removing the
cable from the system and connecting a meter lead to each end, you can check the cable’s
continuity conductor by conductor to verify its integrity.

Measuring Current

The last major measurement function associated with multimeters is measuring the flow of
current through a circuit to device. Unlike voltage and resistance measurements where the
meter is placed “across” a source or a component, current measurements must be set up so
that the current flowing through the circuit or component also flows directly through the me-
ter. This requires that the meter be placed in line (in series) with the circuit or component, as
illustrated in Figure 7-36.

Figure 7-36: Measuring Current

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 279

 REVIEW QUESTIONS

T he following questions test your knowledge of the material presented in this

chapter.

1. Explain the difference between solar south and magnetic south and give two
methods of determining solar south.
2. Explain the difference between the altitude and the azimuth of the sun and
their effect on PV array performance.
3. Explain the Short Circuit Current (Isc) rating of a solar panel and why it is
important in calculating the wiring size of a PV system.
4. List five safety precautions you should always take when handling or
maintaining batteries in a PV system.

280 CHAPTER 7
EXAM QUESTIONS

1. Your client wishes to increase the power output of their 5-year-old solar
array. Which of the following options would you likely recommend (barring
unusual circumstances)? Give your reasons in a way that will persuade your
customer that you are giving good advice.
a. Option 1: Add additional panels to the system
b. Option 2: Add an active tracking system
c. Option 3: Replace all the solar panels with more efficient models
d. Option 4: Add additional batteries to the system
2. Actual PV performance will vary from those tested at Standard Test
Conditions (STC) for all the following reasons EXCEPT:
a. air temperature
b. altitude
c. cloud cover
d. humidity
3. You have completed your calculations and found that the voltage drop of
your system is too great. What can you, as a system designer, typically do
to fix this problem?
a. Increase the storage capacity of the battery bank.
b. Incorporate a voltage diode into the system.
c. Increase the size of the wires used.
d. Increase the Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) setting within
your inverter.

INSTALLING AND DESIGNING RESIDENTIAL-SCALE PHOTOVOLTIC SYSTEMS 281

 LAB PROCEDURE 4

Grid-Tied Photovoltaic Power Systems

OBJECTIVES
1. Connect the PV Array Circuitry to the commercial AC power system through a Grid Tie Inverter.
2. Drive AC Loads with the Marcraft PV Array Generation System.
3. Document Battery Charge/Discharge Rates vs. Inverter Output (System Efficiency).
4. Use the Grid Connection to augment/replace AC current from the commercial power utility. Solar
5. Calculate Net Metering Capabilities of the Grid-Tied PV Array system.

RESOURCES
1. 12V, 50W Photovoltaic Solar Panels (2)
2. Variable Intensity Lamp with variable height adjustment
3. Marcraft GT-1000 Solar PV Technology Panel
4. Hand-held Digital Multimeters
5. Jumper Wires (12 AWG red and black)

DISCUSSION
In most residential applications, the output of the PV array is either used to charge a bank of storage batteries,
or it is applied to the commercial power grid to supplement the incoming power supply to the residence. If the
power demands of the residence are lower than the output of the PV array, the excess power can be sold back to
the electrical utility in many locations. Conversion of the PV array’s DC output into AC used by the commer-
cial power supply is accomplished through a device called an Inverter.

In large commercial solar farms, the outputs of several PV panels are combined to provide hundreds of mega-
watts (million Watts or MW) of power that is applied directly to the commercial power grid. These arrays work
with complex controllers that monitor the operation of the array and control parameters such as its optimum
horizontal and vertical positioning. These controllers are also designed to provide power to the grid in a format
acceptable to the local electrical utility.

GRID-TIED PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEMS - 417

 PROCEDURE - 4

Net Metering
The maturing of several alternative electrical generating technologies has led to the inclusion of the consumer
as a possible supplier of energy from renewable sources such as personal photovoltaic panel/arrays, wind
turbines (or mini-wind farms), or mini/micro hydro power plants. Investing in these types of residential power
generation systems can serve the customer in three basic ways:

· Reduce the amount of outside energy required, reducing the amount of energy purchased from their
local electrical utility

· Eliminate all dependency on power from an outside utility company and effectively remove the
consumer from the grid

· Generate enough power to cover their own energy needs and sell excess energy to the power company
The ultimate goal of most consumers who invest in alternative energy generation is the latter¾create enough
electricity to cover their own usage and make some money selling the excess power they generate to the power
utility company.

To work with these alternative energy generating technologies for purposes of going off grid (replacing the
local power utility) or net metering (selling power to these utilities), you must understand the technology being
used (covered in the theory portions of this book and the previous lab procedures) as well as the residential or
commercial power system you are connecting to, and the power grid it is attached to. The following sections
will address all of these topics in reverse order.

The Grid
The “Power grid” is actually a collection of interconnected power utility companies that generate electrical
power for commercial purposes. In the United States, the power grid is composed of independently operated
utility companies. The utility company is typically comprised of one or more electrical generating facilities (or
plants) and a power transmission/distribution network.

Commercial generating plants are typically large facilities that use water, coal, natural gas, oil, or nuclear
fission to generate steam, which turns large electrical generators that produce the electrical power.

The power distribution network typically exists in a tree configuration, as illustrated in Figure 4-1. The gener-
ating plant is connected to the end-user/customers through a series of transmission lines, sub stations and
distribution lines.

Figure 4-1:
Electrical Power
Distribution
Systems

418 - LAB PROCEDURE 4

 PROCEDURE - 4

When the power is generated, its voltage level is stepped up (increased) to a high level to make it more efficient
for transmission across long distance power lines. As the power moves through the network, it is manipulated
at the substations to make it more useful for different customers. The voltage level is initially stepped down
(lowered) to make it compatible with the network’s distribution wiring. It is then stepped down again when it is
delivered to the end user’s service location. This service voltage step down brings the voltage level into
alignment with wiring and electrical equipment specifications for different types of customers.

While each utility company is its own entity, it is not alone. Each utility’s distribution network is tied into other
utility networks to form a power grid that can be used to share the power they generate with each other¾the
utilities sell their power back and forth between themselves to maximize the use of the power that is generated
within the grid.

Residential Wiring
In order to incorporate a PV Array into off-grid or net-metered applications, you must be aware of how residen-
tial and commercial structures are designed and how they are connected to the grid.

Figure 4-2 shows a typical residential service entrance wiring diagram. As indicated in the schematic diagram,
the outside pole transformer reduces the power line distribution voltage from 7200 volts to 240 volts. Three
wires are used to deliver two-phase 240-volt service to the residential service entrance.

The service disconnect panel may be located

outside the residence, or inside with the main
distribution breaker panel. The service
entrance includes the masthead, conduit, and
wiring from the top of the masthead into the
home. A power meter is also included at the
base of the masthead, before the cabling
enters the residence. This meter monitors the
electrical current flowing through the
entrance cables and shows a record of the
power used by the customer.

Circuit breaker panels (also referred to as

entrance panels or distribution panels)
have two sets of breakers. One set, for the
main power supply, is usually at the top of
the panel, and controls power to all the
circuits. The other breaker set is usually
arranged in two columns running down the
panel and controls individual circuits
throughout the house. Circuit breakers with
a single toggle serve 120 V circuits. Figure 4-2:
Two-toggle breakers, on the other hand, A Residential
serve 240V circuits. This type of breaker has Service Entrance
two hot wires that run through the circuit if a
problem occurs on either line, both breakers
trip.

GRID-TIED PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEMS - 419

 PROCEDURE - 4

The breaker panel is normally located as close as possible to

the service entrance; in some cases, however, it is necessary
to locate the panel farther away depending on the type of
construction.

The neutral wire connects to the neutral bus on the circuit

breaker panel. In the U.S., the residential wiring codes use the
two phases of the 240-volt service and a neutral wire to form
two separate 120-volt service paths for lighting and wall
outlets. 240-volt service is provided to electric cooking
ranges and HVAC equipment.

The ground wire is routed to a ground bus bar in the circuit

breaker panel. Black wires are used for the “hot” 120-volt
wiring. Each hot wire has a separate circuit breaker, and white
wires are used for all neutral wiring connections. The ground
wire is either bare copper wire or green. Figure 4-3 illustrates
the connections from the circuit breaker panel to the indi-
vidual branch circuits in the home wiring plan.

Some older homes are equipped with fuses instead of circuit

breakers. Fuses perform the same service as circuit breakers,
except a fuse must be replaced if it detects an overcurrent
Figure 4-3: condition. A circuit breaker can be reset after being tripped
Creating Branch and therefore is a reusable type of protection device.
Circuits

Ground and Neutral Wire Connections

The center tap connection of the power pole transformer is connected to the earth using a copper bar driven into
the ground. From this ground connection, two wires are run to the service entrance.

The safety ground wire appears to be redundant because the neutral wire is derived from the same point;
however, they each serve different purposes. In electrical equipment that has a safety ground connection (as
evidenced by a three-prong plug), the safety ground is always connected to any exposed metal parts of the
equipment in case of a wiring fault inside the appliance or lamp fixture.

Typical design specifications for powering a home theater equipment rack include two dedicated 20-amp
circuits. One circuit is dedicated to the equipment rack, and the other is dedicated to powering the whole-house
audio amplifiers and the media room wall outlets.

Hot and neutral are terms frequently used to describe the black and white wires respectively in residential
high-voltage wiring. The green wire, referred to as the equipment grounding conductor, is returned to the
ground rod and normally does not carry any current unless a fault occurs in the wiring. The NEC indicates that
the equipment grounding conductor used in residential power wiring must be green or bare.

One of these wires is the safety ground or green wire, and the other is the neutral wire. The neutral wire
serves as the return path for the home wiring to the center of the transformer. The safety ground path does not
carry any current unless there is a fault in the wiring due to an appliance failure.

420 - LAB PROCEDURE 4

 PROCEDURE - 4

If a fault were to occur, such as an accidental connection between the hot wire and the case, the safety ground
connection would cause the hot connection to be directly connected to earth. This would activate a protective
device such as a ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI), fuse, or circuit breaker, shutting down the power
circuit.

In the past, earth grounds for the home service entrance used the water pipe as the earth ground reference point.
Because increased use of plastic water pipe and non-conducting fittings has made the effectiveness of
grounding to plumbing systems questionable, this method does not meet current safety standards. Although
water lines can be used in some circumstances,

The National Electrical Code (NEC) now states that the home might also require one or more “supplemental
grounding electrodes” buried in the house foundation or in the earth outside the home. An example of a ground
rod installation with the grounding wire installed as shown in Figure 4-4. Copper-clad 8-foot grounding rods
are often recommended. Local code-enforcement also might require that grounding rods be added to existing
homes when new electrical work is done or when the home is sold.

Figure 4-4:
Ground
Connections

Inverters
Inverters are electronic or electro-mechanical devices that convert DC into AC. DC sources such as wind
turbines, photovoltaic solar panels and batteries are often connected to inverters to provide an AC output that
has consistent voltage levels and frequencies. In a solar PV array using a storage battery system, the inverter is
used to convert the DC current coming from the storage batteries into AC power that can be used with typical
household appliances.

Inverter Types
Most PV array installations require some type of battery-based storage system. Inverters designed to work
specifically with this type of application are referred to as off-grid (or no utility-needs batteries) inverters. Off
grid inverters are designed to work with batteries and are not designed for connection to the commercial
power grid).

GRID-TIED PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEMS - 421

 PROCEDURE - 4

On grid (also called no-battery-grid intertie) inverters are designed for connection to the AC power system
provided by the local electric utility company and do not require any batteries.

A third class of inverters referred to as On-grid/Off-grid capable inverters are designed so that they can be
connected directly to the utility grid, but can also work with a battery storage system to provide backup power
in the case of a power outage.

Inverter Sizing
Off grid and On-grid/Off-grid capable inverters must be sized so they are compatible with the maximum load
they are, or will be, expected to supply. This is simply a matter of installing an inverter with a power rating high
enough to supply the sum of all the wattage ratings of the devices that will be supplied at any one time.

For example, if 200 watts of lighting, 1000-watt refrigerator and a 1500-watt oven need to be supplied at the
same time, the inverter must be capable of delivering at least 2700 watts of power.

Safety Precautions
Working with electrical wiring requires you to have an understanding of basic electrical safety procedures. A
qualified, licensed electrician should perform the installation of new wiring in a residential or commercial
setting and it is required to pass electrical wiring inspections in most locations. This ensures that the remodeled
or newly constructed home wiring installation will be done according to local building codes.

Any house properly wired by a qualified electrician will have a circuit breaker panel to shut off circuits when-
ever they draw too much current. The current capacity of the circuit breaker (in amperes) determines how much
current a circuit can supply. The breaker size is chosen relative to the type of cabling and connector used for the
circuit because each has a different capacity.

When making additions or repairs to the electronic wiring system or equipment, disconnect that part of the wir-
ing or equipment from the main voltage so no potentially dangerous voltages are present when and where the
work is being done. This should be done in all electronics and electrical installations and repairs.

The inherent personal dangers from electrical current still exist in this procedure. Therefore you should always
use caution when working with this and other electrical devices. The high current capabilities of PV arrays can
create a potentially dangerous shock and burn hazard when the panel is in operation. As before, using improper
wire sizes (wires that are too small for the level of current they are required to carry) can result in excess heat
that can damage the wiring, causing a fire, or cause a burn to humans.

422 - LAB PROCEDURE 4

 PROCEDURE - 4

CAUTIONS
The breaker panel on the Marcraft GT-1000 is designed to protect personnel from
coming into contact with dangerous (lethal) voltage levels. Never remove the cover from
the panel.

Likewise, the switch, meter box and outlet covers are for protection from live circuits.
Never remove these covers from their mounting boxes.

The waterproof conduit connecting all of the AC devices together provides protection
from electrocution and contact with liquid hazards. Never remove the conduit or its
connectors from these devices.

PROCEDURES
The Marcraft GT-1000 panel includes an On Grid (Grid-Tied) type of inverter for generating power compati-
ble with commercial AC power utilities. This inverter accepts 24V direct current input from a PV array and
produces a 240VAC, 60 Hz (Hertz or cycles per second) grid-compliant AC power.
Solar
The conversion occurs in two steps. First the incoming DC voltage is converted into a high DC voltage using
high-frequency pulse width modulation (PWM) switching techniques. The high voltage signal is then applied
to another PWM circuit to produce the 240VAC, 60 Hz output voltage. The AC power then travels upstream
through an ordinary branch circuit to the service panel, and possibly onto the external grid. Figure 4-5 illus-
trates the organization of the GT-1000 in block diagram form.

Figure 4-5: The Inverter in the GT-1000 System

GRID-TIED PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEMS - 423

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Examining the Grid-Tie Inverter

The inverter used on the Marcraft GT-1000 Solar PV Technology experiment panel is a grid tie-only inverter
type. Therefore it does not use a load regulator or diverter to control charging current to any batteries. All power
generated by the PV array is delivered to the electrical system for use within the residence (or commercial struc-
Solar
ture), or for delivery to the electric utility company.

1. Obtain the Inverter’s documentation¾locate and record the following information on the lines
provided:

Model Number: ________________

DC Input Voltage Range: ______________

AC Output Voltage Range: _______________

Maximum AC Output Current: _____________

Low DC Input Voltage Shut Down: __________________

Maximum DC Input Voltage: ___________________

Maximum DC Input Current: __________________

2. From the inverter’s documentation, determine the correct configuration for the two PV panels to meet
the inverter’s DC input requirements and record your decision on the following line:

__________________________

Connecting the Inverter to the PV Array

Qualified electrical personnel have made all the AC connections on the GT-1000 Solar PV Technology
training panel. However, the DC connections to the inverter circuitry will be made during this procedure. For
safety sake, make sure the AC portions of the system remain in their Off condition (or that the panel is
Solar completely unplugged from the commercial power supply) until requested in the following procedure.

1. Make certain that all wiring from the bottom rows of the PV Panel #1 and #2 Control Panel connec-
tion blocks from previous lab procedures has been removed.

2. Make sure the Disconnect Switches are both in the OFF positions.

3. Make sure the Panel’s Main Power Switch is in the Off position.

4. Unplug the panel from the 120VAC commercial power outlet, if necessary.

5. Make sure all the breakers in the AC Disconnect Enclosure are in their Off positions.

424 - LAB PROCEDURE 4

 PROCEDURE - 4

6. Form a series PV array connection between PV Panel #1 and PV Panel #2 by installing a jumper wire
between the left-center terminal on the bottom row of the PV Panel #1 Control Panel connection
block and the left-most terminal on the bottom row of the PV Panel #2 Control Panel connection
block.

This creates a connection between the positive (+ or red wire) terminal of PV Panel #2 and the negative (- or
black) terminal of PV panel #1, as illustrated in Figure 4-6. This connection method insures that the same
electrical current flows through both panels.

Figure 4-6:
Connecting PV
Panels in Series

7. Prepare and install a red 12 AWG wire between the upper terminal on the DC Disconnect Switch and
the far left terminal on the bottom row of the PV Panel #1 Control Panel connection block.

8. Prepare and install a black 12 AWG wire between the bottom left terminal on the Output Configura-
tion connection block and the left center terminal on the bottom row of the PV Panel #2 Control Panel
connection block.

9. Prepare and install a short red jumper wire between the lower terminal of the DC Disconnect Switch
and the second terminal from the bottom on the left-hand side of the Output Configuration connection
block.

10. Prepare and install a short black jumper wire between the second right terminal from the top of the
Output Configuration connection block to its bottom right terminal.
These connections provide a complete circuit between the PV array’s control panels and the inverter’s positive
and negative connections at the Output Configuration connection block, as illustrated in Figure 4-7.

Figure 4-7: Inverter DC

Input Connections

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 PROCEDURE - 4

Verifying the Operation of the Inverter

The GT-1000 panel includes a number of built in ammeters that allow you to monitor the electrical production
and consumption in the system. Figure 4-8 calls out the various meters on the panel.
Solar

Figure 4-8:
Panel Mounted
Ammeters

Together, these meters will enable you to determine the impact the DC current from the PV panels has on the
power usage within the local electrical system and their ability to provide excess power back to the utility
company through the power grid.

· PV Panel #1 DC Ammeter – This meter shows the amount of DC current being drawn from PV Panel
#1. This current is drawn from the series-connected PV array by the inverter and is the same current that
passes through PV Panel #2.

· PV Panel #2 DC Ammeter – This meter shows the amount of DC current being drawn from PV Panel
#2. This current is drawn from the series-connected PV array by the inverter and is the same current that
passes through PV Panel #1.

· AC Input Current #1 and #2 Ammeters – These meters show the current entering the breaker box on
each 120VAC line from the transformer. Together these meters replace the power company’s power
meter at the electrical entrance to the facility. Because these are ammeters instead of power meters, you
will have to mathematically convert the current reading into power using the 120V value for voltage.

· Load Circuit #1 AC Ammeter – This meter shows the AC current level drawn by Load #1 (Light fixture
#1)

· Load Circuit #2 AC Ammeter – This meter shows the AC current level drawn by Load #2 (Light fixture
#2)

· Inverter Line #1 and Line #2 AC Ammeters – These meters show the AC current levels being drawn by
the inverter through its AC input/output lines.

426 - LAB PROCEDURE 4

 PROCEDURE - 4

1. Use the variable light source to illuminate both PV panels. Position the light source so that it will
shine directly on both PV panels (both horizontally and vertically) from a distance of approximately
2 ft.

2. Turn On all four lamps in the light source.

3. Connect the leads of the hand-held multimeter across the PV Panel #1 positive and negative leads on
the bottom row of the PV Panel #1 Control Panel connection block.

4. Move the PV Panel #1 Disconnect Switch to the ON position and record the voltage produced at the
PV Panel #1 Control Panel connection block on the following line:

______________

5. Use the following line to record the current level displayed on the PV Panel #1 Ammeter:

______________

6. Move the PV Panel #1 Disconnect Switch to the OFF position.

7. Move the leads of the hand-held multimeter to the PV Panel #2 positive and negative leads on the
bottom row of the PV Panel #2 Control Panel connection block.

8. Move the PV Panel #2 Disconnect Switch to the ON position and record the voltage produced at the
PV Panel #2 Control Panel connection block on the following line:

______________

9. Use the following line to record the current level displayed on the PV Panel #2 Ammeter:

______________

10. Move the PV Panel #2 Disconnect Switch to the OFF position.

11. Move the leads of the hand-held multimeter across the Inverter’s positive and negative DC leads at
the Output Configuration connection block, as illustrated in Figure 4-9.

Figure 4-9:
Measuring Inverter
DC Input Voltage

GRID-TIED PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEMS - 427

 PROCEDURE - 4

12. Move both PV Panel Disconnect Switches to the ON position and record the voltage produced at the
Output Configuration connection block on the following line:

Inverter DC Input Voltage: ______________

13. Use the following lines to record the current levels displayed on the PV Panel #1 and PV Panel #2
Ammeters:

PV Panel #1: ______________

PV Panel #2: ______________

14. Determine the current level being delivered to the inverter’s DC input by the series PV panel array
and record it on the following line:

Total Input Current: ______________

15. Calculate the DC input power being delivered to the inverter’s DC input:
Total Input Power: ______________

16. Is the DC input voltage within specification for the inverter? What is the DC input voltage maximum
for the inverter?

______________

______________

17. Move both PV Panel Disconnect Switches to the OFF position.

18. Disconnect the multimeter leads from the Output Configuration connection block, and turn the
multimeter OFF.

19. Turn all the lamps on the variable light source OFF.

WARNING
All electrical installations must be performed in accordance with all local electrical codes
and the National Electrical Code (NEC), ANSI/NFPA 70. Only qualified electrical
personnel are allowed to connect this equipment to the AC wiring. Connecting the
inverter to the local utility grid requires previous approval from the electrical utility
company. In the case of the GT-1000 training panel, all of the AC connections and wiring
have been preinstalled and should not be accessed in the classroom.

CAUTION
The installation of any grid-tie inverter includes a risk of electrical shock. Always make
sure there is no active AC circuitry present when installing a grid tie inverter.

428 - LAB PROCEDURE 4

 PROCEDURE - 4

Observing AC Power Usage

The Marcraft inverter’s internal circuitry may take up to 5 minutes to start producing AC output that is fed back
into the AC power lines. When the inverter is ready to produce an AC output, to operate it will flash the green
LED, located on the lower side of the case, six times.
Solar
1. After plugging the GT-1000 panel’s Main Power Breaker Box into a 120 VAC receptacle, move the
GT-1000 panel’s Main Power Switch to the On position.

2. At the breaker panel, move the two right-hand breakers to the On position. These are the branch
circuits that apply 240 VAC current to the inverter. The inverter’s internal circuitry examines the two
120VAC waveforms and begins generating back flow current into the AC branches.

3. At the breaker panel, move the left-most breaker to the On position. This is the breaker that supplies
120 VAC current to branch circuit #1 (Load Light #1). Then, turn the wall switch for Load Light #1 to
the On position.

4. Record the current readings from the following ammeters on the lines provided:

AC Input Current #1 Ammeter: ________________

AC Input Current #2 Ammeter: ________________

Load Circuit #1 AC Ammeter: ________________

Load Circuit #2 AC Ammeter: ________________

Inverter Line #1 AC Ammeter: ________________

Inverter Line #2 AC Ammeter: ________________

5. Move the left-inside breaker to the On position. This is the breaker that supplies 120 VAC current to
branch circuit #2 (Load Light #2). The center breaker also serves the 120VAC outlet located below
the breaker box and is used for more advanced experiments.

6. Turn the wall switch for Load Light #2 to the On position. Record the current readings from the fol-
lowing ammeters on the lines provided:

AC Input Current #1 Ammeter: ________________

AC Input Current #2 Ammeter: ________________

Load Circuit #1 AC Ammeter: ________________

Load Circuit #2 AC Ammeter: ________________

Inverter Line #1 AC Ammeter: ________________

Inverter Line #2 AC Ammeter: ________________

GRID-TIED PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEMS - 429

 PROCEDURE - 4

7. Explain the relationships between the readings you obtained in Steps 4 and 6 on the following lines:

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

8. Move both PV Panel Disconnect Switches to the ON position.

9. Move the variable light source lamps to within 12 inches of the PV Panels. and then turn them on.

10. Within approximately five minutes after the DC current is supplied to the inverter, it should begin
to create the backflow of AC current into the system. When the LED on the bottom of the inverter
begins to blink green, check the panel meters again and record their current reading on the following
lines:

AC Input Current #1 Ammeter: ________________

AC Input Current #2 Ammeter: ________________

Load Circuit #1 AC Ammeter: ________________

Load Circuit #2 AC Ammeter: ________________

Inverter Line #1 AC Ammeter: ________________

Inverter Line #2 AC Ammeter: ________________

NOTE: Keep in mind that more dramatic results can be obtained from the inverter if the PV Panels can be
located in an area of direct sunlight, rather than having to use the source lights to generate
inverter current.

11. Explain the new relationships you’ve observed between the readings you obtained in Step 10 on the
following lines:

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

12. At the breaker panel, move the left-most breaker to the Off position to turn off Load Light #1. Record
the current readings from the following ammeters on the lines provided:

AC Input Current #1 Ammeter: ________________

AC Input Current #2 Ammeter: ________________

Load Circuit #1 AC Ammeter: ________________

Load Circuit #2 AC Ammeter: ________________

Inverter Line #1 AC Ammeter: ________________

Inverter Line #2 AC Ammeter: ________________

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 PROCEDURE - 4

13. Explain the new relationships you’ve observed between the readings you obtained in Step 12 on the
following lines:

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

14. Move the left-inside breaker to the Off position to turn off Load Light #2. Record the current readings
from the following ammeters on the lines provided:

AC Input Current #1 Ammeter: ________________

AC Input Current #2 Ammeter: ________________

Load Circuit #1 AC Ammeter: ________________

Load Circuit #2 AC Ammeter: ________________

Inverter Line #1 AC Ammeter: ________________

Inverter Line #2 AC Ammeter: ________________

15. Explain the new relationships you’ve observed between the readings you obtained in Step 14 on the
following lines:

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

16. Connect the hand-held multimeter across the inverter’s positive and negative DC leads at the Output
Configuration connection block.

17. Turn the lamps in the variable light source off one at a time until the inverter stops producing
backflow current into the AC system. When you detect that the inverter stops producing AC current
back to the system, record the level of voltage present at the hand held multimeter on the following
line:

__________________

18. Turn the wall switches for Load Circuit #1 and Load Circuit #2 to the Off positions.
19. Move both PV array Disconnect Switches to their OFF positions, then disconnect the multimeter and
turn it Off.

20. Move all breakers to their Off positions.

21. Turn the GT-1000’s Main Power Switch to the Off position and unplug the GT-1000 Panel’s Main
Power breaker box from the 120VAC receptacle.

This concludes the hands on lab procedure for Grid-Tied Photovoltaic Power Systems. Have your instructor
review your results before moving on to the next procedure.

GRID-TIED PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEMS - 431

 PROCEDURE - 4

LAB QUESTIONS

1. How many PV panels would be required to reduce the incoming AC current obtained from the power
utility to zero, given the amount of light present in your facility?
Feedback 2. How can you determine when the inverter is no longer producing backflow current in this system?
3. What does the inverter do when the load in the AC circuitry is not balanced (equal on both phases)?
4. What function do the AC Input Current #1 and #2 ammeters play in this set of experiments? What
device provides this function in an actual residential or commercial installation?
5. What condition exists if the readings on the AC Input Current #1 and #2 ammeters equal the readings
on the Load Circuit #1 and #2 AC ammeters?
6. How much power is the total panel consuming if both AC Input Current ammeters are showing 1 amp
of AC current flowing?
7. How much power is Load Light #2 consuming if the Load Circuit #2 AC ammeter shows 0.5 amps are
flowing?
8. What condition exists if the readings on the AC Input Current #1 and #2 ammeters show 1 amp of AC
current flowing in each phase, while the readings on the Load Circuit #1 and #2 AC ammeters show
0.5 amps are being consumed by each Load Light?

432 - LAB PROCEDURE 4