Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 79, No. 6, 2021

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 79, No.
6, 2021
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)
PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
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Dr., Prof. Saleh A. Alabdulkareem, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Dr. Monica Baptista, University of Lisbon, Portugal
Dr., Prof. Martin Bilek, Charles University, Czech Republic
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Dr., Prof. Kuo-Hung Huang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Dr. Milan Kubiatko, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
Dr., Prof. Miroslaw Kowalski, University of Zielona Gora, Poland
Dr., Prof. Lay Yoon Fah, University Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State Medical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Solange W. Locatelli, Federal University of ABC, Brazil
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Petrozavodsk State University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr., Prof. Danuše Nezvalova, Palacky University, Czech Republic
Dr. Osman Pekel, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey
Dr., Prof. Yuriy Pelekh, Rivne State University of Humanities, Ukraine
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Dr. Costin Pribeanu, Academy of Romanian Scientists, Romania
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Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
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Contents 833
Editorial
THE PARADOX BETWEEN TRUTH AND LIES

Boris Aberšek .......................................................................................................... 834
Articles
CYBERSPACE AS A SPACE: ANALYSIS OF METAPHORICAL

STATEMENTS OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
Michal Černý ........................................................................................................ 838
RECONSTRUCTION OF IRANIAN ENGLISH FOREIGN LANGUAGE

TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY IN ONLINE CLASSES
Raziyeh Fallah, Azizeh Chalak, Hossein Heidari Tabrizi ........................................................ 858
INVESTIGATION OF USE CASES OF MATHEMATICS TEXTBOOKS IN THE

TEACHING PROCESS FROM A DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE
Nurullah Yazici ........................................................................................................880
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ INTEREST IN PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY

AND BIOLOGY CONCEPTS FROM DEVELOPMENTAL VIEW
Sevil Kurt ............................................................................................................. 894
THE ROLE OF ACADEMIC FLOW IN STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT AND WELL-BEING

Diana Olcar, Tajana Ljubin Golub, Majda Rijavec ................................................................ 912
ATTACHMENT STYLES AND RISKY SEXUAL BEHAVIORS IN ADOLESCENTS

Walter Odera Owino, Newton Mukholwe Asakhulu, Jonathan Muema Mwania, Rose Mwanza .......... 928
ONLINE TEST ANXIETY AND EXAM PERFORMANCE OF INTERNATIONAL

BACCALAUREATE DIPLOMA PROGRAMME STUDENTS UNDER
E-PROCTORED EXAMS AMID COVID-19
G S Prakasha, KY Hemalathaa, Ponni Tamizh, Bhola Bhavna, Anthony Kenneth ............................. 942
THE USE OF THE INTERPRETATION OF WORKS OF ART

IN PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION
Ivana Rochovská, Božena Švábová ................................................................................. 956
EXPLORING THE EFFECTS OF IMPLEMENTING GUIDED READING APPROACH

TO ENHANCE THE READING PROFICIENCY OF ENGLISH SECOND
LANGUAGE LEARNERS IN SOUTH AFRICA
Esther Molebogeng Thage, Patricia Namayammu Mokgosi, Jane Tozama Mthembu ....................... 971
EXAMINING EMPLOYMENT QUALITY AMONG FEMALE

IMMIGRANT TRAINEES IN TAIWAN
Ya-Ling Wu ........................................................................................................... 993
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 1011

This is an open access article under the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License
PROBLEMS
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834
THE PARADOX BETWEEN
TRUTH AND LIES
Boris Aberšek
University of Maribor, Slovenia
E-mail: boris.abersek@um.si
Research work and the interpretation of results require a great deal of caution. One needs
to look at more than just numbers. Simply averaging and calculating percentages is not only
useless but can distort conclusions. Simpson’s paradox is merely the most obvious and most
instructional pitfall awaiting those who artfully juggle with numbers and percentages.
There is a saying in the field of artificial intelligence: “Hard things are easy; easy things
are hard”, called Moravec's paradox, after Hans Moravec. Moravec wrote in 1988:
"It is comparatively easy to make computers exhibit adult level performance on

intelligence tests or playing checkers, and difficult or impossible to give them the skills
of a one-year-old when it comes to perception and mobility" (Moravec, 1988, 15).
Similarly, Minsky emphasized that the most difficult human skills to reverse engineer are those
that are unconscious, as he wrote:
"In general, we're least aware of what our minds do best. We're more aware of simple
processes that don't work well than of complex ones that work flawlessly" (Minsky, 1986,
29).
In today’s age of fast and multifarious publications, we often come across such paradoxes,
for example, that research and statistical analysis may indeed have been carried out correctly
(properly), but the interpretation of the results is inadequate, or even incorrect, or misleading.
To relate this hypothesis to Moravec’s paradox, one could reformulate the latter by saying that
‘to do research is easy; to discuss results is difficult’. But why is this so? Let us consider this
issue from the perspective of another paradox, Simpson’s paradox.
Simpson (1951) and before him, Karl Pearson (1895), have observed that certain
correlations disappear if we average and observe the characteristics on an entire population,
instead of analyzing individual subgroups separately. However, Simpson's idea was only
deemed as a paradox as late as 1972, when Canadian statistician Colin Ross Blyth found that
sometimes correlations do not disappear but become reverse. In such cases, by averaging an
entire population, we come to a conclusion that is not true. Blyth referred to this phenomenon as
Simpson's paradox, although there is in fact nothing paradoxical about it, it is just so unintuitive
that it appears unfathomable to the human brain. Therefore, it would be more aptly called
Simpson's reversal. By the same token, Simpson’s paradox is not a malfunction of statistics, but
a simple fact: in order to perform a proper statistical treatment of some phenomenon, we need to
understand the phenomenon we are analyzing. Simply averaging and calculating percentages
is not only useless, but can distort conclusions, especially in the field of education.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.834 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Boris ABERŠEK. The paradox between truth and lies
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Simpson’s paradox is important for three critical reasons. First, people often expect 835
statistical relationships to be immutable. They often are not. The relationship between two
variables might increase, decrease, or even change direction depending on the set of variables
being controlled. Second, Simpson’s paradox is not simply an obscure phenomenon of interest
only to a small group of statisticians. Simpson’s paradox is actually one of a large class of
association paradoxes. Third, Simpson’s paradox reminds researchers that causal inferences,
particularly in nonexperimental studies, can be hazardous. Uncontrolled and even unobserved
variables that would eliminate or reverse the association observed between two variables might
exist.
Definition
Consider three random variables X, Y, and Z. Define a 2 × 2 × K cross-classification table

by assuming that X and Y can be coded either 0 or 1, and Z can be assigned values from 1 to K.
The marginal association between X and Y is assessed by collapsing across or aggregating over
the levels of Z. The partial association between X and Y controlling for Z is the association
between X and Y at each level of Z or after adjusting for the levels of Z. Simpson’s paradox
is said to have occurred when the pattern of marginal association and the pattern of partial
association differ.
Various indices exist for assessing the association between two variables. For categorical
variables, the odds ratio and the relative risk ratio are the two most common measures of asso-
ciation. Simpson’s paradox is the name applied to differences in the association between two
categorical variables, regardless of how that association is measured.
Illustration
As a starting point, let us consider an old example, which dates back to the year 1973. At
the University of California, Berkeley, only 35 percent of the female applicants were admitted
to graduate school, and 44 percent of the male applicants. Such a difference cannot be the result
of chance. Assuming that men and women are equally capable, the only possible conclusion,
staring us right in the face, is that the university acted in a discriminatory manner. That’s why
it got sued. But let us now argue as to why simply averaging and calculating percentages is not
only useless but also distorts conclusions 1,2!
We have to consider not only the numbers, but other data as well. At Berkeley, the admission
of candidates is the responsibility of individual departments, so the university took a closer look
at who was to blame for such gender discrimination. It turned out that there were no wrongdoers
in any of the departments. Some departments accepted more female candidates and others more
male candidates, but there were no major deviations. What happened? Through careful analysis,
researchers found that some departments have very popular study programs for which there is
a lot of interest, so the percentage of admissions is low. Such programs include, for example,
the social sciences. Other study programs, such as science and engineering, are less popular
and desirable among the candidates, and the applications are so few that the acceptance rates
are very high. At Berkeley it happened that women mostly applied to highly competitive social
sciences’ study programs, and because these programs were so competitive, the acceptance rates
were low, whereas men disproportionately applied to less popular departments to study science
and engineering programs, and these departments had high acceptance rates. Even though the
departments accepted both genders in a balanced way – in fact, they even slightly favored
1 https://www.brookings.edu/blog/social-mobility-memos/2015/07/29/when-average-isnt-good-
enough-simpsons-paradox-in-education-and-earnings/
2 https://www.refsmmat.com/posts/2016-05-08-simpsons-paradox-berkeley.html
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.834

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836 accepting female students – there were more and more unaccepted female students among all
registered female student applications, in all departments. Therefore, we can observe that simply
averaging and calculating percentages is not only useless but distorts the conclusions. It follows
from the above that for proper statistical treatment we need to understand the phenomenon we
are analyzing.
Analyses showed that the university did not discriminate students in the admission
process. This does not mean, however, that there was no discrimination. Research has clearly
shown that the observed discrimination occurs beforehand, at all levels of education and the
society. This paradox, however, is not a malfunction of statistics, but a simple fact: in order to
perform a proper statistical treatment of some phenomenon, we need to fully comprehend the
phenomenon we are analyzing.
Avoiding Simpson’s Paradox
Although it might be easy to explain why Simpson’s paradox occurs when presented
with an example, determining when Simpson’s paradox will occur is more challenging. In ex-
perimental research, in which individuals are randomly assigned to treatment conditions, Simp-
son’s paradox should not occur, no matter what additional variables are included in the analysis.
This assumes, of course, that the randomization is effective and that assignment to treatment
condition is independent of possible covariates. If so, regardless of whether these covariates
are related to the outcome, Simpson’s paradox cannot occur. In nonexperimental, or nonran-
domized, research, such as a cross-sectional study in which a sample is selected and then the
members of the sample are simultaneously classified with respect to all of the study variables,
Simpson’s paradox can be avoided if certain conditions are satisfied. The problem with nonex-
perimental research is that these conditions will rarely be known to be satisfied a priori.
Conclusion
In summing up both paradoxes, Moravec's and Simpson’s, we can conclude that it is not
enough simply to “conduct research” and produce statistics using all its high-flown statistical
methods without really knowing and understanding the problem we are dealing with. We can
quickly see that what should by definition be hard (planning and conducting research) becomes
easy, and what should be easy (interpreting the results obtained) becomes hard, and that without
understanding the problem itself, this can quickly lead to wrong conclusions.
References
Minsky, M. (1986). The society of mind. Simon and Schuster.

Moravec, H. (1988). Mind children. Harvard University Press
Simpson, E. H. (1951). The interpretation of interaction in contingency tables. Journal of the Royal
Statistical Society. Series B (Methodological), 13(2), 238-241. https://www.jstor.org/
stable/2984065
Pearson, K. (1895). Note on regression and inheritance in the case of two parents. Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 58, 240–242. https://www.jstor.org/stable/115794
Received: September 10, 2021 Accepted: November 30, 2021

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837
Cite as: Aberšek, B. (2021). The paradox between truth and lies. Problems of Education in the
21st Century, 79(6), 834-837. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.834
Boris Aberšek PhD, Professor, University of Maribor, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics,
Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia.
E-mail: boris.abersek@um.si
Website: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=aRid0w4AAAAJ&hl=en
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4198-4240

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838
CYBERSPACE AS A SPACE: ANALYSIS
OF METAPHORICAL STATEMENTS OF
UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
Michal Černý
Masaryk university, Czech Republic
E-mail: mcerny@phil.muni.cz
Abstract
Over the last thirty years, technology has created a new space (cyberspace) where people meet each other,
seek information, or simply try to navigate through. However, there is no consensus in research on the
character of cyberspaces and the extent to which they are real. In the first systematic empirical research
of this nature, the study found an answer to this question through a survey of metaphorical accounts of
university students in Information Studies, and Librarianship (N=102) collected over three years (2019-
2021). Cyberspace is a real space in students' experiences, language, and thought structures. A space
that allows movement, orientation, and search to be related with one another. An environment in which
cognition, learning, and knowledge are structuring activities. Learning and cognition in this space occur
differently than in the physical environment, which poses a challenge for developing specific didactic
practices and social programs for students. Students perceive cyberspace as linked to the need to acquire
new epistemic tools to help them overcome the crisis of knowledge they experience through this space.
Keywords: cyberspace, didactic practices, information literacy, metaphors, pragmatism, tacit knowledge,
on life
Introduction
Cyberspace has become a metaphor or concept that is quite common in teacher and
student speech. In the online environment, students have fun (Cholifah et al. 2020; Okada &
Sheehy, 2020), experience social interactions (Lasfeto & Ulfa, 2020), communicate (Tang &
Hew, 2020), shop, and also learn. Soffer and Nachmias (2018) argue that students perceive the
online environment as a place for them associated with the role of autonomy and self-control
(Carter et al., 2020) rather than face-to-face courses. Other studies (Rodriguez et al., 2008;
Young & Norgard, 2006) emphasise the dimension of a high degree of control over the research
or, conversely, the lack of social interactions (Mazzolini & Maddison, 2007), which reduce
their ability to understanding concepts or authentic learning.
All these considerations of cyberspace as a learning environment are essential for
designing any online learning activity. This research focuses on how students think about
cyberspace, what it is for them, and how they characterise it. A deeper understanding of this
issue can lead to significant progress in the design and implementation of online learning
(Hattingh et al., 2020) or even blended learning (Rasheed et al., 2020) courses.
Definition of Cyberspace
Defining the concept of cyberspace is complex. The term is said to have first been used by
William Gibson in 1984 in his sci-fi Neuromancer (Concannon, 1998; Punday, 2000). Gibson
(1995) speaks of it as "a metaphor that gives us to grasp this place where, since the Second
World War, more and more things have been created and are being created that we perceive

Michal ČERNÝ. Cyberspace as a space: Analysis of metaphorical statements of university students
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today as part of our culture ... It's beneficial for everyone involved because there is only a 839
movement of data in it." (Gibson, 1995) However, this first use of cyberspace is questioned
(Stratton, 2013).
Lessig (1996) states "cyberspace is a place. People live there. They experience all
the sorts of things that they experience in real space there. For some, they experience more.
They experience this not as isolated individuals, playing some high-tech computer game; they
experience it in groups, in communities, among strangers, among people they come to know,
and sometimes like." Ellis et al. (2004) agree with this concept, emphasising the realisation
aspect of life from community sociology (Fernback & Thompson, 1995) in this environment.
In this context, digital anthropology (Horst & Miller, 2020), sociology (Marres, 2017; Selwyn,
2019), and specific digital ethnographic methodological approaches (Murthy, 2008; Pink et al.,
2015; Varis, 2016) are increasingly being promoted. Mayer offers a more technical approach
when he emphasises that it is an electromagnetic environment whose purpose is to "create,
store, modify, exchange, share, acquire, use or delete information" (Mayer et al., 2014).
Research finds us in a situation where, on the one hand, there is no single discourse
defining cyberspace (Mayer et al., 2014; Ottis & Lorents, 2010). It is systematically examined
as a social world in which social science research methods can be used. The increased number
of documents dealing with cyberspace are shown in Figure 1, but to say that are in an interesting
research space, the study of which corresponds well to current trends - on methodological and
empirical studies (O'Connor & Madge, 2003 Stokrocki, 2007) and also theoretical (Boehlefeld,
1996, Floridi, 2011, 2013).
Figure 1
Increase in Documents in the Scopus Database when Searching for "Cyberspace" in 1990-
2020.
Note: Data for the last year may increase as more documents are indexed (the figure was created on July 31,
2021).

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840 The Space construction in Pragmatism and Social Constructivism
Cohen (2007) defines himself against the metaphor of cyberspace as space. He argues
that people understand "ordinary" space in a different way and that the use of the metaphor
of "space" about "cyberspace" leads to a misunderstanding of this entity. According to him,
space is a matter of embodied structure, which no online environment can replace. For him,
cyberspace is constructed by interactions, dynamic changes and perceptions, which, however,
does not correspond to the common psychology of space, thus continuing the work of Johnson
(2017) and his concept of experiential realism. Kolko et al. (2013) describe cyberspace as an
environment composed of zeros and ones. Like something that doesn't know shades of grey or
any in between. This explicit discretion of the environment thus understood leads to the fact
that people cannot speak of orbital space. This is even though social interactions are realised in
this environment.
The pragmatic approach is based on Lakoff's (1988) argument that space is what
structures are meant for meaning creation. This claim is supported by research in the field of
immersive virtual reality (Ryan, 2015; Walsh & Pawlowski, 2002 examining the structure of
concepts during learning (Johnson-Glenberg et al., 2016; Lindgren et al., 2016). The structuring
of ideas is different in the classroom, and the online environment is well researched in different
settings and age groups (Arrosagaray et al., 2019; Furió et al., 2019; Smart & Cappel, 2006;
Smith, 2010), 2017) argues that it is the environment and the interactions within it (as opposed
to Cohen (2007) emphasising the constitutional nature of interactions) that make it possible to
create meaning and thought.
The second approach is based on the social construction of reality (Berger & Luckmann,
1966), emphasising that reality is not a question of objective measurement but social
interactions. Through values, language, institutions and social principles, society shapes what
one knows in the world. If research work with these starting points, they can say that cyberspace
is undoubtedly space (Kalinkin, 2015) because it is a place of construction of knowledge and
social or power structures (Holmes, 1997; Walmsley, 2000).
Literature Background
The research subject is the analysis of how students of librarianship and information
studies talk about cyberspace and the metaphors they use to describe it. Working with metaphors
and metaphorical statements is a method used in pedagogical research (Fábián, 2013; Haskins,
1989; Leino & Drakenberg, 1993; Lynch & Fisher-Ari, 2017; Švec et al., 2016).
Cyberspace itself and the social and information interactions represent an important area
of various research (Gálik, 2017; Ghasemi Varjani Iran, 2019; Nyinkeu et al., 2018), including
those that focus on its definition in partial aspects (Betz, 2017; Taddeo, 2018). Specifically,
cyberspace's structure, properties, and spatiality are discussed (Ning et al., 2018; Saracco,
2019; de Varela, 2018).
Therefore, the research gap that will be filled by this research combines these two areas
of interest. When cyberspace is referred to as a metaphor (Adams, 1997; Cohen, 2007; Olson,
2005; Wolfe, 2001) it is as a theoretical study, meaning that it will be essential that the empirical
aspect of the construction of this metaphor is followed.
The methodological inspiration for our research was the work of pragmatist philosophers
and linguists Johnson (2007, 2017) and Lakoff (1988), but above all, their joint work (Lakoff
& Johnson, 1980, 1980a, 1983). The basic idea is that metaphors are not just an ornament of
language, something purely literary-poetic, rather that they are an image of thinking formed
in concrete experiences with the environment. Human corporeality, the community in which
they live and the environment in which it moves all contribute to building a language based on

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metaphors. Thus, metaphors allow us to reconstruct the structure of concepts, the reasons for 841
understanding certain phenomena, including those that are not readily apparent at first glance
(Lakoff, 1988).
Understanding metaphors associated with cyberspace is a way to understand how
learning in cyberspace occurs or how to think about it. If it turns out to be an inadequate
metaphor and students, do not work with cyberspace as with space, then given the Lakoff study,
it should be indifferent whether taught online or in physical space. Educational technology is
essential only as a means of education aimed at greater clarity, entertainment (Pienimäki et al.,
2021), multimedia (Wah, 2007), deeper immersion into issues (Snape, 2011) or interactivity
(Palmárová & Lovászová, 2012; Sherron & Boettcher, 1997). However, if cyberspace is a
natural space for students to structure their knowledge (Johnson, 2017; Lakoff & Johnson,
1983), then it means possibilities in the design of different learning environments that will
lead to different understandings, perceptions and structuring of knowledge (Johnson, 2017;
Glenberg et al., 2016; Lindgren et al., 2016).
Research Question
How do students of information studies and librarianship view cyberspace and does it have a
spatial characteristic for them?
This question underlies a broader discussion about the characteristics of cyberspace in
general (Cohen, 2007; Dodge & Kitchin, 2003; Kolko et al., 2013; Lemley, 2003), but also
especially in the field of education (Johnson-Glenberg et al., 2016). Johnson-Glenberg et al.
answer may be essential for practical teaching because, according to Lakoff (1988), experience
from different backgrounds leads to different structuring of concepts and building different
ways of looking at a problem. Understanding how students work with a virtual environment at
the level of their experience has specific educational implications (Lindgren et al., 2016).
Research Methodology
Background
Research into various societal phenomena through conceptual metaphors is gradually

becoming a common methodological approach (Coulson & Cánovas, 2009; Kövecses, 2016;
Landau, 20016), although there are disputes about the ways and possibilities of defining
metaphors precisely (Casasanto, 2009; Gibbs, 2009; Kövecses, 2008). Applications of this
method can also be seen in education (Bailey, 2003; Daane, 2018; Švec, 2004). Research
continues this tradition, and it will also focus our research on students and their formation of
experiences or metaphors that they will use in their descriptions.
The aim of metaphor analysis is not to describe only the metaphors themselves but to
reveal the concepts they relate to in everyday language based on their identification. Metaphor
is thus a visible form of the world's inner, dynamically shaped idea (Lakoff & Johnson, 1983).
A metaphor is a means of understanding the experience of the one who uses it.
Commonly, metaphor research is combined with clean language interviews to collect
data from respondents in order to reduce the introduction of specific terms or concepts into
respondents' statements. The research is unusual in this respect because it works with written
text and its analysis. The students provided their statements in written form, which should
have been around 500 characters in length, including spaces. Thus, for each year of research, a
dataset of responses was created for further analysis.
In order to eliminate the possibility of students responding to any current stimuli, events
or current cultural context that might bring a certain kind of metaphorical utterances into their

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842 speech, the research was conducted in three consecutive years. As Figure 3 shows, the essential
metaphors for our research are stable over time.
In total, the research collected 102 student testimonies. The length of the answers varied,
the recommended range was 500 characters, including spaces, but in reality, the answers ranged
between 107-1174 characters.
Working with metaphors in text is not methodologically impermissible and is used,
for example, by Lakoff and Johnson (1983). While most metaphor research works with a
relatively limited sample of respondents because it must qualitatively analyse responses and
code individual conversations (narrative codes were used to describe the qualitative data in
datasets; an overview of the most frequently used codes with their explanations is given in
Table 2), the procedure in this research could have been faster and more efficient. Experience
with structuring topics from previous research was used in the data processing. The students'
texts were easily searchable. This allowed the number of students to be significantly higher and
allowed us to work with 102 responses.
Sample Characteristics
For the research, bachelor’s students of librarianship and information studies (LIS), who
are studying in the first year of the bachelor's study program in the second (Spring) semester,
and one group of students in the second year or the third (Autumn) semester, were used. The
change of study accreditation forced the year change, but both groups are in an almost identical
phase of their university preparation.
The following notation to mark the answers in the next chapter is used: A9 for answers
of students from the semester Autumn 2020 (students of the 3rd semester), S0 for students
from the semester Spring 2020 and S1 for students from the semester Spring 2021 (students of
the second semester). The number of responses is between 30-39, corresponding to a specific
population distribution stability.
Students completed a course focused on digital competencies, constructed according
to the DigComp competency framework (Carretero et al., 2017). At the end of it, they filled
out a reflective questionnaire, from which came the answers in this research. The number of
responses and the return is given in table 1. The answers are treated as anonymous, and with
a return rate of 47-70%. The exact ratio of women and men could not be determined. Across
the study, approximately 20% are men and 80% are women, and a similar distribution can be
expected for the responses analysed.
Table 1
Code Designation, Sample Size and Return in Individual Datasets
Semester/Designation Analysed answers Return [%]

Autumn 2019 / A9 39 70
Spring 2020 / S0 30 47
Spring 2021 / S1 33 50
Data Collection
Students answered a more comprehensive reflective questionnaire with some questions,

the first of which was "How do you imagine a digitally competent person?". Because research
works with metaphors, it was necessary to choose a question that will not lexically encourage

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students to use words such as space, orientation, movement, environment, etc., but allow them 843
to be part of their grasp of the idea of the world.
Students submitted the file in docx, doc, odt or pdf formats to the university's information
system. The data were downloaded, converted into one file in docx format, and then the answers
to only the first question were selected. Such datasets were created for all three periods and
were subsequently imported for the Atlas.ti program (a computer program for qualitative data
processing, coding and analysis), in which the data analysis took place.
Data Processing
Data processing used the Atlas.ti tool for data processing, which is used for processing
qualitative data. Research used preliminary research (Černý, 2020) from data from 2019, which
was published separately. There is a good idea of what basic concepts and thought structures
research wants to look for in the text. The research itself is theoretically anchored in pragmatist
theories (Johnson 2007, 2017; Lakoff 1988; Lakoff & Johnson, 1983) which allowed us to focus
on metaphors related to movement as a fundamental element structuring the understanding
of space (Lakoff & Johnson, 1983). Looking at table 2, it can be seen that the most important
categories are based on a pragmatist understanding of metaphorical expression (Lakoff &
Johnson, 1983).
The research design is shown in Figure 2. The first data collection took place in the
autumn of 2019 as part of another research project. It soon became clear that there were spatial
metaphors in the students' accounts that would be interesting to explore further. Based on this
consideration, open coding of this dataset was carried out, and the first results were published
(Černý, 2020). A more careful analysis of the data identified key concepts that would be
interesting to pursue further: orientation in space, description of the environment, orientation in
space, feeling safe, critical thinking, use of some skills or elements in space, reflections on the
nature of the environment. These findings served to identify the core concepts to be investigated
in the following years of the research.
Two data collections followed (Spring 2020, Spring 2021). These produced two datasets
that were further analysed using open coding (the most common codes are shown in Table 2).
In total, 34 codes were used that were related to the issue of cyberspace and its characteristics.
These 34 codes were used for one more dataset analysis. This produced the quantity of code
uses seen in Table 2.
From 34 codes, the four most important categories (in terms of the research question and
stability in the datasets) can be seen in Table 3. Subsequently, the individual tagged statements
by category were exported and analysed.
The research then created a concept of cyberspace as a space in the students' understanding
(language accessed through metaphors). This section combines both the research data and the
literature on the topic, which we draw on in the Introduction section.
In the results, statements of individual students are not indicated, only state what semester
they are from. Each notice is stated at most once.

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844 Figure 2
Research Workflow Diagram
Research Limits and Ethics
A limitation of research may be that metaphor analysis is typically used for longer
speech acts combined with the pure language method or broader lexical analysis. The study
only worked with short (107-1174 characters) answers, reducing the richness and structure of
individual metaphors. On the other hand, research gets only strong metaphors that are important
for the respondents. In the interviews, the respondent's researcher asks about metaphors, which
is not possible here.
The second limit is the small return on data, although the average return on a classic
questionnaire is 57%, is not considered low. But it would be undoubtedly helpful to know the
insights of those who did not complete the questionnaire. The last limit to mention is the coding
performed by one person; coding in more people could bring some more information.
The challenge for future researchers is to extend analysis to other parts of the population
so that it is possible to talk about students in general or a specific broader view. At the same
time, however, must be remembered that analysis is primarily qualitative. It looks at new topics
and understandings of reality, not its relative representation in the population.
From the point of view of research ethics, the anonymity of data needs to be addressed.
This is because only parts of the answers are used, translated from Czech and Slovak into
English, making it impossible to identify a specific speaker. The anonymised designation of
students is not mentioned, but only the semester in which they studied. Students were informed
about the research and had the opportunity not to submit answers.
Research Results
The results are qualitatively described and analysed. Although this research is qualitatively
focused, there are some essential quantitative characteristics to the answers. For the analysis, 34
codes were used, of which the most frequent are listed in table 2.

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Table 2 845
The Most Frequent Codes and their Definitions
Code Frequency Description

Statements related to information retrieval, finding, evaluation of
Search 44
information about finding and obtaining it.
Statements relating to describing an environment with certain
Environment 36
characteristics or a specific world (digital, technological).
Statements focused on practical and helpful handling, manipulation, and
Use 34
the digital environment, objects in it, and achieving one's own goals.
Statements focus on the concept of orientation in various lexical
Orientation 32 meanings and on the structuring of implications or movement in
cyberspace.
Statements related to the concepts of security, data protection, danger,
Safety 25
threat, risk.
Statements lexically fixed to the concept of "critical thinking" and related
Critical thinking 19
to it (critical evaluation, assessment, etc.).
Statements reflecting the digital environment, cyberspace or the Internet
Space 15
as a specific form of space.
Statements focused on laughing at the boundaries between work and
Work and personal life 14
personal (study life), closely related to digital technologies.
An important topic is data stability. Even if a qualitative line were followed, it would
be possible that a particular group of users would be influenced, for example, by a shared
experience, educational approach, or cultural phenomenon, which would create a character of
a specific emergency. However, the data shown in table 3 and figure 3 indicate considerable
stability of the data in the codes (after normalisation) in terms of primary treatment of the topic.
Thus, it can be concluded that the collected answers correspond - at least in part - to a particular
social opinion within the studied cohort of students.
Table 3 shows the most important codes and their density in datasets. Since the datasets
are not the same size year after year, a normalization process was chosen. The numbers in the
table then correspond to the formula: (number of specific code occurrences in the dataset)/
(number of analysed statements in the dataset).
Table 3
Relative Frequencies of the Most Critical Codes after Normalisation
Autumn 2019 Spring 2021 Spring 2020

Space
0.05 0.24 0.17
N=15
Environment
0.26 0.48 0.33
N=36
Search
0.41 0.36 0.50
N=44
Orientation
0.33 0.15 0.47
N=32
Note: Data is rounded to two decimal places. N corresponds to the number of code occurrences in all datasets

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846 The graph shows the normalised distribution of selected codes. All four terms are present
in the students' statements in the three semesters examined, indicating the data's stability.
Figure 3
Representation of the Most Frequent Spatial Metaphors in Datasets
Suppose Atlas.ti were used to select four key terms and create a frequency-oriented word
cloud. In that case, the following would be identified as the most important words related to this
issue: information (44), digital (30), can (30), can (26), search 24, human (21), environment
(19), able (16). These terms most often occur in metaphors characterising cyberspace.
In this part, qualitative knowledge from students' answers is integrated with a thematic
analysis, which allows for division into sub-areas and sub-topics, which are then placed in a
broader context in the discussion. The notation established in Table 1 is used to identify the
statements made by year (A9, S0 and S1).
Space as the Phenomenon
Cyberspace is mentioned only once: "security in cyberspace and addressing the various
issues involved" (A9). More common are phrases such as the digital world: "A person who
knows that there are various attacks in the digital world" (S1) or "knows what to look out for in
the digital world" (S0), who has a specific ontological quality: "the digital world it survives and
is not overwhelmed by the digital pitfalls that are all around us" (S0) and certain entities can be
placed in it "One can add one's work to the Internet" (S1).
These statements refer to the fact that students think of cyberspace as an independent world
in which the metaphor of a vessel can be applied; it is a structure in which there is movement
and orientation, as will be discussed below, which has specific ontological characteristics.

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Interestingly, even in these examples, it is often associated with danger, one of the two most 847
common discourses, along with usefulness.
Space as a Place of Movement
The fundamental characteristic of space is that movement is possible in it. "The ability to
move as safely as possible on the Internet" (A9) or "can move safely in the digital environment"
(S1). During this movement, he realises his will "this person should move on the Internet within
his needs" (A9, S0) or "the skill required is the ability to move as safely as possible on the
Internet" (S0).
Information on the Internet can be accessed "accesses information found on social
networks with a healthy dose of scepticism" (S0) or predict movement and interaction in such a
space "Can anticipate the risks associated with movement on the Internet" (S0). Movement can
also be aesthetic and meaningful "approach digital technologies and can use them elegantly
and meaningfully" (S0) or lead to "encountering a problem" (S1).
Encounters with objects can have the character of searching and finding: "in my opinion,
a digitally literate person should be able, at least to a certain extent, to find the necessary
information himself and be able to evaluate it." (A9) or "the digitally literate person can find a
relevant source of information according to his need, also evaluate it in terms of truthfulness and
completeness, then use it meaningfully" (A9) or "manages to find the necessary information"
(S1).
All these quotes show the essential characteristics of cyberspace - it is characterised as a
space in which movement is possible, which can lead to aesthetic, practical or other activities.
It can be predicted that movement is a means to achieve will or goals. This is important because
this characteristic is an essential dimension of normal human movement. This intentionality in
finding in use is not objectivist. Still, it emphasises the personal need of the individual and the
conformity of the information found with the truth so that he can "judge the truth and usefulness
of the content found" (S1).
Space and Orientation
For the movement to be an expression of will, it must be possible to orient oneself in

space, to have the opportunity to decide which direction to go in it and how to structure it.
Only a space can be structured in which human has an orientation when one knows, as Lakoff
and Johnson (1983) emphasise, what is near and far, where it is up and down, how things are
arranged according to each other.
"Orientation in the world of digital technologies should be at the very core of the skills of
the digital literate person." (A9). It shows that there is a world of digital technologies in which
it is necessary to orient oneself. Similarly, "a digitally literate person can orient himself in
digital technologies and who can use these technologies" (A9) puts into context the orientation
and the possibility of using parts of this space. "I would probably describe it as an orientation
in possibilities" (A9). It refers to the combination of orientation and the possibility to act.
"As a person who can orient himself in the digital environment and understands it" (S1)
connects the concept of orientation and understanding. Students orient them only where there
is an understanding of the framework within which they form order. "He can orient himself
in the flood of resources. He can detect the poor and select them effectively" (S1) shows both
the spatial character of cyberspace and orientation in it, as well as its dynamics, and above
all, the possibility of man to change this world. Likewise, "the digitally literate person is not
only oriented in the digital world but is also capable of independent activity" (A9) puts the
possibility of orientation and activity in close connection.

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848 This orientation permeates the online and offline worlds and forms one complex
phenomenon "able to orientate themselves in them and also use their full potential and involve
them in their daily lives" (S0), as shown below, it used as an activity of these two worlds
strongly connected in student statements.
"He should be able to look at information critically and be able to search for the necessary
information (also use advanced search methods). It should have an overview." (S0). It offers
two vital aspects; it connects thinking and searching into one whole, which leads to the goal
of orientation, namely, to gain an overview. Both over space and objects or tools in it "have
at least a basic overview of which tool can be used to work with different types of documents,
photos, etc." (S0).
Search
Specific students, of course, talk about search as an essential competence. It is vital

for us to connect search with the concept of cyberspace as such. Searching is related to the
truth of what students know. Not everything that is presented to people online is true. "Can
critically assess which information on a website is relevant and credible when searching the
Internet" (A9), "he should be able to look at information critically and be able to search for
the information he needs (using advanced search methods as well)" (A9), "one can search for
information and assess its truthfulness and usefulness" (S1) or synthesise: "one can search for
it, verify sources and search for the most relevant ones, one can correctly process, organise and
then use information".
Thus, the search for students is related to the evaluation. Therefore, a particular crisis of
knowledge or post-factual time that students experience is treated with an emphasis on critical
thinking and judgment. The above-accentuated orientation is the result of this critical analysis.
This is even though, for some, searching is finding: "it manages to find information" (S0).
Searching is not aimless, but it is a process leading to the structuring of the meaning "can
not only search for all the necessary information but also work with it properly" (S1). This
everyday work is a prerequisite for usefulness. "Can search for them, verify sources and find
the most relevant ones, can process information correctly, organise and then use it" (S1) or "I
imagine a digitally literate person as someone who can constructively search for information,
critically assess it and further evaluate it."
From the selected excerpts, it is also clear that the search is not a random process but
something one should master or learn. This research does not approach cyberspace naively
without prior training, but it is only through learning that there is an extensive possibility of
manipulating this space. "Is willing to learn new skills and seek new services, resources and
information" (A9).
Usefulness and Connectivity
The search leads to structuring a world whose goal is usefulness, a certain possibility of
benefit for oneself or others. Students will understand it used as a basic model of manipulating
the world, its activating concept.
"For me, a digitally literate person is a person who uses technology every day for
personal or work matters and can use it without the slightest difficulty" (S0), "by interacting
with information and communication technologies, he should be able to fulfil his personal,
work, or, for example, study needs." (A9) or "has certain skills and knowledge with which
he can use digital technologies safely and meaningfully in his life, whether in learning, at
work or in his free time." (A9). These quotations show that cyberspace is not just a particular
metaphorical place or state. Still, something that allows saturating the needs of people is a

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place of utility, i.e., in the pragmatic sense. It fulfils the primary condition for the meaning of 849
its existence.
Usefulness is not only selfish, not a means of fulfilling one's own needs, but also a place
to care for others. "A digitally literate person is a valuable member of society and a citizen of
the state." (S1) and "Moves the other forward as his assistant" (A9). So, it is not a space of
loneliness but a socially shared field in which being with others is an important topic. From the
perspective of the social construction of reality, this dimension is essential, or students reflect
that their world is made up of others and responsible for it.
The utility is at the same time a bolt of the online and offline world. "He engages his
abilities both in the Internet environment and in the ordinary." (A9), "in this case, modern
technology can make our lives easier with its functions and speed." (A9). Usefulness not only
connects the two worlds but extends the dimension of everyday life. Cyberspace is not an
extraordinary world that they enter once in a while, but it shapes, simplifies and threatens
everyday life. It thus becomes the environment that shapes thinking and the structure of the
world.
Environment and Resource
The characteristic of cyberspace is not only as space but also as the environment and
means, i.e., to its deeper ontological aspects. "In the digital environment, he consciously handles
according to his preferences and possibilities" (A9) is a statement showing that students are
faced with a specific structure, within which one experiences both possibilities (given his
previous experience or skills) and opportunities of a sure will.
"He can take advantage of both the benefits of the Internet environment and at the same
time be able to understand the new dangers that are in this environment and can protect or
even prevent them." (A9). Reports that this digital environment leads to a new understanding,
meaning formation. "He can cope with the changing environment and nature of activities, to
work effectively with every new digital technology without losing his social identity" (S1).
Continues Lakoff's argumentative structure - reflected experience with this environment.
This environment can be dangerous. Its various parts "furthermore, it effectively solves
various tasks with the help of tools and selects a suitable online environment for cooperation
with others." (A9). Success in it depends on the reflection of one's own experience "the use of
acquired experience is an essential part of it" (S0).
Cyberspace is not just an environment, but also a means "can perform tasks on a
computer-based on its skills but does not use it as a one-sided tool" (S1), "It should be able
to use some means of sharing and communicating information." (S1), that can be used to
change the environment in which they live, or even ourselves, "uses modern technology for its
improvement" (S0), which overcomes the digital-analogue barrier.
Compliance with the Truth
Students' attitude towards cognition in cyberspace is sceptical. They emphasise the need
to reflect on the integrity of information "it should also recognise its relevance and veracity."
(A9), "be able to distinguish (at least most likely) true information from misinformation." (A9).
The reason for scepticism is the fullness of the Internet of misinformation, but also
of the fact that the information found influences "one should not be influenced by unverified
or false information" (A9) or "Can distinguish objective, fact-offering articles from articles
manipulating emotions" (A9). Every information interaction leads to a change in behaviour and
thinking, so it is true of a digitally competent person that "in the digital field, he behaves safely
and can distinguish the credibility of information." (S0)

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850 The path is probably Descartes' critical thinking, to which the answers repeatedly return.
"Using these technologies, a literate person applies critical thinking and is aware of the impact
of their activities in the digital environment" (A9), "critically evaluate them and, thanks to
them, can lead to the right results." (S1) Critical thinking acts in the role of a reflection of one's
existence in the online environment, as a certain corrective and instruction.
At the same time, it applies to the evaluation and retrieval of information "manages to
approach information on the Internet critically, distinguish between misinformation and fake
news" (A9), "such a person should be able to search for information and use critical thinking"
(S1), "he should be able to look at information critically and be able to find the necessary
information" (S0). The reason is an epistemic turn or a new situation in the field of cognitive
theory: "at the same time, it has a dose of critical thinking/thinking that it can respond to a
large amount of data that is all around us. In times of information boom, he needs to be able to
filter and verify information from multiple sources." (A9) Critical thinking is a response to an
environment that is revealed through information interactions and, at the same time, requires a
specific process of cognition.
Discussion
The students' statements show that cyberspace is a real space where movement or
orientation can occur. Looking at Johnson and Lakoff's (1983) definition of spatial metaphors,
we see an identical thought structure. It is impossible to decide at this point whether to lean
more towards a pragmatist conception of the social construction of reality in the interpretation
of cyberspace (Berger & Luckmann, 1966). The students' responses are such that both aspects
apply. From pragmatism, the dimension of structuring activities and tools to be able to work
effectively with them in cyberspace; from social constructivism, it is possible to see a strong
influence of the cultural climate on the grasp of important topics and issues, as well as some
critical insight into the current state of cyberspace and its processes.
Both of these approaches can be seen in the answers that have been analysed. It can even
be said that information retrieval and evaluation is an information interaction (Marchionini,
2008; Shedroff, 1999) that leads to the social construction of reality.
Consistent with both social constructivism and pragmatism, students reject the concept of
an objectivist grasp of truth arising outside of social interaction but at the same time emphasize
the necessity of the truth claim (Kvale, 1995, Tuomela & Balzer, 2002). In any case, research
has refuted Cohen's (2007) view that cyberspace is not a space.
A precise topic in the research was the use of technology. Staying in an online
environment leads to higher work efficiency, the ability to solve problems effectively. This topic
is systematically analysed in the literature in many sub-facets - from education (Giatman, 2019)
to business (Hendayani & Febrianta, 2020). At the same time, however, a discourse can be found
in the literature emphasizing the paradox of productivity, i.e., the fact that technology itself or
the technological environment does not automatically lead to greater efficiency (Anderson et
al., 2003; Brynjolfsson, 1993; Van Ark, 2016; Yorukoglu, 1998).
Students' responses indicate that technology is a source of some effectiveness for
them. A successful stay in the cyber world is linked to the skill and ability to use tools and
technology meaningfully, ethically, and safely. Technology is something that brings benefits,
and is, therefore, some distance from the productivity paradox to the idea of productivity. This
productivity can be learned, students say.
Kolko et al. (2013) described cyberspace as an environment composed of zeros and
ones, as a discrete environment of binary oppositional structures. However, this argument for
why cyberspace is not a real space is false because it does not match the students' experience.
Instead, students emphasize the absence of boundaries between environments, interactions and

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activities, and the competencies we need in one environment or the other. Students' accounts are 851
much closer to what Floridi (2013, 2014) refers to as an infosphere integrating online and offline
environments than to the discrete world of ones and zeros. Life takes place in a continuum of
these two forms of space, interconnected through informational interactions. Cyberspace is a
place where living people with a particular cultural, physical, value enter. Here, too, students
and Floridi (2011) agree. The nature of cyberspace in terms of its separation and structuring
(for students) does not match the notion in Kolko et al. (2013) or Cohen (2007) but is close to
Floridi's conception.
A phenomenon that could be described as a crisis of knowledge appears to be crucial
for students in research (Beerdsen, 2020; Hopf et al., 2019; Kasper, 2021). This is because
the online environment fundamentally changes the distribution of information and information
resources (Gibson & Martin, 2019; Saunders, 2017), enclosing users in filter bubbles (Yang
et al., 2017; Kostyrev, 2020).), which change their information horizons (Syn et al., 2017).
However, if reality is constructed socially, which is the discourse the research has subscribed to
(Kalinkin, 2015), this epistemic barrier changes and distorts the possibility of getting to know
actors in the infosphere. Suppose orientation was a basic metaphor referring to the ability to
handle movement in cyberspace. In that case, the crisis of knowledge points to a severe problem
that students in research are well aware of.
In student testimonies, this aspect is associated with two phenomena. Students stress the
importance of critical thinking as a primary epistemic tool. It allows them to recognise truth
from falsehood, manipulation, and the efforts of others to limit their freedom of orientation and
movement in the cyber world. Critical thinking is not just thinking but a tool of cognition in a
complicated and fragmented world. The second level is related to reflection on disinformation
- students realise that the space in which they live, think, encounter others, and get information
shapes their perceptions of and responses to the world. At the same time, this image, this social
construction, is deliberately altered and reshaped; cyberspace is a space of deception and
disinformation with which students must cope. Knowing in this context does not mean seeing
but critically recognising what is true.
In response to the crisis of knowledge and misinformation (Allcott et al., 2019;
Zimmermann & Kohring, 2018), they emphasise the role of critical thinking (Changwong et
al., 2018; Cáceres et al., 2020). The way they think about it is similar to Descartes' scepticism
(Brown, 2013; Suzuki, 2012), which has also evolved in response to uncertainty about what
knowledge is. Critical thinking and information literacy are both often interrelated concepts
(Albitz, 2007; Goodsett, 2014, Siu-cheung 2020) and are associated with the idea of social
justice and a specific remedy for the world (Oyediran-Tidings et al., 2019). This approach
corresponds well to how students think about the issue.
Conclusions and Implications
The research of metaphors in students has yielded several results essential for further
pedagogical research and practice. Cyberspace is a space in which students construct their
social worlds, their knowledge and ties to others. The discussion of the reality or unreality of
cyberspace is meaningless. The students themselves realise that it is not a separate space or
world but a part of a particular epistemic field in which they perform specific activities. This
entails requirements for their competence (digital competence, information literacy, etc.). There
is a different structuring of knowledge in this space than in a purely physical space, which can
be an exciting point for designing various educational activities.
The second essential point is that students are experiencing a crisis of knowledge in
this space. They are entering the post-facto age, the loss of certainties of solid modernity is
associated with the growing importance of cyberspace. It is necessary to look for ways to grasp

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852 the structure of truth and truthfulness again because purely school knowledge and skills are not
sufficient equipment for being in a world that is changing dynamically and in which relevant
information is mixed with the unbelievable.
Students are thus in a paradoxical situation. On the one hand, they perceive cyberspace
as a natural space to realise their learning, behaviour and actions. It is a space constituted
by information interactions, but at the same time does not find that this information will be
genuinely true, that the world that students create will not collapse at some point. The increasing
implementation of technologies in education is, therefore, an inevitable and essential act.
However, it will necessarily be associated with a growing emphasis on information literacy,
digital competencies and critical thinking, which students perceive as fundamental tools for
mastering this natural space.
At the same time, the study confirmed that pragmatic approaches emphasising the
influence of the environment on the structure of meanings and activity as a means of cognition
and formation of experience represent a practical philosophical and methodological approach
to analysing how students experience their being in cyberspace connected to physical space and
forming one functional continuum.
Acknowledgements
The research was done written thanks to the support of TA CR within the project Platform
for knowledge transfer: information literacy for high school students in an open mash-up virtual
learning environment (TL02000040).
References
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https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1931-0846.1997.tb00069.x
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of university students. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 79(6), 838-857.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838
Michal Černý Senior Researcher, Department of Information and Library Studies, Faculty
of Arts & Department of Social Education, Faculty of Education at Masaryk
University, Czech Republic.
E-mail: mcerny@phil.muni.cz
Website: https://is.muni.cz/osoba/268947?lang=en

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858
RECONSTRUCTION OF IRANIAN ENGLISH
FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS’
PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY IN ONLINE
CLASSES
Raziyeh Fallah, Azizeh Chalak, Hossein Heidari Tabrizi
Islamic Azad University, Iran
E-mail: rfallah25@gmail.com, azichalak@gmail.com, heidaritabrizi@gmail.com
Abstract
Because of the Covid-19 outbreak, all academic institutions all over the world swiftly shifted to reconstitute
the presentation of their courses that customarily took place on campus. This study explored the kind of
online professional identities that English teachers in private language institutes constructed during the
Covid-19 Pandemic. Additionally, it examined possible impacts of adopting online solutions on teachers’
performance and teaching skills and their perceptions of communities of practice and their effect on their
PI in online classes during this period. The study was conducted on 35 English teachers, teaching English
in language institutes in Yazd, Iran. The study followed a qualitative approach. Semi-structured interviews
were conducted individually and also in groups, to gain access to their lived experiences of running
online classes. Results revealed four main characteristics that (re)constructed and affected teachers’ PI
in online classes, namely, teachers’ role, competency and self-effectiveness, appreciation and connection,
and future plans. The findings also revealed that streamlined communication and communities of practice
were very beneficial in (re)constructing their changing identities in online classes. Membership in
communities of practice was found to be an essential action to make teachers’ teaching skills and social
learning better and share common experiences. The results showed that these aspects highly influence the
teachers’ reconstruction of PI in a positive way in language institutes.
Keywords: communities of practice, English as a foreign language, language institute, online professional
identity, qualitative approach
Introduction
In the realm of education, professional identity (PI) is reflected as being a complex

and dynamic construct, which maintains an equal equilibrium between professional self-
image and the perceived roles that teachers play at work (Coldron & Smith, 1999; Volkmann
& Anderson, 1998). As Fogle and Moser (2017) stated, comprehending teacher identities are
crucial to acquire deeper perceptiveness into the influencing elements on teacher’s decision-
making process, attitudes, and beliefs. Two elements can add to the complexity of teacher
professional identity (TPI) development. These two elements are interactions and anxiety:
Interaction with students and coworkers, interaction with institutions, and the anxiety of
learning English in a society (Abednia, 2012). According to the majority of researchers, the
development of PI is an ongoing process which is dynamic, in which teachers comprehend their
engagements to construct and reconstruct their belief, persuasion considering the meaning of a
particular profession (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009). Teachers’ perspectives are reconstructed
in agreement with who they are as teachers in the teaching profession; this perspective entails
esteem, belief, knowledge, and inducement which are used to explain and guide proficient
learning and development entailing two types of reasoning, namely moral and cognitive
reasoning (Stricker et al., 2019).

Raziyeh FALLAH, Azizeh CHALAK, Hossein HEIDARI TABRIZI. Reconstruction of Iranian English foreign language teachers’
professional identity in online classesprofessional identity in online classes
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Vol. 79, No. 6, 2021
An abrupt change of face-to-face classes to online classes because of Covid-19 has 859
implemented many problems on teachers. This abrupt change consequence was brisk learning
of novel technologies and the construction of fresh PI. The construction of these fresh identities
entails continuous renegotiations of the teachers' and students' functions, suggesting further
consideration of how the knowledge goes on to be formed through online interactions in the
synchronous and asynchronous environment (Comas-Quinn, 2011). Now the teachers have to
teach in isolation, they do not have eye contact with their students most of the time, it is just
voice. The next thing was the change to completely student-oriented classes, the most difficult
part of it was the use of technology. All these created stress and tensions for the language
teachers in the institutes, and this was the cause of their changing identity, and it took time
for them to reconstruct their identities. For the reconstruction and development of the PI of
teachers and their career flourishment, constant learning needs to occur. This learning is better
when you are not alone but in a community with your colleagues, someone who has the same
profession as you. Nonetheless, teachers may find it hard to perform in online classes, not only
for the variation of basic interactions from face-to-face class, but also because of the lack of
knowledge and preparation of skills (Laferrière et al., 2012; Kohnke & Moorhouse, 2020).
Background to the Study
TI has acquired noteworthy consideration in educational research in some past years.

Various meanings have been given to the concept of identity in the literature considering
different perspectives. According to Gee (2000), teacher identity is “an important analytic tool
for comprehending schools and society” (p. 99). Teacher PI relates to an individual’s identity
and self-concept that stems from the teacher’s comprehension of and reflection on his/her
career related experiences (Pinar, 2012). Yazan (2018) defines teacher professional identity as
teachers' continually evolving the conception of their teaching selves or how they define their
professional roles which may shift in response to changes in their immediate contexts and their
interaction with other individuals. As such, teacher identity construction resides mainly in how
they make sense of the contemporary realities, and how they constantly negotiate their position
within their professional communities (Nguyen & Dao, 2019). Thus, conceived as fundamental
to teachers' professional practice and development (Tsui, 2011), research on language teacher
identity (LTI) has gained footing in the last two decades (see Barkhuizen, 2017a; Cheung et
al; 2014; Schutz et al; 2018). In addition, Olsen (2008) stated that the challenges teachers
encounter, learning outcomes, and the effect of strong TPI are the factors that can shape the
procurement of TPI. The educational context that is dynamic and authentic, crucially influences
the formation of TI (Xu, 2013).
This study attempted to investigate Iranian English language institute teachers’
conceptions regarding their PI, sociocultural factors that influence it, and the effect of CoP
on their PI. Lately, Borg, (2017) defined teacher PI in terms of the professional roles teachers
and others believe they should accomplish. Various factors affect the PI of teachers, and it is
constructed historically, contextually, and socially (Barkhuizen, 2016; Kao & Lin, 2015).
There are many factors like teacher’s qualification, knowledge, learning including teaching
practice experiences that can influence on their TPI. Some people who have expectations from
teachers are heads of the departments, mentors, supervisors, coworkers, parents, and students.
These expectations are related to the teachers’ function or role, expertise level, behavior, and
competent practices. Hashwani (2013) stated that it is the social environment in which teachers’
professional and personal identities are shaped and reshaped.
Teachers’ sense of their PI synchronizes with the above-mentioned constructs, and
they stand for a personal perspective on how teachers see themselves as professionals in their
profession. Confirmation of teachers’ sense of their PI is gained through investigating teachers’
self-efficacy, motivation, job satisfaction, and occupational commitment in integrating them.

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860 A study was conducted by Eren and Rakıcıoğlu-Söylemez (2017) where they illuminated
the teachers' ethical attitude to find the negative feedback effect on professional competency.
This study objective was to find the pre-service teachers’ views on competency and job
engagement. The findings of this study revealed teachers’ high sense of competency and
professional engagement despite the negative feedback their ethical attitudes were not harmed
or destroyed.
A study in which Kuo and Tseng (2013) examined social participation and knowledge
sharing in teachers' online professional community. In this qualitative study, data was collected
from interviews and self-reports. The results of the study revealed the existence of a very close
connection among the members of the community, which in turn resulted in teachers’ concern,
recognition, and appraisement of one another in the group. According to many researchers
in Online CoP, teachers readily assist and cooperate and find solutions for their issues both
instrumental as well as emotional issues, and this reveals the strong connection among the
teachers in the communities. In a study Hou (2014) examined the elements which influence
online teacher CoPs in a positive and meaningful way. The results showed that these CoPs
give the teachers instrumental and emotional support, and a higher probability to produce good
results.
Lately, some research studies investigating TPI were conducted in Iran. Eslamdoost,
et al; (2019) examined how Iranian EFL teachers manage the identity conflicts. Another
study conducted by Sheybani and Miri (2019) explored the relationship between Iranian EFL
teachers’ PI and critical thinking. Their findings revealed an increasing positive meaningful
relationship between professional identity and critical thinking of Iranian EFL teachers. Behin
et al. (2019) suggested that every language teaching policy might shape and reshape teachers’
understanding of themselves.
Lately, Parisa Riahipour (2020) conducted a study to examine conversion in Iranian
EFL teachers’ PI in the context of the Fundamental Reform Document of Education (2012).
The findings indicated a potential conversion in Iranian EFL teachers’ professional identity
development. Additionally, a longitudinal study conducted by Haghighi Irani et al. (2020),
investigating the PI construction process of eight pre-service teachers during their practicum
course in a higher education institute through engagement, suggested that focus on engagement
could produce a deeper understanding of pre-service teachers’ PI construction. In their study,
Haghighi Irani et al. (2020) examined English language institute pre-service teachers’ identity
construction in a three-phase pre-service teacher education program. Results showed two chief
changes in the PI when the shifting took place from one phase to the other that produced the
study phase as the summit of the changes. On the whole, in the participating teachers' identities,
three main shifts were observed from a commitment to evaluation towards a commitment to
modality, from one-dimensional to multi-dimensional perceptions, and from problem analysis
to problem-solving skills.
In another study, Armaghan Qaleshahzari (2020) examined Ph.D. TEFL candidates’ PI
development during the Ph.D. course. The findings revealed that most participants believed
that this Ph.D. course led them to acquire social legitimation from their CoP, get socialized to
their worldwide teachers’ community, and make their status in the society much better; they
were convinced that there was development in both professional and personal development.
However, there is a lack of research on the teachers’ identity shift in online classes. Therefore,
this study sets out to examine the TPI shift of teachers moving from face to face to online
classes.
Because of the pandemic, all academic institutions all over Iran swiftly shifted to
reconstruct the presentation of their courses that took place face to face. Rapid changes for
conducting the classes completely online caused the fast learning of new technologies and
the reconstruction of fresh PIs. The reconstruction of these fresh PIs entails continuous re-

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transactions of the teacher and learner’s functions, recommending additional examination of 861
how experience on goes to be formed via online interactions (Comas-Quinn, 2011). Richardson
and Alsup (2015) conducted an interview-based, qualitative study to understand the experience
of first time online teachers and how they develop their online teacher identity. They suggested
that we should extend the definition of teacher identity by learning from existing TPI research
and reflecting upon new challenges and concerns—as well as new definitions of success and
accomplishment—in an online context with its unique feature. Their findings indicated that
becoming a successful and productive online instructor is not just a matter of putting all your
existing courses online. They note that:
"There are clear and distinct characteristics of online instruction that affect the professional
identities of online teachers in profound ways. These characteristics of teaching online require
teachers to grapple with personal and professional subjectivities that are perhaps unquestioned
in a traditional setting." (p. 152)
They argue that online teaching necessitates re-thinking or engaging in an interior

dialogue with many subjectivities and beliefs necessary to face-to-face instruction and adapt
them to the features of online teaching. They maintain that to become an effective online
instructor one might have to re-build a traditional teacher identity along with some traditional
assumptions about effective teaching and learning. The present study was also conducted to
investigate TPI in the context of online teaching with a focus on the impact of participating in
communities of practice on teachers' online PI construction.
Conceptual Framework
Wenger (1998) utilized the conceptualization of ‘communities of practice’ (CoP) for

defining professional practice as a process where people experience the social world and also
their engagement in it as being significant. Wenger further stated that participation within CoPs
involves three dimensions: (a) it improves mutual engagement; (b) it builds trust between
members; and (c) it allows the discussion of issues about the practice. Community of practice
requires three elements, namely domain, community, and practice. In a Chinese EFL teacher
context Tsui (2006) examined the process of TPI formation in CoPs. These studies revealed
that teachers’ knowledge and practice formation are two dimensional, individual, and social.
The perspective adopted in this study was social-cultural theory according to which
identity is, first of all, at the center of the teachers' development and according to this theoretical
perspective, identity is something dynamic, ongoing, shaped, and reshaped by contextual factors
especially the focus of the social-cultural theory is on contextual factors because it maintains
that identity is not something formed in isolation or individually independent of contextual
factors. So, from the social-cultural perspective, all the contextual factors that can have an
impact on PI construction must be considered. The CoP is also a socially culturally inspired
concept on teachers' professional learning and teachers’ PI. The overarching framework of this
study was a socio-cultural perspective on identity construction and development. As a part of
the study was concerned about professional networks, professional circles that teachers form,
and through that, they share experiences especially after the pandemic they share experiences
about online classes in these CoP which is of course a social culturally inspired framework, was
used. As a result, through CoP where the teachers shared their experiences and practices, they
could monitor their learning process instead of just dealing with theory only (Wenger, 1998).
These measures helped them to initiate social connections in the communities where all the
members were entailed in different ways. From a sociocultural perspective, “self-representation
is socially negotiated and the identity work by individuals in their environment happens in and

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862 through interaction between perceptions, participation, and actions” and this ongoing process
is embedded within the macro and microenvironments “(Li, 2020, p. 243).
Empirical studies have also verified that the effect of CoP on teaching practices and
student learning is positive (e.g., Cheng, 2014). For instance, Vescio et al. (2008) have reviewed
11 studies and discovered that the teaching practices in many cases gradually became more
student-centered after the teachers had participated in CoPs.
Regarding online teacher communities, Lantz-Anderson et al. (2018) stated that little
research has examined teachers’ online identities and suggested that “other area that merits
further exploration is the role of online professional learning communities in teachers’
development of self-identity” (312). In addition, there is no research investigating (re)
construction of Iranian EFL Language Institute TPI shifting from face-to-face to online classes.
This investigation is significant as it can make clear how teachers view their identity shifts. To
address this gap, through the examination of teacher identity in Iranian EFL language institutes,
this study analyzes teacher identity (re)construction. Furthermore, “exploring the affordances
of online teaching would provide an understanding of the dynamics of teachers’ membership in
these contexts “Robson (2018).
As mentioned before because of the connection between teachers’ identity and teachers’
practice (Lave & Wenger 1991; Wenger, 1998), investigating the TPI changes shows how
teachers perceive their role, behaviors, efficacy potentials, practices, emotional fluctuations,
etc.
A study was conducted by (Nazari & Seyri, 2021) regarding the identity shift of
schoolteachers moving from face-to-face to online classes. Semi structure interviews were used
to collect the data including self-reported practices, and group discussions. The participants of
the study were six schoolteachers from different disciplines entailing Persian literature, English,
Arabic, chemistry, physics, and biology. The findings showed that teachers' shift to online
classes had influenced various aspects of their identity. Yazan’s (2018) theoretical framework
was used in this for understanding language teacher identities. Similar findings were reported
in a study conducted by McNaughton and Billot (2016) regarding technological change among
higher education teachers.
One more study was conducted (Ballová et al; 2020) in primary and secondary schools of
Slovak. The main objective of this study was to explore the nexus between teaching experience,
personality traits, and emotions of teachers and their perception and management of distance
education during the coronavirus pandemic. 379 teachers participated in this quantitative
study. The results showed that during the pandemic, there was an increase in negative emotions
of teachers increased and a decrease in positive emotions; in addition, teachers showed a
willingness to apply partial changes into their teaching after the pandemic period.
Research Problem
In the study, the reconstruction and reshaping of Iranian Language Institute teachers is
considered. Because of the pandemic rapidly the classes in all educational centers were shifted
to online classes. Most of the teachers did not have any previous experience of online, remote or
distance teaching classes especially language institute teachers. The sudden change did not give
time to the authorities to conduct some training classes for the teachers. The teachers entered
in a new environment, in isolation without any experience of conducting online classes. The
problems teachers faced was environment, lack of technological knowledge, student centered
classes, and command of language.
Teachers face many problems in their careers, entailing low pay and professional
development scarcity, and now online classes and technology. It has been seen that some
teachers without pedagogical qualification are working as English language teachers in language

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institutes, and some of them their major is not English they are from different disciplines. These 863
challenges usually result in inadequacy in commitment, demotivation, and by default a distorted
teacher identity. Teachers should try to overcome these difficulties and reconstruct their identity.
As the students seemed to become more independent learners online, while they remained
facilitators of learning, the teachers realized that as teachers they need: (a)more flexibility in
performing the roles of ‘enhancers and cherishers’ instead of ‘presenters’ of content (see also
Ducan & Barnett 2009; Jin, 2005), (b) more concentration and cherish to become more efficient
and efficacious communicators (Komninou, 2017; Vinagre, 2017), (c) being more sentience
of each student's needs, strengths and interests, including their accessibility to technology and
support networks and preferred e-learning styles (see also Chambers et al., 2012; Tai et al.,
2018; Coole & Watts, 2009; Ducan & Barnett, 2009), (d) continuous dedication to producing
content that is interesting and engaging through new forms of technology (see Borba et al.,
2018; Thomas & Thorpe, 2018).
In Iranian English as foreign language research, some studies have touched upon teachers’
reconstruction identities, most of them are related to pre-service teachers (e.g., Abednia, 2012;
Karimi & Mofidi, 2019; Safari & Rashidi, 2015), but there is no comprehensive study about
the reconstruction of Iranian English Language Institute teachers’ online identities. Very few
studies in Iran have studied these issues but not directly. A comprehensive search for research
on teachers' lived online experiences and online identity (re)construction to have particularly
focused on community of practice (CoP) had not been probed into. Lack of research on the
reconstruction of online teachers' identity, made Iranian EFL a perfect site for researching this
topic and probe for more information and in-depth analysis in response to the high significance
attached to online TPI globally.
Considering the conditions that have aroused because of this pandemic, all the classes
were held online. These online classes have brought the teachers too near to each other through
social media, and different platforms. The teachers who were not in contact with each other,
with teachers from other states, now are in contact through CoP groups, in some groups, even
teachers from other countries are there. In these groups, teachers shared their experiences,
problems, and solutions. There is a connection between Identity and community, and it is the
nature of the community that is fluid that makes the fluid identity become a dynamic, hybrid,
multi-framed, fragmented, and contradictory notion (Teng, 2018). Due to the lack of studies in
this area, this study was attempted. Hence it may be concluded that there are many elements that
affect teachers’ identity. Then how teachers observe themselves as teachers and what elements
contribute to their perceptions is worth of exploring. This study attempts to fill this gap by
examining those elements that influence the PI of EFL teachers who are working in English
Language Institutes from the perspectives of the teachers themselves in online classes. In this
study, the possible grouping of these factors will be examined in order to identify what factors
affect EFL teacher's PI. As Cohen, 2008; Tseng & Kuo, 2014 claimed, “teachers’ identities
are central to the beliefs, values, and practices that guide their engagement, commitment, and
actions in and out of the classroom.”
Research Focus
The study was centered around language institute teachers’ perceptions of their changing
online TPI and how they perceive themselves as online teachers. In addition, this study focuses
on the teachers’ prospects about the consequence of communities of practice on their online PI.

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864 Research Aim and Research Questions
This study explored the kind of online professional identities that English teachers in
private language institutes constructed during the Covid-19 Pandemic, and how they perceive
themselves as online teachers. Additionally, it examined possible impacts of adopting online
solutions on teachers’ performance and teaching skills and their perceptions on the communities
of practice (CoP) and their effect on their PI in online classes during this period.
1. What are Iranian EFL teachers’ conceptions of their online professional identity?
2. What is the range of CoP effects on teachers’ online professional identity?
General Background
Framed within Wenger's (1998) conceptual framework of communities of practice,

this qualitative study examined the online professional identity of EFL teachers. This study
explored the kind of online professional identities that English teachers in private language
institutes constructed during the Covid-19 Pandemic. Additionally, it examined possible
impacts of adopting online solutions on teachers’ performance and teaching skills and their
perceptions on the communities of practice and their effect on their PI in online classes during
this period. The study was conducted in the Iranian EFL context with a very wide community of
(of all age groups) and teachers. It was conducted during the academic year of 2019-2020 and
40 EFL teachers participated. It was mainly an interview-based study which examined shifts
in teachers’ professional identity by shift in the mode of teaching from face-to-face to online
which was of particular interest to the researchers due to the fact that prior to the COVID-19
pandemic, online English classes were rather unorthodox, and technology was at best used only
as one component of the teaching rather than forming the entire practice.
Design and Context of the Study
This study was conducted on EFL teachers teaching in an English Language Institute
of Yazd, Iran during the pandemic of Covid-19 in 2020 and 2021. The institute offers foreign
language courses, mainly English, for different age groups: including teenagers, young adults,
and adult learners (ranging from 13 to 40 years of age). Each term lasts for three months, and
classes meet twice a week. Each class lasts for 90 minutes.
This study is exploratory using a qualitative approach. This approach was applied as the
researchers aimed to examine Iranian language institute English teachers’ perceptions about
their online PI and CoP. As Atieno (2009) stated, a qualitative approach examines the whole
situation to evaluate its involution and assure that it takes into account general factors and
also unique factors. A qualitative methodology was used, as the objective was to get a more
satisfactory comprehension of the study context. As researchers have stated, qualitative data
is used to seize expressive information about beliefs, values, feelings, and motivations that
underlie behaviors (e.g., Willig & Rogers, 2017; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).
Sample
Thirty-five Iranian English language institute teachers, both male (N=8) and female
(N=27) were selected from English institute of Yazd. Male teachers were less than the female
teachers that is the reason for the imbalance in the number of male and female participants. The

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participants were selected by convenience sampling based on their availability. Their age range 865
was from 26 to 49. The teachers’ least teaching experience was 2 years, and maximum was
20 years. All the participants’ first language was Persian. The data were gathered according to
ethical guidelines for qualitative research including informed participant consent, guaranteed
anonymity, and confidentiality.
Table 1
Demographic Background of the Participants
No. of Participants 35 EFL teachers at English Institute

Gender 27 Females & 8 Males
Native Language Persian
Major TEFL
English Language Institute Yazd in Iran
Academic Years 2019-2020
Instrumentation and Procedures
It is a qualitative study, and as Edwards and Holland (2013) revealed that crucial forms of
qualitative research are in-depth and semi-structured interviews. Thus, the data were collected
from two major sources, namely, individual interviews and focus group discussions and these
formed two data sets, which are explained below.
Data Set One: Individual interviews
An attempt was also made to obtain the right data that would answer the research
question through the questions and comments. Semi-structured, in-depth individual interviews
formed the primary data set by focusing on detailed and elaborate researcher-elicited narratives
from the participating teachers. Interactive interviewing approach was employed (Corbin &
Morse, 2003) to access “teacher stories” and “stories of teachers” (Clandinin & Connelly, 2004)
with each interview lasting from one to two hours in one or two sessions. The interviews were
mainly conducted in Farsi for the participants to feel comfortable, but they were free to choose
or switch to English if and when they preferred. The focus was on creating safe, non-judgmental
spaces for teachers to open up and reflect on their job to produce unhindered stories. However,
if the researcher thought that the story is incomplete, she would interrupt to ensure efficient
recalling, recounting and deep reflection.

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866 Semi-structured interviews were used because of the tractability that is experienced by
both the participants and researchers. As Judger (2016, p.2) stated that most of the studies use
semi-structured interviews “to get multiple perspectives, augmented by documentary sources
of evidence.” Cook (2008) explained that in a usual semi-standardized interview, the researcher
has more guidance over the direction of the conversation and discussed content than in a non-
directive data collection approach; but still the informants are not restricted in elaboration or
changing the course of the interview into other related areas.
The interview questions were 16 in number, out of these 16 questions, the first five
were related to demographic information, the next four questions were related to teachers’
conceptions to their own online PI and the elements influencing their online PI, the next
four questions were about CoP and its effect on their online PI, the last questions dealt with
teachers’ future plans and their career. Each interview continued for about 20 to 25 minutes.
The questions given for the interview were taken from (Weiner & Torres, 2016; Yilmaz, 2016)
with some slight changes are given in appendix A. Because of the Covid 19 pandemic, the
interview questions were asked on the WhatsApp application with prior information, for some
it was emailed. Consequently, interview related to five focus group were organized online on
Amjad Platform, (a localized blue button platform) to acquire interactional data derived from
group collaboration and interaction. Individual interview questions aimed to know the teachers'
conceptions about their online PI, and the different elements that influenced their online PI,
identity, and CoP. For the focus group interviews, teachers were divided into five groups, and
information about collaboration and interactions in CoP was achieved through semi-structured
interviews. (refer appendix).
Data Set Two: Focus Group Discussion
The strength of the focus group as a method for data collection prevails in its capability
to mobilize participants to answer to and discuss and comment on one another’s views. In turn,
statements received are challenged, extended, developed, undermined, or qualified in ways that
produce deep data for the researcher. The focus group was really a group interview that used the
interaction among teachers as a source of information. Here, the researchers introduce the focus
of the group, the researcher introduced the questions to smoothly start the discussion. These
allowed group members to respond to problems raised by others or identifying agreements and
disagreements among group members. The researchers set the time limit for the discussion. The
discussions were recorded transcribed and coded.
Data Analysis
The data collected from the interviews, was carefully transcribed and analyzed. For
analysis of the information, a thematic analysis approach was applied, and different themes
were accomplished from the data. Narrative analysis, which entailed thematic analysis was
conducted at two different levels: (a) individual interviews (b) focus group interviews. Both the
individual and focus group interviews were categorized into four contexts. The information was
analyzed, and the pertinent texts were combined in one report. For analyzing the first part of
the interview, which was related to Iranian English institute teachers’ PI, the above-mentioned
three elements that affected teachers ‘online PI; admiration and relationship, self-efficacy and
competency, future plans and career aims were considered.
The first step was transcribing the content of interviews and constructing texts.
Information of the interviews disclosed the first chief motifs i.e., teacher online PI and their
identity conceptions. From the analysis Five sub-motifs appeared: teacher function, competency,
future plans, admiration, and relation. The relevant data was analyzed, and codes were given for

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the main motifs, for the sub- motifs different coding was performed, and codes were taken into 867
account, after coding a comparison was performed.
Research Results
The first motif or theme which was TPI and teachers’ conceptions about their own PI
was revealed from the data collected from interviews. There were initially four themes but
during the interviews, a new theme, teachers’ role and function in online classes stemmed in
their interviews according to the teachers’ perspectives. This online teachers’ role and function
entailed teachers’ essential characteristics such as, being flexible, patient, dedicated, fair, having
positive attitude flexibility, and particularly effective communicators, which is very essential in
online classes. Ultimately, eight major themes were generated from the data regarding online
teaching and the main characteristics that can impact teachers' PI construction in online teaching.
In what follows the findings are presented with regard to each of the eight core themes that
were generated from the data including: a) being patient, b) fairness, c) dedication and positive
attitude, d) streamlined communicator, e) self-efficacy and competence, f) future prospects and
plans, and g) appreciation. The findings regarding each theme are presented separately for the
individual interviews and focus group discussions. To better illustrate the findings, extracts
from the interviews are presented under each theme. The extracts are selected to present the
prevailing views and opinions and best caption the theme being presented.
Flexibility
Individual Interviews
In the individual group, the majority of the teachers’ idea was that the connection
between the teachers and students should reflect flexibility, according to them this tightens
their relationship with their students, and a close bond comes into existence. The mainstream
literature of effective teaching shows that rigid approach to education is not the best practice
and may not result in productivity and optimized learning outcomes (Pearson, 2007). Rather,
research has shown that effective teachers adapt their instruction to meet the needs of diverse
students and situations (Parsons et al., 2011). Consider the following statement by a male
teacher:
“Flexibility is reflected in the teacher-student relationship and can affect the teacher’s performance.
I think the most important aspect of a teacher’s identity is the kind of character, the personality
that they assume in a classroom. So, they either choose to be flexible in the class or very rigid and
I think this influences their performance throughout the whole semester.”
Another teacher also commented:
“For me, I believe that teachers should have this background where they are flexible when it comes
to dealing with students inside the class. They also have to be understanding and be friendly but
not a friend as there have to be limits and boundaries. The teacher's flexibility can determine the
kind of rapport they build with learners and of course the outcomes of the class."
The participating teachers also stated that a teacher should be able to understand the
students. It is the duty of the teacher to create a friendly and low-anxiety classroom atmosphere
inside the class, which in turn will affect the teacher and learners' motivation (Pickett & Fraser,
2010; Young, 1991). This is possible when a teacher is flexible, at least to some extent.

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868 Focus Group Discussions
According to the majority of the focus group teachers’ conceptions, the teacher's role
and function in the online classes during this Covid-19 has some crucial characteristics that
a teacher should possess. In all the five focal groups, the teachers emphasized the vitality of
flexibility in the teaching profession. Most of the teachers mentioned that in an online class they
cannot be too rigid and strict but their friendly relationship with the students was an important
factor, they also said that they should not only be accessible but also professional at the same
time and should have command of the language and technology. According to them, there
was a dramatic change in the role of teachers, in online classes the teacher in these classes is
just the facilitator and a streamlined communicator (see also Klein et al., 2004; Álvarez et al.,
2009), while developing competencies for online teachers, re-examined the competencies for
face-to-face settings and came to the conclusion that competencies for online teachers were
not substantially different from those in face-to-face settings at a high level of abstraction. The
teachers also referred to the isolated environment of teachers and stated that comprehending
the effects of this isolated environmental change on teachers’ identity is vital as it can influence
the instructional for comprehending and affecting teachers’ cognitive process of instructional
decision-making (see Anderson et al., 2017).
According to the focus group interviews, the teachers’ idea was that maybe there are some
reasons that a teacher is not flexible. They suggested some factors that can force a teacher to be
strict. These factors include lack of experience, small age difference, fear of losing authority,
fear of losing control, different social backgrounds, and maybe the lack of eye contact.
Being Patient
The teachers had the same idea of focal groups. The teachers announced that we can control the
online classes just by good relationships and patience.
Teacher X said
“I asked my student to answer a question, he said to me “I am driving I cannot answer you”.
I said to him this is your class time you should be at home and pay attention to your class. He replied, “I
did not want to miss your class.”
I had nothing to say but thank him. We should be patient and give time to our students. “One
positive point of online classes is the setting; the students can be in their class anywhere. I would like
to add here that listening with patience well is one of the most important skills needed to be an online
teacher.”
Focus Group Discussions
The teachers in the focus group consistently pointed to the importance of being patient
as a main characteristic of qualified online teachers. According to them in online classes, the
professional and personal lives have been mingled. The students come late to the classes, do
not respond to teachers’ questions, sometimes when they are asked to read something they
say that I do not have books, they are not at home, etc. Here the teachers should not lose their
patience but try to control themselves. It is a fact that in online classes the control of teachers
is lessened. They stated that patience is a crucial character that a teacher should possess. They
also pinpoint that the teachers should be very patient with the low pace students, it should not
slip off their mind that some students’ pace might be slower than their peers, online classes
demand more patience from the teachers. Furthermore, teachers need to be objective in some
situations because students might behave in a particular way that requires a certain amount of
patience and flexibility.

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Fairness 869
Most of the teachers’ view was that one of the characteristics of a good teacher is that
she/he should treat the students equally, especially in online classes usually teachers try to give
more importance to the students who are active, and the other students are neglected. In this
way some students are given more importance than the others. For example, in conducting
class discussions some students’ role should not be more colorful, but the teachers should
pay attention that all of them should be treated equally, of course some of them may need the
teachers’ help more than the others. The following comment captures all teachers' positions
regarding fairness as the quality of an online teacher:
If teachers build a strong rapport with learners, the classes will be more productive and successful;
however, this is not enough in online classes. In online classes, teachers should give more attention
in treating all the students equally whether fast or slow-paced or high or low achievers. They
should feel that they are receiving equal attention and care and opportunities."
Teachers should not forget that along with the students in online classes one of the parents
or guardians is present. Teachers have different roles in online classes, they are facilitators,
guiders, controllers, caretakers, evaluators (e.g., Jaques and Salmon, 2007; Harasim, 2017),
if they are unresourceful and do not perform these roles appropriately, they might encounter
some ethical problems such as: being biased by paying more attention to some more active
students and ignoring the passive ones, being minimalist in their efforts to optimize the learning
opportunities, being unintentionally disrespectful to learners, and being indifferent to their
needs.
Focal groups concluded that teachers should be fair, it is not important whether it is a
face-to-face class or online class. If teachers are partial, they will spoil the good relationship
between them and the students, being partial may affect the learning outcome of the class.
One of the vital characteristics of a good teacher is being fair with all the students. Most
of the teachers on this ground had the same view and were in favor of being fair. All their
ideas have been grouped as follows, students should be treated fairly in classes, which will
encourage students to respect and tolerate each other. This will help students to learn how to
live responsibly in societies.
Dedication and Positive Attitude
According to the focal groups' interview, the teachers’ idea was that one of the colorful
elements in the development of a passion for teaching is teachers’ dedication to students and
learning. Globally it has been accepted that the distinguishing feature of a teacher is her/his
dedication. They said it is important for them to build a positive relationship between themselves
and students. Sense of responsibility is important for the teachers. They stated that teachers
should be an inspiring model and guider in the class. According to the teachers’ interview,
their responsibilities have increased in online classes. All the teachers in all five groups had
the perspective that a positive attitude motivates students. It is an essential feature of a good
teacher.

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Teacher Y: "Teachers must have a sense of responsibility, this will result in mutual understanding
and respect. I believe in give respect and take respect."
Most of the teachers thought that the most important thing for the teachers is that they
should have passion for teaching. Their idea was that if you do not have a passion for teaching
you cannot show yourself or progress. They said dedication and a positive attitude are the two
vital qualities that a good teacher should possess, these features are very essential for building
a good relationship between students and teachers. They revealed that teachers should be very
particular about the way they behave, speak, react, because as teachers they are samples for the
students, these things can have a direct impression on the way the students behave, that is why
a teacher should positively impress the students as this gives way to create a positive learning
environment.
Streamlined Communicator
Majority of the teachers (nearly 95%) believed that two major factors can largely impact
on teachers' identity as well as the way online classes are run, namely, mastery over the language
and knowledge of technology or technological literacy. Teachers’ identity is completely washed
out. Their idea was that the rapid change had an effect on most of them and at the beginning
when the time of class was near, they were in blues and frustrated, one major thing for this was
isolation, and these things affected their whole nature of being a teacher. They also emphasized
that streamlined communication means you are not only giving infinite ways to interact with
your students, but also building an effective relationship with each of them.
Teacher z “Instructions given online must be frequent, sound, and employ highly interactive
designs and content to ensure communication has taken place. Teachers must understand the need
for keeping in touch with every student. Actually, the value of feedback increases in the online
classes as there is ample of information, but no filters to streamline it.
Focus group Interview
As nearly all of the teachers in the focus had the same view, it was turned on to a single
quoted view which is as follows:
“When we wanted to start our online classes first, we had the sense of skepticism and doubt, along
with negative notions that online learning is not effective. Lost opportunities of interacting on
regular basis with peers and teachers. Sense of isolation, lack of interaction with students, threat
of losing authority of class. We teachers started our classes with so much of negative energy. One
more blue point was there, technology. All these things resulted in changing identities. After taking
in training classes in our institutes and fighting with our self this semester we could know what
we have to do. Our students in online classes need a high level of appreciation. It is crystal clear
for us that our students want teachers who are flexible, friendly, and streamlined communicators.
We can stand the challenges and know these complex times require prompt realization, we have
to adapt our practices and transform that best support online learners. Our teacher identity is
continually renegotiated as we are trying to support our role in the online classes.”

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Self-Efficacy and Competence 871
The second characteristic of teachers PI considered was Self- Efficacy. Self-efficacy

involves teachers’ teaching practices, organization, and management skills (Bandura, 1977).
The participating teachers pointed to various factors influencing their perception of their own
self-efficacy which are presented below.
According to the individual interviews, teachers’ behavior, meaning their manner and
their treatment with the students are two important factors that reflect teachers’ self-efficacy.
They also referred that the student's progress and performance show how effective the
teachers are, majority of the teachers pointed that. It was explained by many teachers that their
effectiveness is measured by students' progress. All the participants of the study insisted that
efficiency and organization are interrelated.
In addition, the teachers stated that the teachers who had a higher sense of competence
and self-efficacy could tackle the online classes better than the teachers who had low sense of
competence and self- efficacy. They said that high self-efficacy and a high sense of competence
could promote positive perceptions towards technology-based teaching, improve learning and
increase the effectiveness of teaching and learning. Consider the following comment by one of
the female teachers:
"When the teacher is confident about their mastery over the language and over the use of
technology, they can manage the classes better. That's because they know they are equipped
with the required tools to run a successful class. They feel positive and they can transfer this to
their students. This gives them the sense that they are efficient teachers, and their learners are
progressing because of their effective teaching."
Online teachers’ efficacy is tempted by various causes, for example, problems and
difficulties with technology, not having experience in online teaching, poor internet connection
that results in losing connection with students, inadequate comprehension of online pedagogical
knowledge, and time-consuming online teaching items, isolated environment, lack of eye
contact, school administrative processes, and unsatisfactory student academic advancement.
Focus Group Discussion
In the following focus group discussion, the teachers discussed about three topics,
decision making, issue solving, and skills related to organization in online classes. The skills
which they have to develop in relation to teaching and management in online classes.
Nearly all of the teachers had the same idea. The foremost aspect that comes to your mind when
you talk about organization is that the teacher should go fully prepared for the class, the novice
teachers with their elaborated lesson plans and experienced teachers with a short lesson plan. It
should be clear what the teacher is going to do in the class, how she/he is going to transfer their
knowledge. After the discussion the teachers concluded that in online classes not only issue
solving, but decision making is also linked to the teachers’ skills of organization.
Future Trajectories
When the teachers were questioned on this topic of their future plans, most of them
wanted to continue for their PhD course. Consider the following excerpt by one of the teachers
recounting her future career plans and prospects:

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"I would like to involve in activities that help with my professional development, and I believe that
graduate studies can better prepare me for my teaching career and equip me with more profound
theoretical and practical knowledge of the subject matter and methodologies."
These were the indications of their extreme involvement to their occupation, pure
motivation for professional advancement, progress, and competency. The participants’ idea was
that teachers are always in line with learning, there is no end to the learning if they have no
barriers they should continue with their education and research. As Hawk et al., (2016) argued
that “teacher learning is crucial as it affects their PI strongly and improves their chances for
future occupations”.
Appreciation
Some teachers’ idea was that it is a vital point to be appreciated by the supervisors as
clear from the following comment by a female teacher:
“Appreciation is very important. My institute and my supervisors really support me, which
definitely affects my teaching, motivation, and eagerness to become a better teacher. First,
observations, second, teacher autonomy; third, a place that encourages you, these things give you
positive energy and you always go to class with something new.”
Following this statement, it could be argued that appreciation by supervisors, mentors,

managers, and administrators enhances motivation and teachers' commitment to their profession
and investment in their practice and professional development. Teachers should be motivated
and supported by the supervisors. This motivation will give them the sense of attachment to the
place where they work, and this really has an effect on the teachers' identity. Class observations
and reflective teaching, and its advantages were also said by the teachers.
Discussion
Online Professional Identity

Regarding the first research question, the teachers’ ideas were nearly the same and it can
be said that there were no meaningful differences between their perspectives. From the answers
to the interview questions given by the teachers, four chief motifs stemmed. After considering
the responses, the participants concluded that the most important factors that influenced
their identity in online classes were the isolated environment, command of the language, and
technology. They further added that it was difficult and as the classes were online, the classes
were student-centered, and it was really difficult to cope up with technology. The other factor
that was referred to, was losing eye contact, most of the teachers said in some cases only the
teachers' webcam was on, and the students’ web cam was off. They stated that eye contact was
very important to build a friendly relationship and controlling. Many teachers informed that
they had training classes that helped them to reconstruct their identities, but it was difficult as
they did not experience before. According to the teachers after one term they could get their
self-confidence back.
The first theme that stemmed as mentioned before was the teacher's role and, which is
vital in online classes. According to the teachers, being flexible, patient, and friendly was very
important. As the teachers stated, teachers in online classes should be more flexible, somewhat
in between strict and soft, the best term to be used can be lenient and professional too. For a
well-disciplined class, the rules must be crystal clear, this will result in a positively productive

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learning environment. They also stated that a teacher should be able to understand the students, 873
it is the duty of the teacher to create a friendly atmosphere inside the class, which in turn will
affect the teacher’s motivation. They concluded that teachers in online classes have variable
roles as a course facilitator, counselor, guider, controller, instructor, helper, and a friend, but
not an authority. In a similar way, Jaques and Salmon (2007) and Harasim (2017) posited that
successful online teaching is not merely the matter of adopting the latest technologies, but
highly depends on effective online pedagogies, critical human skills, understanding, as well
as teachers' presence in various roles to create collaborative, transformative online learning
processes. It is difficult for teachers to attract them to online classes and according to the results,
they have to play all their skills and tricks. All these features influence the students, need to
be positive, and also professional. Results showed that teachers declared that the effectiveness
of their instructional and teaching practices influence their self-efficacy (Cooper et al., 2020;
Hatlevik, 2017).
According to the results, the teachers' course preparation in online classes is elaborated
and vital that affects the teacher’s confidence. One more point the teachers pointed was the
command of the language. As revealed without the command of the language a teacher cannot
survive in an online class. Teachers’ self-efficacy related to teachers’ skills of managing and
organizing the online classes were also mentioned.
According to the teachers, appreciation is something that has a direct effect on motivation.
If the teachers are appreciated for their good efforts and work, the teachers' motivation and
energy doubles. The administration system affects teachers' PI directly. It enhances self-
confidence and competence. They also pointed that when teachers support each other, a close
relationship comes into existence and that is support, support for each other, support for the
community of teachers. The result also illuminated that when teachers in COP see that the
other teachers have the same problem and the experienced teachers help them, they feel a
sense of belonging, mutual trust, and confidence, and this, in turn, helped them to validate their
professional identity and even build a stronger identity as a teacher (Goktepe & Kunt, 2021;
Fraga-Cañadas, 2011; Santos & Arroio, 2013; Teng, 2020).
The data obtained from the interviews revealed that teaching online is a demanding job
and a teacher is always a learner, always in the process of learning more and more being better
and better. According to the teachers interviewed there is no end to it, and they are always in
process of development, their identities are reshaped and reconstructed again and again.
The next aspect of teachers’ PI stemmed from the question related to their future
trajectories and plans. Many teachers were continuing with their future studies. According
to the results, the teachers’ idea was that high qualification does affect the PI. They stated
experience and the training classes they had in the institute helped them to reconstruct their TPI,
even the workshops which were held by the institutes and the observation of the online classes
of some good teachers also had a colorful role in reconstructing their PI. Therefore, these were
the results of the teachers’ interviews that supported the study's first research question.
Communities of Practice
This second research question was devised to examine the benefits, involvement,
experience, and effect of being a member of CoP on online TI. All the teachers without
any exception stated that CoP is very beneficial, and they shared their problems, solutions,
experience here. All of them were sailing in one ship each of them trying to help the other trying
to solve the problems finding new ways of attracting the students in online classes, tackling
the technology problems. According to them, these communities helped them reconstruct their
identities and had a colorful role in bringing back their confidence. These CoPs have created
an encouraging learning environment (see also Mak & Pun, 2015). Based on the teachers’

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874 interviews, a significant number of teachers regarded CoP, as being highly influencing on their
PI. Furthermore, the results of the interviews revealed that these communities help them to
upgrade their teaching practices, their skills, sharing new ideas, mutual learning, cooperative
work, being more efficient, planning lessons, competency, self-efficacy, assignments; all these
elements affect the teachers’ PI. In a similar vein, Korthagen’s (2010) work in the context of
teacher learning and behavior revealed that participation in concrete activities in one’s social
context is a deeply influential factor in how teachers perceive information and then later transfer
this information to personal schema and theory and accordingly identity developments that
occur in specific communities of practice, shape the ways in which teachers understand and
weigh information that relates to their self-efficacy beliefs as according to Takahashi (2011),
teachers co-construct their efficacy beliefs in shared practices. In the context of this present
study, one such aspect that was pointed out by the teachers and emphasized was being up to
date, which can be achieved through the national and international workshops and enhance their
identity development and self-efficacy. Based on the data collected, majority of the teachers
regarded the workshops as influential CoP.
As the results revealed, there is a TPI shift of English language institute teachers moving
from face-to-face to online classes. Being a member of a CoP is a must for an online English
language institute teacher. According to the results, CoP takes care of involving teachers in
social learning and entails them in a productive environment.
The implications of the study are as follows, (a) teachers’ communities exchange their
experiences, knowledge, build their self-confidence (b) teachers’ efficacy and competence
support their extraneous acknowledgment via experiencing, observing, formal and informal
Cop, (c) being a member of CoP gives a sense of mutual connection with other teachers from
different institutes, encourages mutual support and learning, helps to be up to date, (d) Teachers
in online classrooms should be flexible, streamlined communicators who adapt and transform
their practices to support students as online learners.
This study suggests that TPI can be supported in different ways. To begin with, as the
classes are online, there should be some training courses for the teachers to provide them with a
realistic view of the environment of online classes and what they should expect. As most of the
teachers reflected in their interview that they reconstructed their PI and even for the experienced
teachers there was stress and tension as the online classes create isolation and also the use
of technology. The training programmers’ objective and novice teachers, experienced online
teachers and administrators should understand that appropriate preparation and mentorship for
new online teachers is essential to successful teaching and learning in online courses in all
disciplines. Furthermore, the other prominent issue revealed in the study was the significance
of self-efficiency and job responsibility, command of language and technology acquaintance
which should be essential for online language institute teachers. Their performance in the online
classes is directly and positively affected by their improvements, advancements, which in turn
will have a positive effect on their teaching performance, PI, and occupational morals. However,
it must be noted here that the results obtained in this study must be treated with caution as this
study, much like any other research study, suffers from several limitations including, the small
sample which cannot be considered as fully representative of all teachers in this context. There
is no guarantee that the results obtained here are shared across other similar contexts. They
may be indigenous to this EFL context or even to the participants in this study. There is also
the issue of data sources. The data was collected from interviews and focus group discussions,
but there were no reflective journals or artefacts. Despite these limitations, it must be noted that
the findings warrant the need for a more serious consideration of the issues discussed here and

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more informed discussion as well as further research in the areas of teachers online professional 875
identity (re)construction and the impact of participation in virtual or face-to-face communities
of practice in sustaining resilience in the time of crisis and continuing professional development
for a better and more effective experience of online education for both teachers and learners.
Declaration of Interest
Authors declare no competing interest.
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879
Received: August 25, 2021 Accepted: November 28, 2021
Cite as: Fallah, R., Chalak, A., & Heidari Tabrizi, H. (2021). Reconstruction of Iranian
English foreign language teachers’ professional identity in online classes. Problems of
Education in the 21st Century, 79(6), 858-879. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.858
Raziyeh Fallah PhD Candidate, Department of English, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch,

Islamic Azad University, Iran.
E-mail: rfallah25@gmail.com
Azizeh Chalak Associate Professor, Department of English, Isfahan (Khorasgan)

(Corresponding author) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Iran.
E-mail: azichalak@gmail.com
Hossein Heidari Tabrizi Associate Professor, Department of English, Isfahan (Khorasgan)

Branch, Islamic Azad University, Iran.E-mail: heidaritabrizi@gmail.com

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880
INVESTIGATION OF USE CASES
OF MATHEMATICS TEXTBOOKS IN
THE TEACHING PROCESS FROM A
DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE
Nurullah Yazici
Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University, Turkey
E-mail: yazicinurullah@gmail.com
Abstract
It is important to determine the behaviors of primary school pre-service teachers, who have successfully
completed the "Mathematics Textbook Review" course during their undergraduate education, regarding
the use of textbooks in their professional life. Therefore, it is important to determine the approaches of
pre-service teachers who have positive ideas about using the mathematics textbook in their undergraduate
education and the reasons for these approaches in the process after starting the profession. This research
was designed with a developmental perspective from qualitative research approaches and was conducted
with two different study groups in Turkey. The first study group consists of 162 primary school mathematics
pre-service teachers. The second group consists of 43 primary school mathematics teachers who worked
for at least two years in their professional life. As a result of the research, more than half of the pre-
service teachers (n=132) stated that they would use textbooks as a basic resource in the in-class teaching
process. Pre-service teachers' reasons for using the course book in the classroom teaching process were
grouped under four categories: "it is a guide for teaching, homework, affordability, and opportunity for
repetition". When the data obtained from the mathematics teachers were examined, it was determined
that most of the teachers did not use the textbook as the main source in the classroom teaching process.
When the obtained data are examined holistically, it is concluded that even though the rate of pre-service
teachers thinking of using the textbook is high, this rate will decrease in professional life.
Keywords: Pre-service teachers, mathematics teacher, mathematics textbook, developmental
perspective
Introduction
The use of materials is encouraged, especially in primary education, in order to enable

students to better understand the concepts in mathematics and to increase their participation
in the lesson (Kutluca & Akın, 2014). Among these materials, textbooks with a usage rate of
approximately 90% in mathematics lessons (Weiss, 1987) are concrete materials that direct
teachers and students about what to do in the lesson. In this context, textbooks are the key
point of the mathematics course, as they shape the teaching of mathematics (Nicol & Crespo,
2006; Son, 2008). The textbook is accepted as a useful and economical tool in education, as it
provides the students with integrated information about the units and subjects in the curriculum,
provides them with the opportunity to repeat, reinforce, prepare for the exam and study at their
own pace (Başer, 2012). In addition, textbooks are teaching tools that have an important place
in all types of school systems, as they serve as a bridge between the teacher and the student
(Altun et al., 2004).
The literature shows that textbooks significantly affect the content of mathematics
lessons (Başer, 2012), shape teachers’ ideas about mathematics, mathematics curriculum

Nurullah YAZICI. Investigation of use cases of mathematics textbooks in the teaching process from a developmental perspective
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and mathematics teaching (Chavez-Lopez, 2003), and have a significant effect on students’ 881
mathematics learning status and mathematics achievement (Stylianides, 2009; Tarr et al., 2006;
Van den Ham & Heinze, 2018). The use of the textbook as an effective material in teaching
mathematics encouraged researchers to work and many studies were conducted on the textbook.
When the studies on the mathematics textbook are examined, it is seen that the studies are
generally shaped as follows:
- On the purpose and frequency of the use of textbooks (Altun et al., 2004; Başer, 2012;
Freeman & Porter, 1989; Stodolsky, 1989; Zhu & Fan, 2002);
- Evaluation of textbooks according to their features such as visual design, content,
stylistic, language and expression (Dane et al., 2004; Nicol & Crespo, 2006);
- Examining its suitability according to curricula or teaching strategies (Arslan &
Özpınar, 2009; Johansson, 2006; Santos et al., 2006);
- Comparative analysis of content, activities, practices, problems and exercises on the
basis of countries (Aydın, 2010; Çelik & Cinemre, 2012; Fan, & Zhu, 2007; Haggarty, & Pepin,
2002; Ildırı, 2009; Tutak & Güder, 2012);
- Classification of the questions it contains according to mental development principles,
cognitive levels, and mathematical proficiency levels (Katipoğlu & Katipoğlu, 2016; Lepik et
al, 2015; Özcan & Erduran, 2018)
Studies on the use and frequency of textbooks have shown that teachers have different
tendencies to use textbooks (Chavez-Lopez, 2003; El-Saleh, 2011; Freeman & Porter, 1989;
Kauffman, 2002; Zhu, & Fan, 2002). Teachers’ use of the textbook in the classroom teaching
process seemed to be influenced by their mathematics content knowledge, grade level and
pedagogical experience in teaching, as well as the number and variety of questions in the
textbooks (Lepik et al., 2015; Mcnaught, 2009). It has been observed that these research studies
are carried out only based on the opinions of teachers in a certain year of service. On the other
hand, when we consider teachers’ attitudes towards the use of mathematics textbooks as a
process, it is important to evaluate this process from primary school years to university years.
Because, in some studies conducted with teachers and students, it is revealed that teachers’
active involvement of the textbook in the teaching process contributes positively to the level of
students’ use of the textbook.
It is thought that a study to determine the behaviors of primary school mathematics
pre-service teachers who successfully completed the "Mathematics Textbook Review" course
during their undergraduate education, regarding the use of textbooks in the classroom teaching
process in their professional life, will contribute to the literature. Therefore, it is important
to determine the approaches of pre-service teachers who have positive ideas about using the
mathematics textbook in their undergraduate education and the reasons for these approaches
in the process after starting the profession. In addition, determining the suggestions of those
who do not actively use the textbook in the teaching process among the pre-service teachers
who have officially started the teaching process is one of the problem situations of the research.
In addition, from the perspective of experienced mathematics teachers, determining positive/
negative suggestions for the textbook is one of the aims of this research. For this purpose,
answers to the following questions were sought:
1. How do primary school mathematics pre-service teachers’ use of the textbook and
their approach to the textbook change after they start the teaching profession?
2. What are the suggestions of mathematics teachers regarding the content and usage of
secondary school mathematics textbooks?

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882 Research Methodology
Research Model
This research was designed with a developmental perspective from qualitative research
approaches. Developmental research focuses on behavior. In other words, it is done in order to
examine the changes and developments in the behavior of individuals over time (Hartmann et
al., 2011). Developmental research studies are conducted under four headings: cross-sectional
study, longitudinal study, cross-cultural study and Co-twin study (Van Herwegen, & Riby,
2014). Since this research was conducted with different samples in the same time period, it was
designed in the cross-sectional model, which is one of the developmental research types. In
cross-sectional studies, a wide range of data can be reached in a short time, and historical and
future data can be obtained (Cohen et al., 2007).
Study Group
This research was conducted with two different study groups in the Central Anatolian
Region of Turkey. The first study group consists of 162 primary school mathematics pre-service
teachers. The demographic characteristics of this group are as follows: To have successfully
completed the “Mathematics Textbook Review” course conducted in the spring and fall semesters
of a university in the Central Anatolian Region between 2017-2021. In the determination of
this group, the criterion sampling method, one of the purposive sampling methods, was used.
In criterion sampling, it is essential that the sample be composed of people, events, objects
or situations with the qualities determined in relation to the problem (Emmel, 2013). Here,
being a primary school mathematics pre-service teacher who has successfully completed the
"Mathematics Textbook Review" course is taken as a criterion. Although the research data
obtained from this group were collected in different time periods, it was assumed that it did
not affect the design of the research since it was collected from different samples related to a
single situation. Because studies examining different samples in different time periods are also
considered as cross-sectional studies (Cohen et al., 2007).
The second group consists of 43 primary school mathematics teachers who worked for at
least two years in their professional life and used the mathematics textbook for at least one year
until the 2020-2021 academic year. In the creation of this study group, the criterion sampling
method was adopted. As a criterion, it was required to have worked in the profession for two
years and to have used any grade level mathematics textbook for at least one year.
Among the participants of the study, primary school mathematics pre-service teachers
were coded as “TC1, TC2, …, TC162”, and primary school mathematics teachers were coded
as “T1, T2, …, T43”. Because in this way, it is aimed to give citations more easily and to
comply with ethical rules. Within the scope of the research, the classified data regarding the
professional seniority of primary school mathematics teachers are given in Table 1.
Table 1
Data on Primary School Mathematics Teachers
Professional Seniority Percent (%) Frequency (f)

2-6 years 32 14
7-11 years 40 17
12 years and above 28 12
Total 100 43

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Data Collection Tools 883
Semi-structured interview forms were used to collect the research data. In the data
collection phase, interviews are used to collect data when it is not possible to collect data
about the research with other data collection techniques (Wellington, 2000). For this purpose,
two separate interview forms were prepared for primary school mathematics pre-service
teachers and primary school mathematics teachers. In the interview form prepared for pre-
service teachers, they were asked to respond to the following statement with their reasons.
“As a pre-service teacher, when I officially started my teaching job, I think/I do not think to
use mathematics textbooks as the main resource in the in-class teaching process. Because…".
Again, the pre-service teachers were also asked to what extent they encountered any textbook
during the classroom learning process in their K-12 period student life.
Within the scope of the research, a textbook usage status interview form was applied to
primary school mathematics teachers. Teachers were expected to explain the questions in the
interview form along with their reasons. The following questions were asked to the teachers
through the interview form:
1. I use/do not use mathematics textbooks as a basic resource in classroom teaching. Why
is that?
2. Have you ever used the textbook in your previous teaching years? How long did you
use it? Why is that?
3. What are your expectations from the secondary school mathematics textbook? Please
explain.
Both interview forms were prepared by using the research studies in the literature with
the help of document analysis technique in line with the purpose of the research. In order to
check whether the research was prepared in line with its purpose, the opinions of three experts
in the field of mathematics education were consulted. After having obtained approval from
the expert opinions, the data collection phase was started. The process of collecting data from
primary school mathematics pre-service teachers was completed in four years. At the stage
when the data collection process from pre-service teachers was completed, data were started
to be collected from primary school mathematics teachers. Data were collected from primary
school mathematics teachers over a three-week period.
Data Analysis
Miles and Huberman (1994) stated that qualitative data analysis consists of three stages:
data reduction, display, and conclusion. In qualitative data analysis, two types of analysis,
descriptive and content analysis, can be made, although there are no systematic ways to agree
on (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). In the analysis of this research data, content analysis and
descriptive analysis techniques were used in order to bring together the obtained data in groups
and present them to the reader in an understandable way in tables. According to Patton (2002),
content analysis can be carried out in two ways as deduction and induction. Deductive analysis
includes the organization of data according to existing theory, while inductive analysis includes
the process of forming theoretical categories from recurring ideas, behaviors, and emerging
themes. In this study, inductive analysis was used in the analysis of the data obtained from both
interview forms. In the research, firstly, it was determined under which themes the answers
written by the participants to the questions in the interview forms should be presented. In this
direction, the collected data were examined in depth and themes and codes were determined
in line with the purpose of the research. In the next step, the answers were placed according to
the determined themes, then the findings were defined and finally the findings were interpreted.
Instead of giving all the citations for all the participants of the research, citations were used to
reveal the studied situation.

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884 In order to understand the findings more easily and concisely, the data were classified, and
the research data were presented in percentage and frequency tables. In addition, the data were
compared using a timetable in order to examine the development more easily in the research.
Percentage and frequency techniques, which are descriptive analysis techniques, were used in
the presentation of the tables.
Validity and Reliability
Guba and Lincoln (1982) discussed the quality criteria for qualitative research in
education in four categories: credibility (validity), dependability (reliability), confirmability
and transferability. In this research, more than one data collection technique was used by
diversifying with document analysis, interviews and direct quotations to ensure credibility. In
addition, the fact that the researcher actively conducts the "Mathematics Textbook Review"
course and meets the participant pre-service teachers and teachers, although the time changes,
will also increase the credibility in the interpretation and interpretation of the collected data. It is
also thought that these situations will decrease the Hawthorne effect and increase the credibility
(Sedgwick & Greenwood, 2015; Smith, & Coombs, 2003).
Dependability is about whether the researcher conducts the research process appropriately
and carefully. Therefore, the research method should be consistent with the researchers and the
data collection techniques used in the research process over time (Miles & Huberman, 1994;
Robson, 1993). In this research, diversification was tried to be made and the steps followed in
the research process, participants, context and method were tried to be defined clearly. Giving
detailed information about the basic stages of the research and the position and approach of
the researcher is one of the measures that will increase the dependability in qualitative studies
(Guba, & Lincoln, 1982).
In order to ensure confirmability, data collection methods and processes and data
analysis were clearly defined, and enough raw data were presented to the reader by making
direct quotations to support the findings. In addition, information was given about data
collection tools and development processes. The direct goal of qualitative research is not
generalizability. However, in this study, the number of participants was kept high, allowing a
natural generalization process.
Ethical principles oversight has been adopted throughout the current research. Before
starting the research, the participants were promised that their names would not be revealed
anywhere (Cohen et al., 2007), that they would not be harmed in any way, and that their privacy
and shared secrets would be protected (Drew et al., 1996). And these points were complied
with throughout the research. The principles of scientific research and publication ethics were
followed in the process of establishing the theoretical framework of the study, collecting data,
analyzing, and interpreting the data. References to other publications in the study were made in
accordance with scientific rules.

Research Results
Within the scope of the first problem of the research, firstly, the data obtained about
the pre-service teachers are included. When examined the approaches of primary school
mathematics pre-service teachers to the point of using textbooks, more than half of the pre-
service teachers (n=132; 81%) stated that they will use textbooks as a basic resource in the
in-class teaching process. However, some of the pre-service teachers (n=19; 12%) stated that
they were not sure about using/not using it, while the rest (n=11; 7%) stated that they did not
intend to use it. Table 2 contains statistical information about the data obtained from pre-service
teachers.

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Table 2 885
Information on Pre-service Teachers' Use of Textbooks
Using the Textbook Percent (%) Frequency (f)
I am considering using it. 81 132
I am not considering using it. 7 11
I am not sure. 12 19
Total 100 162
Based on the findings in Table 2, it is seen that pre-service teachers' attitudes towards
using textbooks throughout their undergraduate education are generally positive. Pre-service
teachers' reasons for using the textbook in the classroom teaching process were concentrated
in four categories. These categories are as follows: "to be a guide for teaching, to be able to do
homework, to be economical, to provide opportunity for repetition". As a matter of fact, similar
results will be seen when the statements of pre-service teachers are examined. Some of the
quotes from the pre-service teachers are given below:
TC2: As a pre-service teacher, I intend to use mathematics textbooks in the classroom teaching
process when I started teaching and throughout my teaching life. Because textbooks guide
us. In other words, it is a helpful resource on how we will advance the course, what we will
talk about and what kind of examples we should give.
TC5: I'm considering using it. Because the textbook allows me to prepare for the lesson in the first
years of my profession. In addition, I think the information in its content is reliable. I plan to
use it again by supporting it with additional resources in the following years.
TC9: I plan to use it when I start teaching. Because I believe that textbooks will guide me in order
to explain the subjects in order, which method and technique to use, and to find examples. In
addition, I think that I will use it in the following years of my teaching, since it is economical
and accessible materials.
When the quotations above are examined, it can be said that although no such distinction
was made by the researcher in the interview form, the pre-service teachers divided the way
they used the textbook into processes as the first years of teaching and the following years. In
the first years of teaching, it is seen that there is a tendency to refer to the textbook in order to
explain the subjects in order, to find examples and to help in the context of pedagogical content
knowledge. In the later years of the teaching profession, it is seen that there is a tendency
towards the textbook, based on the fact that it is economical and accessible materials or the
necessity of benefiting from additional resources.
Table 3
Opinions of Pre-service Teachers about Using Only Textbooks in the Teaching Process
Using Only the Textbook Percent (%) Frequency (f)

It is sufficient to use only the textbook. 65 86
It is not sufficient to use only the textbook. 35 46
Total 100 132

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886 When Table 3 is examined, some of the pre-service teachers who stated that they would
use the textbook in the teaching process (n=46; 35%) stated that they did not want to stick to
the textbook alone. As the reason for this situation, pre-service teachers stated that there are
incorrect and incomplete definitions and notations in the textbooks, some subjects are very
superficial, and the variety and number of questions is insufficient. The same reasons were also
encountered in the pre-service teachers who did not want to use the textbook during the in-class
teaching process. Some of the quotes from the pre-service teachers are given below:
TC16: Textbooks will provide convenience in my teaching life. For this reason, I will use it.
However, in the later stages of teaching, supplementary books can be used alongside
textbooks by making use of additional resources.
TC22: I intend to use the textbooks actively. However, I think that it should be supported with
supplementary source books in order to increase the variety of questions.
TC27: Even though the textbook is a guide in many points, together with the central exams, it is
not enough. I find it insufficient in terms of the number and variety of examples and types
of activities.
TC31: I intend to use it. However, I think that it would be more efficient to not only stick to the
textbook, but also to support it with auxiliary resources. This is how I can improve my
question variety, activity types, methods and techniques.
TC45: I will use textbooks throughout my teaching, but I think I can enrich my teaching with
helpful resources. For this reason, I will use the supplementary resources and the textbook
together.
It is also seen in the quotations above that the reasons of pre-service teachers who
consider using the textbook in the teaching process but do not find it sufficient or do not intend
to use it at all are similar to each other.
Within the scope of the first problem of the research, when examined the data obtained on
primary school mathematics teachers, Table 4 shows first the use of the textbook by mathematics
teachers throughout the teaching profession.
Table 4
Data on the Duration of Primary School Mathematics Teachers Using the Textbook
throughout the Teaching Profession
Periods of Using the Textbook Percent (%) Frequency (f)
I've never used. 16 7
I used one semester. 12 5
I used it for 1 year. 44 19
I used it for 2 years. 16 7
I used it for 5 years. 12 5
Total 100 43
When the data in Table 4 are examined, it is seen that primary school mathematics
teachers use the textbook for a part of their professional life very little or not at all. In addition,
based on the data of the interviews with the teachers, it was determined that the textbooks were
widely used especially in the first years of the profession to follow the subject, to find examples
and to get pedagogical help in the context of determining methods and techniques. However,
in the following years, it was observed that textbooks were not used in the teaching process.

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When the reasons for this situation were examined, it was seen that the mathematics teachers 887
stated that the variety and number of examples was insufficient, the new generation questions
were very few compared to the central exams, and the textbooks were not compatible with the
smart board. Below are quotations regarding the reasons why mathematics teachers do not use
the textbook:
T2: I used it only in the first year of my professional life. It was useful in terms of subject tracking
and practicality of giving examples. I didn't use it later. (He has 7 years of professional
seniority.)
T5: Since the number of questions is few and there is no diversity, I only used it in the first two
years of my professional life. I didn't use it afterwards. (He has 13 years of professional
seniority.)
T9: I remember using it for almost five years. It was especially effective in giving homework.
However, the changing exam systems started to be insufficient due to the new generation
questions. I am not currently using it. (She has 9 years of professional seniority.)
T24: When I started my profession, I used it for a period of time. After that I stopped using it.
Because central exams have pressure on students. In this edition, he directed me to resources
containing a variety of questions and current questions. (She has 4 years of professional
seniority.)
T32: I can say that I have never used textbooks. I think additional resources include richer
question types. (He has 3 years of professional seniority.)
When the above quotations are examined, it is seen that the reasons for using the
course book by the pre-service teachers are not valid reasons for using the course book by the
mathematics teachers. Therefore, it can be said that the practices of pre-service teachers who
intend to use the textbook in their professional life and mathematics teachers are in contrast.
Because the reasons given by the pre-service teachers for using the textbook were not found in
the statements of the mathematics teachers continuing their profession.
Table 5 is included in the research in order to examine the data obtained from pre-
service teachers and primary mathematics teachers more easily and to present the development
regarding the use of textbooks in a general approach. When Table 5 is examined, it is seen
that the use of textbooks is according to certain seniority of teaching starting from the pre-
service teacher stage. According to Table 5, it can be said that there is a tendency not to use the
textbook in the classroom teaching process as the professional seniority of teaching increases. It
is observed that the data in Table 5 have similarities with the quotations obtained from primary
mathematics teachers and pre-service teachers in terms of the approach to using the textbook.

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888 Table 5
Development of Pre-service Teachers and Primary School Mathematics Teachers' Use of
Textbooks Over Time
1-year 2 years 5 years 6-10 years 11 and above

Pre-service
professional professional professional professional professional
teacher
seniority seniority seniority seniority seniority
(%) (f) (%) (f) (%) (f) (%) (f) (%) (f) (%) (f)
I am
considering
82 132 81 9 64 7 42 5 17 1 0 0
using it. /
I use.
I am not
considering
using it./ 6 11 19 2 36 4 58 7 83 5 100 3
I did not
use it.
I am not sure. 12 19 - - - - - - - - - -
Total 100 162 100 11 100 11 100 12 100 6 100 3
When Table 5 is examined, it is seen that the majority of pre-service teachers have a
tendency to use the textbook. On the other hand, although primary mathematics teachers are
prone to use the textbook in the teaching process in the first years of the profession, it can be
said that there is a tendency to move away from the textbooks in the following years. This result
can be interpreted as that as teachers' professional seniority increases, they turn to alternative
resources instead of textbooks or they shape the teaching process in the context of their own
competencies. As a matter of fact, the quotations regarding the reasons why mathematics
teachers do not use the textbook confirm this situation.
In line with the second problem of the research, it was aimed to reveal the expectations
of primary school mathematics teachers regarding the content and usage situations of
mathematics textbooks. In this context, when the findings were examined, it was observed that
all primary school mathematics teachers had expectations that the variety of questions should
be increased. In addition, it has been determined that teachers have basic expectations in the
form of workbooks containing new generation question types suitable for central exams and
resource books containing rich teaching methods and techniques suitable for smart boards.
Expressions similar or close to this finding were also observed in the expressions of pre-service
teachers. Below are quotes about the expectations of primary mathematics teachers from the
mathematics textbook:
T21: The variety of questions should definitely be increased. In addition, the number of questions
from exercises and problems should be increased.
T22: The number of questions should be increased. Each topic should have at least 200 questions.
Or additional question books should be prepared. Current question types should be included.
T27: It should be made suitable for smart boards. In other words, while students are following the
book during the lesson, teachers should be able to open the content on the smart board and
write something on it.
T31: There must be workbooks next to the course book. Otherwise, the textbook alone is not
enough. Especially in terms of the number and variety of questions.
When we examine the above statements, it is seen that it is important to revise the
secondary school mathematics textbooks in line with the expectations of primary school

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mathematics teachers and pre-service teachers and make their content more qualified and 889
useful. Again, it can be said in the context of the above quotations that the reasons for the
teachers who do not use the mathematics textbook and the expectations of the teachers from the
textbooks are parallel to each other.
Discussion
As a result of the research, it was observed that pre-service teachers were more inclined to
the idea of using the textbook in the classroom teaching process. On the other hand, it has been
observed that mathematics teachers who continue their profession are generally not inclined
to use the textbook in the teaching process. This finding differs from the result of the study by
Weiss (1987). Weiss (1987) stated that the rate of use of textbooks in the teaching process is
approximately 90%. The reason for this difference can be explained as the fact that mathematics
teachers choose reality, taking into account the goals and expectations of students, as a result
of staying between ideality and reality. In other words, it can be said that pre-service teachers
emphasize ideality more as a result of their desire to experience textbooks, since they are not
yet in the profession. In addition, the fact that mathematics teachers wanted to include different
teaching materials and source books in the in-class teaching process may have brought about
this result. As a matter of fact, in the studies conducted, it has been determined that textbooks
are generally an important source for teachers, but they are not seen as the only source, so
different sources should be included (Fan et al., 2004; Zhu & Fan 2002). In addition to this
result, the fact that mathematics textbooks do not adequately meet the expectations of teachers
is thought to be an important factor in teachers' not preferring the textbook in the classroom
teaching process. Because there are many statements in the research findings that mathematics
teachers need to develop secondary school mathematics textbooks. Among these expressions,
in the context of content, it is thought that the diversity and low number of questions that take
into account individual developments in the textbooks stand out as the situations that need to be
improved in terms of mathematics textbooks. Similar results have been found in many studies
in the literature (Kocaoğlu Er, 2016; Mutu, 2008; Turan, 2019). In addition to the variety of
questions, the expectations of mathematics teachers from the secondary school mathematics
textbook can be expressed as follows:
- It should be the primary source to be consulted and studied in preparation for the exams,
- The number and variety of questions in the new generation question style should be
increased,
- It should be made suitable for smart boards and technological developments,
- There should be workbooks as additional resources for students and guidebooks for
teachers.
When we evaluate the results above, it can be interpreted that the suppressive feature
of the central exams as well as the fact that the textbooks are not suitable for technological
equipment adversely affect the use of the textbook. As a matter of fact, in the studies conducted,
it has been observed that teachers generally exhibit a negative attitude towards the thought
that mathematics textbooks encourage the use of technology and help teachers in creating an
efficient learning-teaching environment (Katipoğlu & Katipoğlu, 2016; Turan, 2019).
When the data obtained from primary school mathematics pre-service teachers are
examined in the research, it is seen that the rate of thinking of using the textbook in the
classroom teaching process is high. On the other hand, this rate is very low for mathematics
teachers. When we examine the data of both groups together, it can be said that the rate of pre-
service teachers using the textbook will decrease in the process after starting the profession,
that is, there will be a change in the tendency not to use the textbook in the teaching process.
Because, it has been observed that mathematics teachers actively use the textbook in the

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890 classroom teaching process in the first years of their profession. On the other hand, it was
determined that mathematics teachers turned to supplementary source books after the second
and third years of the profession. Therefore, these findings also confirm this result. In some of
the studies revealing the use of the textbook in the teaching process of mathematics teachers, it
was observed that the teachers used the textbook effectively (Chavez-Lopez, 2003; Son, 2008),
while in some studies it was observed that the teachers did not use the textbook effectively (Işık,
2008; Santos et al., 2006). In some studies, it has been observed that teachers are not completely
dependent on the textbook and use the textbooks when they deem it necessary for the lesson
(Altun et al., 2004; Sosniak & Stodolsky, 1993).
In this study, it was revealed that pre-service teachers had a positive attitude towards
using the textbook in the teaching process throughout their undergraduate education. When we
examine the mathematics teachers, it was observed that while they approached the textbook
positively in the first years of the profession, they tended to move away from the textbook as
the professional seniority increased. Therefore, this study revealed that pre-service teachers
are more inclined to the idea of using textbooks in the classroom teaching process compared
to teachers. This situation can be interpreted as pre-service teachers will move away from the
textbook after starting their profession. The data obtained from the teachers also confirm this
result. When we examined these data, mathematics teachers stated that the number and variety
of questions in the textbooks were low. They also revealed that it should be prepared in source
books in addition to textbooks. Therefore, teachers' opinions can be consulted frequently in
order to prepare a more qualified and efficient textbook. In addition, in future studies, the
reasons for teachers who continue their profession to move away from the textbook can be
examined in detail.
The existence of central exams is another problem for teachers to move away from the
textbook. It is a situation desired by both society and family for students preparing for central
exams to be familiar with different types of questions by solving more questions. In this case,
teachers will both take into account the goals and expectations of the students and will want to
use the textbook in the teaching process. This result creates a dilemma for teachers. In this study,
it was revealed that teachers moved away from the textbook and turned to additional resources.
Within the scope of these results, it is thought that it is a necessity to prepare auxiliary resources
in preparation for central exams in addition to textbooks.
In this study, it was also revealed that the content of the textbooks is insufficient in terms
of technology-based activity. It is obvious that this situation will cause teachers to not benefit
from the textbook sufficiently. For this reason, while preparing the content of mathematics
textbooks, it may be preferred that they encourage mathematics teachers to use more technology
and guide their teaching activities.
Limitations
Since this study is developmental research, it is limited to primary school mathematics

pre-service teachers and primary school mathematics teachers in a city in the Central Anatolian
Region of Turkey. In addition, the fact that the study focused only on the use of the mathematics
textbook in the classroom teaching process is another limitation. In this context, it can be said
that there is a need for more research on the use of textbooks in the national and international
context.


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Received: October 07, 2021 Accepted: November 29, 2021
Cite as: Yazici, N. (2021). Investigation of use cases of mathematics textbooks in the teaching
process from a developmental perspective. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 79(6),
880-893. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.880
Nurullah Yazici PhD, Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics and Science Education,
Faculty of Education, Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University, İbrahim Öktem Cd.,
70100 Karaman, Turkey.
E-mail address: yazicinurullah@gmail.com

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894
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’
INTEREST IN PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY
AND BIOLOGY CONCEPTS FROM
DEVELOPMENTAL VIEW
Sevil Kurt
Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Turkey
E-mail: sevilkurt@erdogan.edu.tr
Abstract
In secondary school, where students begin to be more interested in physics, chemistry and biology, it is an
important issue how their interests are in terms of all three subject areas according to grade levels. The
aim of this study was to examine and evaluate the interest of secondary school students in the concepts
of physics, chemistry and biology taught in science classes by grade level. The participants included 251
students enrolled in 16 different classrooms in the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th grades in a boarding secondary
school located in the Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey. The study was carried out as a developmental
study in single screening model. For compliance with the research pattern, study data were collected
with a questionnaire consisting of four open-ended questions, and the questionnaire was given to the
students in order to find out their thoughts on the matter under consideration. In addition, the students
were asked to draw a picture depicting the place and importance of science in their life and to explain
their drawings briefly in writing. The data obtained from the open-ended questionnaire and drawings
were analyzed through content analysis. The collected data were classified in categories and themes, and
matrices were generated accordingly. In addition, frequency and percentage analysis was performed.
As a result, science was found to be mostly associated with concepts regarding biology discipline by the
students. Also, overall interest level was found to be higher with physics and biology topics at all grade
levels studied here.
Keywords: content analysis, science interest, science subjects, secondary school students

Introduction
One of the most important problems encountered in science teaching is that students
have difficulty in understanding science concepts. Learning science is not always an easy task
for students (Ayas & Çalık, 2010; Gilbert & Watts, 1983; Nakhleh, 1992; Papageorgiou et
al., 2016; Taber, 2003). For students, trying to understand scientific concepts sometimes feel
like finding one’s way through a dark forest. Many of science concepts are abstract, complex
and interconnected which cannot be directly observed or felt by students. Therefore, students
sometimes get off the track towards unscientific ways in learning science. Numerous studies in
the literature that examine students' conceptual understanding and misconceptions have clearly
proved this (Ayas & Çalık, 2010; Papageorgiou et al., 2016; Pikoli, 2020; Tümay, 2016).
Science basically refers to the whole of concepts related to physics, chemistry and
biology. Previous studies investigating conceptual understanding, interests, attitudes and skills
in all three fields hint at reasons for students' incompetence in science as a whole. The leading
reasons can be listed as students’ finding some concepts too abstract, complex and difficult
to understand, students’ inability to associate the content taught at school with real life, the
concepts’ being unappealing, teachers’ deficiency in some cases, students’ negative attitudes

Sevil KURT. Secondary school students’ interest in physics, chemistry and biology concepts from developmental view
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towards science areas, deficient teaching materials, inefficacious teaching environment, and 895
students' misshapen daily life experiences. The most outstanding one is the fact that learning
some science concepts is not appealing and popular enough for students (Holbrook, 2003;
Holbrook, 2005; Cooper et al., 2013; Quílez,2019). In other words, students are not interested
in learning science.
In reality, interest is one of the important factors affecting and guiding learning processes.
(Harackiewicz et al., 2016; Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Renninger & Hidi, 2016). The importance
of interest in the context of education was also emphasized by remarkable scientists centuries
ago and attempts have been made to explain its relation with learning up to now (Hidi &
Renninger, 2006; Hoffmann et al., 1998; Krapp & Prenzel, 2011; Tamir & Gardner, 1989).
Besides, interest is a multidimensional concept linked to concepts such as motivation and
attitude (Astalini et al., 2019; Bolte et al., 2013; Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Jenkins & Nelson,
2005; Krapp & Prenzel, 2011).
Interest can be short-term (situational) or long-term, yet it qualifies as a driving force
for learning in both cases. Although it is often used in conjunction with the term motivation,
it is a distinct structure. Despite this, reference is made to individual attention for defining the
process of intrinsic motivation (Bolte et al., 2013). In explaining the importance of interest
in learning processes, many researchers have also mentioned the concept of relevance since
students’ finding science education irrelevant to their own life has been indicated as one of the
chief obstacles to show interest in learning science. For instance, Stuckey et al. (2013) have
studied the importance of relevance in science teaching and learning stating that relevance is
one of the key terms related to reforms in science teaching. In presence of this notion, students
can learn more easily the subjects and concepts that are interesting and relevant to them while
having difficulty learning the subjects they are not interested in (Boullion & Gomez, 2001;
Jenkins & Nelson, 2005). In addition to this, it can be said that the interest in participating in
a learning activity is shaped around individual interests, needs and values. For this reason, the
concept of interest in learning processes is a phenomenon that needs thinking and defining
multidimensionally in a wide perspective (Stuckey et al., 2013).
Researchers have looked at what subjects or topics students are most interested in, and
they have concluded that students are generally interested in learning subjects related to their
real life and they value these concepts more (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2007; Tsaparlis, 2003;
Wu, 2003). As a noticeable result, so far research has shown that learning some science concepts
is not valuable enough for students. From students’ point of view, topics which have nothing
to do with their daily life are labeled irrelevant and they are used only in solution of certain
academic problems at school (Ben-Zvi & Gai, 1994; Jenkins & Nelson, 2005; Ng & Nguyen,
2006; Songer & Linn, 1991; Treagust, et al., 2000).
Songer and Linn (1991), in their study examining secondary school students' perspectives
on science, have found out that some of the students characterize science as being dynamic,
"understandable" namely, "interpretative" and linked to daily life, while some others find
science static, that is, reliant on intense memorization and disconnected from daily life. Jones
and Miller (2001), in a two-year lasting chemistry course discussing applications and reflections
of chemistry in everyday life, have observed a change in the students’ interest and attitudes in
a positive way by the end of their study. Dede Er et al. (2013) have examined primary school
students’ level of associating their scientific process skills and knowledge on electricity with
daily life and the relationship between them. It has been demonstrated that students fail to fully
link knowledge of electricity with daily life. Ürey and Özsevgeç (2015), in their study with
pre-service primary school teachers, have revealed a significant positive relationship between
the participants’ science literacy and attitudes towards science and their ability of correlating
these with everyday life. They have also found that students base the explanation of some
concepts of biology and chemistry on their simple everyday experiences, while they cannot

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896 readily discover everyday life equivalences of concepts learnt in the classroom or they cannot
use such concepts in true contexts. In another study, Akgün et al. (2015) have examined the
extent at which secondary school students can transfer biology concepts learnt at school to
their daily life by asking the students to exemplify the learnt subjects from their everyday life.
They have been proved to be at a low level of associating the subjects with daily life. What is
more, the students have been able to give examples from the course book only. The students
have been found to be unaware of the sample cases and situations in their surroundings beyond
their course book. In a similar study on eighth grade students, Emrahoğlu and Mengi (2012)
have noted quite low levels of full transfer among students in the context of force and motion
as topics of science. From the previous research, it can be concluded that classroom learning
is meaningful and valuable to the extent that it can be linked to learners’ life (Jones & Miller,
2001; Karagölge & Ceyhun, 2002; Nieswandt, 2001; Seçken, et al., 1998).
According to researchers, there has been a worrying picture of science learning at the
secondary school level in recent years, particularly concerning physics and chemistry lessons
(Stuckey et al., 2013). The teaching of science concepts is initiated at the primary third grade
in Turkey. The basic subjects that make up science are taught in secondary school, more
specifically within the scope of physics, chemistry and biology (MEB, 2018). For this reason, it
can shed light onto developing science teaching curriculum to expose what science concepts are
appealing to secondary school students, what science concepts such students are more eager to
learn, what science concepts they find connected with their everyday life, and why they need to
learn science, and to examine the changes in these answers by grade level. In the studies aimed
at determining the interests of the students, it is seen that either physics, chemistry and biology
are focused on a single subject area, or the interest of the students are determined with the help
of some scales. Also, studies comparing students' interests in all three subject areas together and
examining them according to grade levels are not sufficient (Lamb et al., 2012; Hasni & Potvin,
2015). In this context, the main problem of this study is the question of how the secondary
school students are interested in physics, chemistry and biology according to their grade levels.
And in the study, it is aimed to examine and evaluate the interest of secondary school students
in the concepts of physics, chemistry and biology taught in science classes by grade level.
General Background
The study was carried out with single screening model as it was targeted at describing
an existing situation without intervention. It is also a developmental study due to the inclusion
of the secondary school 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th grade students as specified by the sectioning
approach (Karasar, 2008). The research data were collected in the 2018-1019 academic year
and took two weeks.
Sample
This study was implemented with 147 males and 104 female total 251 students enrolled
in a boarding secondary school (grades 5 to 8) located in a district of Eastern Black Sea Region.
All 16 classes in the school participated in the study. The total number of students according to
their grade levels is given in Table 1.


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Table 1 897
The Total Number of Students according to Grade Levels
Grade levels 5 6 7 8 Total
Numbers of students 69 57 68 57 251
Instrument and Procedures
Taking into account the research problem, research model, and developmental
characteristics of the sample all together, a form consisting of open-ended questions and student
drawings were used to collect data in the study. There were four questions in the open-ended
form. The questions in the form are: “what concepts or topics come to your mind first when
you think of science”, “which science subjects are you most curious about and which subjects
would you like to learn”, “please list the science topics they are most curious about and want
to learn the most”, “which science topics or concepts do you think are most relevant to your
daily life” and “why do you think we should learn science, please explain.” The questions were
reviewed and revised by two science education researchers and one science teacher. In order to
collect more detailed data on the research problem, the students were told to depict "the place
and importance of science in our life" by drawing pictures besides filling out the form. Lastly,
they were required to explain briefly in writing what they wanted to convey in their drawings.
Data Analysis

The data collected with the open-ended questionnaire and drawings were analyzed by
using content analysis. The basic process in this type of analysis is to gather similar data around
certain codes and themes and then to interpret them by making available for the reader to
understand (Çepni, 2012; Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008). During the content analysis, all responses
to the open-ended questions were examined and lists of codes were created accordingly.
Then, the codes were categorized on the ground of similarities in order to allow explaining
the resulting codes. The categories formed were classified under certain themes. The coding
process was done separately by the researcher and a science teacher, and the percentage of
agreement between the coders was found to be 0,93. Likewise, the students’ drawings were
checked together with their explanations to elicit the codes. Next, the categories and themes
were drawn out to explain the codes. Drawings of 4 students were omitted before the analysis
because they were not meaningful and accompanied by no applicable explanation. Percentage
and frequency analyses were performed on the themes and categories emerging from both
sources of data, and the findings were tabulated. The codes were not included in the tables since
the lists of codes were too exhaustive to jeopardize comprehensibility of the tables. The tables
were kept simple with the themes and categories only. In the coding process for the drawings,
the percentage of agreement between coders was found to be 0,96.
Research Results
Results from the Open-Ended Questionnaire
In this study, the students were interrogated to find out the topics and concepts most
frequently evoked by science in their mind. For this purpose, they were asked that what concepts
or topics come to their mind first when they think of science? The findings obtained from the
analysis of their responses are presented in Table 2.

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898 Table 2
Science Topics that Are Primarily Remembered by Students
5th grade 6th grade 7th grade 8th grade All All
Category
Theme Fre- Fre- Fre- Frequen- grades grades
% % % % Total Total %
quency quency quency cy
Electricity 17 10 9 7
Force and motion 6 7 2 3
Light and sound 2 3 2 -
PHYSICS
29 17 19
30 24
Total 68
25 20 13 10
States of matter and
4 8 5 3
changes of state
Particulate structure
1 4 8 6
of matter
Heat and temper- 13 26 17 19
6 3 - 1
CHEMISTRY
ature 18
Density - 3 - - 52
Total 11 18 13 10
Living Things
(plants, animals, mi- 12 3 4 7
croscopic creatures)
Harms of alcohol
11 - - -
and smoking
Body systems
(digestive, excretory, 1 13 36 3
respiratory, etc.)
Food and nutrition 7 - 5 -
Our body and
4 45 - 29 - 58 - 55
organs
Human-environment
3 - - -
relationship 47
Matter cycles - - - 13
Reproduction, 132
- 4 - 6
BIOLOGY
growth, development
Total 38 20 45 29
The Earth and the

10 11 6 4 31
OTHER
universe
12 16 7
8
11
Total frequency of mentioned
84 69 77 53 283
concepts
When Table 2 is examined, it is seen that the frequency of scientific concepts expressed
by the secondary school students is 283. These concepts were grouped under categories as of
“physics”, “chemistry”, “biology” and “other”. “Other” was inserted to all tables to cover the
concepts expressed by the students regarding the Earth and the universe.

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The distribution of the responses by subject and grade level shows that biology concepts 899
were mentioned with the highest frequency (45%) by the 5th grade students. These concepts
are mostly related to the world of living things, harms of alcohol and smoking, and food and
nutrition. This category was followed by physics (30%), chemistry (13%) and other (10%),
respectively. Electricity was recalled by the respondents with the highest frequency among all
physics concepts, and the most popular chemistry concepts were heat and temperature.
The 6th grade students referred to concepts about biology (29%) and physics (29%)
with equal weight. Chemistry was the third subject in this scope. The highest frequency appeared
with states of matter and changes of state, and particulate structure of matter among chemistry
concepts. In themes, the total smallest frequency was determined as earth and the universe.
In response to the same question, the findings of the 7th and 8th grade students imply
that they listed biology concepts with top priority (58% and 55%, respectively). Body systems
and matter cycles were the topics that come to the students' minds with the highest frequency.
After biology subjects, the students at both grade levels expressed concepts falling under the
subjects of physics and chemistry with equal frequency. It can be seen in Table 2 that the
frequency values for both types of topics were low.
The last two columns of Table 2 show the findings obtained from the explanations
provided by all participants for this question. When the related columns were examined, it
was noticed that almost half (47%) of the associated concepts consisted of topics and concepts
from biology discipline. They were followed by concepts and topics related to physics (24%),
leaving chemistry (18%) in the third place.
In the open-ended questionnaire, the respondents were asked to list the science topics
they are most curious about and want to learn the most. The findings obtained from their
explanations are given in Table 3.
Table 3
Science Topics that Secondary School Students Wonder and Want to Learn Most
Theme 5th grade 6th grade 7th grade 8th grade All All
Cate- Frequency % Frequen- % Fre- % Fre- % grades grades
gory cy quency quen- Total Total %
cy
39 20 21 40 70 30
PHYSICS
Light and sound 4 - 4 -

Total 26 10 14 20
States of matter and - 3 2

changes of state
Particulate structure 2 2 9 5
of matter
CHEMISTRY
4 10 17 18 28 12
Heat and temper- 1 - - 4
ature
Total 3 5 11 9

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900 Living things 8 5 5 3

(plants, animals, mi-
croscopic creatures)
Body systems (di- - 5 18
gestive, excretory,
respiratory, etc.)
Food and nutrition 6 - - 2
Our body - 6 6 3
21 32 50 28 33
Human-environ- - - 4 -
ment relationship
Matter cycles - - - 2
Reproduction, - - - 4 77
growth, develop-
BIOLOGY
ment
Total 14 16 33 14
The Earth and the 24 19 8 7 58

universe
OTHER
36 38 12 14 25
Total frequency of mentioned 67 50 66 50 233
concepts

According to Table 3, the frequency of the concepts expressed by the respondents totaled
to 233 including all categories. When the distribution of these concepts by topic across grade
levels was examined, it was found that the 5th graders were most curious about physics concepts
(39%) and the Earth and the universe (36%) as a close thing. Among physics topics, electricity
was found to be wondered and sought to be learnt the most. Biology concepts were seen to
be the third leading object of curiosity (21%) among others. On the other end, those students
mentioned concepts in chemistry area as items that they wonder and want to learn the least
(4%).
When it comes to the 6th grade students, it was seen that concepts concerning the Earth
and the universe were in the first place with a rate of 38% representing the concepts and topics
they are the most curious and enthusiastic about. Those concepts were followed by concepts
related to biology (32%) and physics (20%). Contrarily, the least spoken phenomena were about
chemistry (10%). The most common concepts were as follows: our body, body systems, living
things, electricity, lunar eclipse, solar eclipse, states of matter.
As can be seen in Table 3, biological (50%) issues accounted for half of the concepts that
the 7th graders wonder and want to learn the most. The other half was comprised of concepts
falling under physics (21%), chemistry (17%) and other (12%), respectively.
From the 8th grade students’ perspective, physics concepts were at the top of the list
of topics and concepts wondered and desired to be learnt the most (40%). As the second most
interesting area, biology (28%) was implied, and it was followed by chemistry (18%) and other
(14%).
The last two columns of Table 3 represent the explanations offered to the current research
question by all of the study participants. The students mostly pointed out that they wondered
and wanted to learn concepts concerning biology (33%) and physics (30%); conversely, they
implied topics under chemistry (12%) as the least interesting and wondered concepts. They
expressed concepts related to the Earth and the universe at a rate (25%) close to biology and
physics.

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Another question addressed to the participants aimed at listing the concepts they perceive 901
most relevant to their daily life. The results of the analysis of the students’ answers are given
in Table 4.
Table 4
Science Topics that Secondary School Students Find Most Relevant to Their Everyday Life
5th grade 6th grade 7th grade 8th grade All

All
grades
Cate- Theme Fre- Frequen- Fre- Fre- grades
% % % % Total
gory quency cy quency quency Total
%
Pressure 2 - 2
Light and sound 5 4 8 -
48
32 41 7 51 132 43
PHYSICS
Simple machines - - -
Total 26 29 38 39
States of matter and
changes of state 3 18 10 8
Matter and its
- 4 2
structure
Heat and temper-
4 2
ature
Expansion and
6
contraction
Water, oxygen, air 4
Density - 3
Physical and chemi- 21 39 25 17 77 25
- 2
cal change
Dissolution, solution,
- 8 1
CHEMISTRY
mixtures
Acid-base - 2
Total 17 27 20 13

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902
Living things (plants,

animals, microscopic
11 1 5
creatures)
Photosynthesis - - - 9
Body systems
(digestive, excretory, 3
5 9 6
respiratory, etc.)
Food, nutrition 10 - -
2
Our body, organs - - - -
Diseases - - 1
30 9 3 27 26 72 23
Food chain - - -
4
Organ donation - - -
3
BIOLOGY
Total 24 6 22 20
The Earth and the

5
OTHER
universe 14 8 - 27
17 11 6 9
-
Total frequency of mentioned
concepts 81 70 80 77 308
As can be seen in Table 4, the secondary school students associated science topics with
a large number of concepts including electricity, force and motion, states of matter and changes
of state, dissolution, solution and mixtures, living things, body systems, diseases, and organ
donation. When the distribution of the concepts by grade level was examined, it was seen that
the 5th graders often associated physics (32%) and biology concepts (30%) with their own life.
However, they mentioned less concepts related to chemistry (21%) in this regard.
According to Table 4, the 6th grade students principally touched upon concepts from
physics (41%) and chemistry (39%) as concepts associated with everyday life with a narrow
margin between the two target fields. The subject that the 6th grade students thought to be the
least related to everyday life was biology (9%).
When the 7th grade students’ findings are examined, it can be seen that most (48%) of
science subjects considered the most relevant to everyday life are about physics. Topics under
biology ranked second (27%) and chemistry (25%) ranked last. Apart from these, this sub-
group did not refer to any concepts about the Earth and the universe in this context.
The 8th grade students responded similarly to the 7th graders, resulting in the highest
proportion of physics (51%) and biology (26%) concepts considered to be connected with
everyday life. Chemistry is in the last place according to both fields.
As can be seen in the last two columns of Table 4, the participants from all of the 5th,
6th, 7th and 8th grades considered concepts and topics about physics associated with everyday
life. These topics were “electricity”, “force and motion”, “pressure”, “light and sound”, and
“simple machines”.

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Lastly, the findings obtained from the analysis of the explanations brought by the 903
secondary school students in reply to the question "Why should we learn science?" are
demonstrated in Table 5.
Table 5
Reasons for Needing to Learn Science Explained by Students
5th grade 6th grade 7th grade 8th grade

Theme Total %
(frequency) (frequency) (frequency) (frequency)
Its existence in everyday life 19 24 26 26 95 53
Its being necessary 8 14 14 16 52 29
Health 9 - 10 - 19 10
Being able to recognize oneself and the
9 3 - 2 14 8
environment
According to Table 5, the students stated that they must learn science because of “its
existence in everyday life” with the highest frequency at all grade levels. It can also be seen
from the table that the frequency of this theme increased from the 5th grade towards the 8th
grade. Following this theme, the participants explained their need for learning science with
other reasons such as "its being necessary", "health", and "being able to recognize oneself and
the environment" in a descending order of frequency.
Results from the Students’ Drawings
This part is devoted to the findings obtained from the analysis of the students’ drawings.
The students were told to draw "the place and importance of science in our life" and briefly
write about such illustrations. Table 6 displays the findings obtained from the analysis of the
students’ drawings for each and all of the grade levels.

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904 Table 6
Students’ Drawings by Topic and Grade Levels
5th grade 6th grade 7th grade 8th grade All

All
Cate- grades
Theme Fre- Fre- Frequen- Fre- grades
gory % % % % Total
quency quency cy quency Total
%
Force (friction
force, simple
machines, 8 13 8 10
PHYSICS
dynamometers,
etc.)
40 58 51
Light and sound 2 3 5 2 120
47 49
Total 26 33 32 29
Changes of state 2 9 10 9
Matter and its
1 1 3 -
properties
CHEMISTRY
Dissolution, 43 17
- 5 - 18 8 31 - 16
mixtures
Total 3 10 21 9
Harms of alcohol
16 4 1 7
and smoking
Balanced and
10 2 5 2
healthy diet
Living things
(plants, animals,
5 - 2 4
photosynthesis, 19
adaptation, etc.) 27
Our body, organs,
1 2 5 1
BIOLOGY
diseases 49 14 24 67
Total 32 8 13 14
The Earth and

4 6 6 10 2 3 5 9 17 7
OTHER
the universe
65 100 57 100 68 100 57 100 247 100
It can be seen in Table 6 that almost half (49%) of the 65 concepts symbolized by the 5th
grade students were composed of biology-related topics. Physics concepts were in the second
place (40%) in the drawings. The most frequently referred topics of biology and physics were
“harms of alcohol and smoking”, “a balanced and healthy diet”, “electricity” and “force”. It
was found that the 5th grade students embodied chemistry as a subject in their drawings in the
smallest amount (5%) with 3 only associated concepts.
In the drawings of the 6th grade students, the first place was occupied by physics topics
such as electricity and force, with a percentage as high as 58%. Physics was followed by
chemistry with a small percentage (18%) usually depicting changes of state.

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It can be noticed from the table that the majority of both 7th grade and 8th grade grades 905
portrayed physics, specifically electricity in their drawings. As regards chemistry, concepts
about chemistry were the second most frequently drawn phenomena with a percentage of 31%
by the 7th grade graders. Changes of state, dissolution and mixtures were the main themes of
drawings of this sub-group. As for the drawings by the 8th grade students, biology was in the
second place and chemistry was in the third place. Only 9 of the 57 science concepts drawn
by the 8th graders were falling under chemistry as a subject, and all of them were intended to
symbolize changes of state. Some examples of student drawings are given below.

Image 1. Image 2. Image 3.

5th grade student's 6th grade student’s drawing 7th grade student’s drawing
drawing about down about changes of state about the use of simple
syndrome machines in daily life
Image 4. Image 5.
5th grade student’s 7th grade student's drawing on the harmful effects
drawing about electricity in of smoking and alcohol
daily life.
When the drawings of all grades were analyzed collectively, it was found that almost
half (49%) of them covered physics-related topics and concepts in their drawings. These
included electric shock, electrically operated tools, the use of simple machines in everyday
life, and effects of friction force in everyday life. After these, biology emerged as the second
most popular subject. The students mainly illustrated harms of alcohol and smoking, healthy
diet, and diseases. Lastly, the Earth and the universe appeared as the least common topics in
drawings of all students except the 5th grade, and these topics were pictured as lunar eclipse and
solar eclipse.

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906 Discussion
This study was carried out to identify and evaluate with a developmental view the
interests of secondary school students in the topics and concepts of physics, chemistry, biology
they learn in science lessons. To this end, the findings obtained from open-ended questionnaires
and drawings rendered by the 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th grade students were discussed in the light
of the related literature.
In the open-ended questionnaire, item one interrogates what concepts or topics come to
respondents’ mind as they think of science. The findings reveal that the students from all grade
levels (5 through 8) heavily addressed biology topics. In particular, more than half of the key
concepts offered by the 7th and 8th graders belong to the discipline of biology. Consideration
of the students’ responses collectively also suggests that science largely bring into mind topics
and concepts related to biology. It can be said that students take science as biology in a sense.
Previous research proves evidence that students have positive thoughts about the biology lesson
(Yapıcı, 2015; Kışoğlu, 2018). In response to this question, the first place is held by topics and
concepts from physics field. Interestingly, chemistry was the least common field of science
among the three disciplines. It can be inferred that students are relatively less interested in
chemistry concepts in general (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2007; Osborne & Dillon, 2008).
Another item in the questionnaire is intended to explore topics that students are curious
about and want to learn the most. The answers varied between biology and physics topics at
every grade level. Similar to the results of question one, chemistry topics and concepts come
after physics and biology for students at every grade level considered here. When the answers
of all the participants are evaluated at once, this result becomes obvious once again. Again,
the students' answers seem to be in favor of biology and, subsequently, physics. Chemistry
concepts are in the last rank with percentage even smaller than “the Earth and the universe”.
So, it can be argued that students find chemistry less attractive than physics and biology among
fields of science and they are not interested in chemistry. These results look worth noting and
thought-provoking in terms of chemistry teaching. However, considering the number of units
devoted to subject areas in the secondary science curriculum this result may not be considered
a surprise. When the curriculum is examined, the number of units allocated to chemistry at all
grade levels is only one. 3 units are devoted to physics and 2 units to biology (MEB, 2018).
The third item in the questionnaire, in a similar vein to the preceding two questions,
investigates what topics of science the students consider associated with everyday life. The
results in this scope seem interesting. To start with, the respondents linked physics topics with
everyday life at all grade levels in an ascending order from the 5th grade towards the 8th grade.
Among others, electricity was implied with the highest frequency. The participants in this study
come from a boarding school in a rural area. There must be frequent power outages in the
surrounding of the school. Since electricity has an effect on their life in the most direct and
clear way, it is quite understandable that the students referred to this concept while answering
this question. Secondly, biology extended the second most down-to-earth concepts from the
students’ point of view, except the 6th graders. Those students often associated states of matter
and changes of state with their everyday life. This particular topic is regarded the most relevant
among chemistry concepts at all class levels in the study. Like electricity, changes in states of
matter might have been implied by the respondents since it is a visible and direct phenomenon
in the participants’ surrounding.
The drawings explaining the place and importance of science in students’ life also seem
to reinforce this result in a way. Except at the 5th grade, nearly more than half of the drawings
involve physics topics. The students mostly painted the topic of electricity, supporting their
answers to the open-ended question concerned.

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As a result of the first three questions and drawings about the students' interests, the 907
results here are in agreement with the existing literature which proves the priority of biology in
terms of interest and popularity among students (Osborne et al., 2003; Tamir & Gardner, 1989),
whereas the results relating to physics concepts seem incongruent with the literature. There
are studies claiming that concepts related to physics as well as chemistry are not popular and
interesting to secondary school students (Gardner, 1998; Hoffmann et al, 1998). However, the
current study revealed that physics topics were found to be a subject area of interest to students
along with biology to a great extent.
Although the results of the study expose a satisfactory scheme in support of physics
concepts, it is hardly true for chemistry concepts. What is more, other studies in the field of
chemistry education confirm the results reached in this study. Chemistry science and chemistry
concepts are not interesting for students, and they are far from everyday life as students see
it (Akgün et al., 2016; Ben-Zvi & Gai, 1994; Holbrook, 2005; Jones & Miller, 2001; Ng &
Nguyen, 2006; Wu, 2003).
In the current study, both the answers to the open-ended questions and the pictures reveal
that physics and biology concepts are more dominant than other science fields in the minds of
the secondary school students. When students think of science, they recall biology concepts at
the first stage, they want to learn about biology and physics more than the other subjects, and
they find physics and biology most close to their own life. This attitude of the students in favor
of physics and biology could be justified by looking at their answers to the question “Why
should we learn science?” Most of the students pointed out that they need to learn science
owing to the fact that it is close to real life, and it is necessary. It can be asserted that it is more
meaningful and valuable for students to learn issues that they need and that have a place in
their life. It is also known that students show more interest in concepts that have a part in their
life (Bolte et al., 2013; Gräber, 2011; Holbrook, 2003; Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2007; Kışoğlu
2005).
As far as this study is concerned, secondary school students are the least interested in
chemistry among the three science subjects. This result deserves discussing and analyzing for
the benefit of chemistry education. The listing position of interest in chemistry lagging behind
physics and biology can be studied from several aspects. The science of chemistry includes
abstract concepts such as atom, electrons, ions, molecules, and bonds. More often than not,
one resorts to abstract and microscopic concepts and symbolic explanations in order to be able
to explain a phenomenon that seems to be related to chemistry. It is challenging for students
to understand the unusual language of chemistry (Çalık & Ayas, 2005; Griffiths & Preston,
1992; Johnstone, 1993). Studies on chemistry concepts also show that students have difficulty
figuring out chemistry, have negative attitudes towards the chemistry lesson, and cannot use
their knowledge of chemistry adequately and effectively for explaining the events they see in
their environment (Azizoğlu & Geban, 2004; Ben-Zivi & Gai, 1994; Eilks et al., 2007; Karaer,
2007; Nakhleh, 1992; Osborne & Cosgrove, 1983; Özmen et al., 2002; Schmidt et al., 2009;
Solsona et al., 2003).
Another argument may be that, as revealed in this study, chemistry concepts are not
manifested in students' life. In other words, students perceive chemistry-related phenomena
much less true to their real life than concepts of physics and biology. (Treagust et al., 2000).
One reason is probably the fact that chemical phenomena take effect in more indirect ways.
For example, pupils can easily observe the germination of a seed and its sprouting on the soil
surface. Likewise, electricity plays an indispensable role in students’ life as they turn on the
light in their room every evening. However, more is needed to realize why the leaf of a tree
turns yellow or how iron becomes rusty. But it should be remembered that chemical events do
not take up a smaller place in our life even though they cannot be observed directly.

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908 For another probable explanation for the lower level of students' interest in chemistry,
a closer look can be taken at the science curriculum which is currently being implemented in
secondary schools. By looking at the number of target outcomes and course hours allocated to
each of the three disciplines of science for the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th grades, it can be easily seen
that the number of planned outcomes, units and course hours for the chemistry course remains
much smaller than those of physics and biology at all grades (MEB, 2018). In a previous study
discussing how to promote students' interest in chemistry education and their motivation; Bolte
et al. (2013) have found that interest is not a constant thing, rather, it is changeable under
many circumstances including external stimuli, specific situations, time, and activities. It can
be extended to say that the duration of students' engagement with a specific subject could be a
factor that increases their interest. Hence, students can be expected to have higher interest in
subjects or matters in which they stay involved for a longer time.
This study revealed a holistic description of secondary school students’ (the 5th, 6th, 7th and
8th grades) interest in physics, chemistry and biology subjects, and it showed that the students
have the highest level of interest in physics and biology among science topics and concepts at
all grade levels. On the other hand, the interest and curiosity towards chemistry is quite low for
almost all grade levels in this study. Apart from these, the students predominantly considered
physics topics pertinent to their everyday life, whereas they listed chemistry concepts as the
least pertinent ones. This result is also regarded as a cause of the lower levels of interest in
chemistry. The results obtained from this study have some foresights for improvement of the
secondary school science curriculum.
Interest in chemistry-related concepts can be increased by reviewing the content and
organization of the secondary school science curriculum and to update the expected outcomes
and course hours of chemistry to keep up with physics and biology at all grade levels.
Given that students in an ordinary science class have different interests and needs,
educational components such as interest and motivation seem to relate to the nature, organization
and structuring of the subject or topic of teaching rather than the strategies to be followed.
Therefore, it is necessary to take a wider approach to science concepts and especially the
teaching of chemistry concepts as they are more critical, and to choose more suitable paths and
approaches considering the nature of the subject or topic in question.
Students' interest in participating in any learning and teaching activity can be influenced
by many variables, one of which is the provision of rich contextual contents that help students
connect with their lives. On this basis, students should be made to become aware of what
concepts mean to them in their present and future life and to appreciate concepts accordingly.
Therefore, it would be beneficial to integrate a special point of view to highlight this aspect of
concepts in the teaching of chemistry topics, which have been seen far from life so far, as a part
of the science curriculum.
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PhD, Assistant Professor, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, 53100 Merkez/Rize, Turkey.
Sevil Kurt
E-mail: sevilkurt@erdogan.edu.tr

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912
THE ROLE OF ACADEMIC FLOW IN
STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT AND
WELL-BEING
Diana Olcar, Tajana Ljubin Golub, Majda Rijavec
University of Zagreb, Croatia
E-mail: diana.olcar@ufzg.hr, tajana.ljubingolub@ufzg.hr, majda.rijavec@ufzg.hr
Abstract
Flow experience is related to well-being. Still, the question arises as to whether the flow is beneficial
because of its intensity and frequency, or its contribution to well-being depends on the domain in which
it is experienced. It was hypothesized that flow experienced in a domain that is perceived important and
useful (i.e., the academic domain) contributes more to students’ well-being than flow experienced in
domains that are perceived as less important and less useful (leisure and routine activities) even though
it is in academic domain experienced less often and less intensely. This hypothesis was tested in two
separate studies. In the first study, the flow was operationalized as a trait and the frequency of flow was
measured via questionnaires. In the second study, the flow was operationalized as a state and the intensity
of flow was measured via the experience sampling method. The samples were comprised of university
students from Zagreb, Croatia. Both studies showed that flow in a domain that is perceived as more
important and useful (i.e., the academic domain), although is experienced less often and less strongly,
is more related to students’ well-being than flow in domains perceived by students as less important and
less useful (leisure and routine activities). It was also tested if the association between academic flow and
well-being is mediated by academic achievement. This hypothesis was not accepted. The results of this
study indicate that it is important for students to have opportunities to experience flow in their studies
because it is a pleasant state, related to better achievement, and it adds to their overall well-being.
Keywords: flow experience, sampling method, flourishing, flow in learning, life satisfaction, optimal
experience
General Introduction
Flow is a concept coined by Csikszentmihalyi (1975/2000) in the 1960s and 1970s

who tried to understand what makes people work hard for long periods without any visible
reward. For example, the artists he interviewed by the researcher would work passionately on
some piece for long periods, just to abandon it when they thought they were finished and then
focused with the same amount of energy on a new project. What happens is, Csikszentmihalyi
concluded, that during the process of making art, artists are in a pleasurable state of flow, which
they seek to attain again and again. Csikszentmihalyi (1975/2000) defined flow as a state of
complete absorption in the activity for the sake of the activity itself. Flow usually occurs when
concentration is high, skills and challenges are both high and in balance, when the goals are
clear, and when there is immediate and unambiguous feedback (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 2005;
Fong et al., 2014; Moneta, 2012). When these conditions are met, a person can achieve a flow
state which is characterized by a sense of control, a merging of action and awareness, a loss of
self-consciousness, and a loss of sense of time (Csikszentmihalyi (1975/2000). Activities that
produce flow are autotelic or self-rewarding. In other words, a person is not doing the activity
for some external reward but because they enjoy the activity itself.
Flow is a pleasant experience and has even been described as something that “makes
life worth living” (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 2006). As a momentary state, it is

Diana OLCAR, Tajana LJUBIN GOLUB, Majda RIJAVEC. The role of academic flow in students’ achievement and well-being
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characterized by feelings of enjoyment and positive affect (Asakawa, 2010; Csikszentmihalyi, 913
1997; de Manzano et al., 2010) and in the long run it is connected to higher life satisfaction
(Olčar et al., 2019; Rijavec et al., 2016), higher psychological well-being (Asakawa, 2010;
Rijavec et al., 2017; Rijavec et al., 2016) and the better satisfaction of basic psychological
needs (Olčar, 2015). Experiencing flow is also negatively related to indicators of ill-being, such
as general anxiety (Asakawa, 2010), performance anxiety (Fullagar et al., 2013), depressive
symptoms (Mosing et al., 2018), and burnout (Mosing et al., 2018; Olčar, 2015; Rijavec et
al., 2017; Ljubin-Golub et al., 2020). It is also related to higher performance, both in work
(Salanova et al., 2006) and in the academic domain (Rijavec et al., 2016; 2017; Sumaya &
Darling, 2018), but also in sports (Bakker et al., 2011) and the arts (Butković et al., 2015;
Csikszentmihalyi, 1975/2000). In other words, flow is a state that is momentarily pleasant, and
related to long-term beneficial consequences.
The flow state is not exclusive to artists or special kinds of activities. Although flow
research started with activities that are usually associated with leisure, later research showed
that flow experiences also happen during obligatory activities, such as work (Csikszentmihalyi
& LeFevre, 1989; LeFevre, 1988) and studying (Carli et al., 1988; Massimini & Carli, 1988;
Rijavec et al., 2016). In an academic setting, flow is related to higher commitment, motivation,
achievement, and persistence (Ljubin Golub et al. 2016; Shernoff et al., 2003; Shernoff &
Hoogstra, 2001; Shernoff & Schmidt, 2008) and to a better understanding of the presented
material (Culbertson et al., 2015). However, previous research has shown that flow during
academic work is less frequent than flow during leisure activities. In one study (Rijavec et al.,
2016), students’ flow during non-academic activities was experienced frequently or always
by the majority of students, while flow in any academic-related activities was experienced
occasionally. Flow in the academic domain was most frequent during the preparation for various
obligatory tasks, followed by flow experienced during seminars and in preparation for exams,
and occurred least frequently while attending lectures (Rijavec et al., 2016). Similarly, in the
study with Italian adolescents, the majority of flow-like states were experienced during leisure
(52%), followed by studying and classwork (34%) and routine activities (13%) (Massimini &
Carli, 1988).
Especially interesting is the finding that experiencing flow while studying is most relevant
for students’ well-being (Rijavec et al., 2016; Rijavec & Ljubin Golub, 2018). Studies using
questionnaires showed that, although flow during academic activities is less frequent than flow
during activities in other domains (leisure and routine activities), it is more related to students’
well-being than flow experienced in other domains such as leisure (Rijavec et al., 2016; Rijavec
et al., 2017). It was hypothesized that flow during learning contributes more to well-being
than flow experienced in other areas of life because students perceive academic activities as
more important and more useful for their long term goals (Rijavec et al., 2017). Probably it is
because spending time in an activity that person finds important and useful will contribute to
their skills in that area. Also, having skills for areas of life that one finds useful and important
can contribute to the quality of our life.
Flow has been conceptualized both as a trait and a state. Csikszentmihalyi (1997, p. 117)
wrote about autotelic personality that “generally does things for their own sake, rather than in
order to achieve some later external goal” suggesting that flow is a trait. In other words, some
individuals are more prone to experience flow than others (often referred to as flow proneness).
However, flow can also be, and very often is, operationalized as a state (Fong et al., 2014;
Fullagar et al., 2013; Ullén et al., 2010).
Therefore, in order to gain deeper understanding of flow in learning as trait as well as
state for students’ well-being, two studies were conducted in the present research, each with a
different conceptualization of flow, sample and method. In Study 1 flow was assessed as a trait
using a questionnaire, and it was conducted to corroborate previous findings on the relationship

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914 between flow and well-being (Rijavec et al., 2017) on a new sample. In addition to previous
research, Study 1 tested the mediation role of academic achievement in the relationship between
academic flow and well-being. Study 2 was done in order to explore whether previous findings
on the relationship between flow assessed as trait and well-being (Rijavec et al., 2017) are also
valid at flow state level. In other words, study 2 was done in order to explore the association
between flow state experienced in various life domains and students’ momentary wellbeing. In
Study 2 flow was assessed as a state and, using the gold standard for assessing flow experience,
the experience sample method (ESM) (Hektner et al., 2007).
STUDY 1
The first aim of the Study 1 was to research experiences of flow in different life activities
and to test the association between the usefulness and importance of the activity in which flow is
experienced and the level of students’ well-being. In line with previous research (Rijavec et al.,
2016; Rijavec et al., 2017), it was hypothesized that flow will be experienced most frequently in
leisure and least frequently during academic activities (Hypothesis 1). Also based on previous
research founding that flow in activities that students find more useful and important contributed
more to their well-being (Rijavec et al., 2017), it was hypothesized that the most important and
useful domain would also be the one most related to well-being (Hypothesis 2).
The second aim was to explore whether a positive relationship between academic flow
and well-being is mediated by academic achievement. Namely, previous research showed that
the frequent experience of flow in academic areas is related to higher academic achievement
(Rijavec et al., 2016) and that academic achievement is positively related to well-being (El
Ansari & Stock, 2010; Gilman & Huebner, 2003; Verkuyten & Thijs, 2002). It was assumed
that academic achievement mediates relationship between flow in academic domain and well-
being (Hypothesis 3).
Study 1 hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: Flow occurs most frequently in leisure and least frequently during academic
activities
Hypothesis 2: The strongest association between flow and well-being is in domain that is
perceived as the most useful and important
Hypothesis 3: The relationship between flow in academic activities and well-being is
mediated by academic achievement
General Background
Study 1 is of correlational type, with flow experiences in various domains as predictors

and indexes of well-being as criteria (life satisfaction and flourishing). Flow proneness was
assessed with questionnaire. Academic achievement was used as a mediation variable.
Sample
The sample consisted of 267 undergraduates from the University of Zagreb. Participants
were mostly female (87%) with an age range from 17 to 27 (M = 19.78, SD = 1.45).

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Instrument and Procedures 915
Flow proneness in different domains was measured with an adapted version of the
“Swedish Flow Proneness Questionnaire” (SFPQ; Ullen et al., 2012; Ljubin-Golub et al., 2018).
The original SFPQ consists of three subscales that measure proneness for flow experiences at
work, during leisure, and during household maintenance with seven items for each subscale.
For the purpose of this study, the work subscale was replaced with a subscale for assessing flow
experienced during academic activities. This subscale was also used in our previous work and
was proved to have good psychometric characteristics (Ljubin-Golub et al., 2018). An example
of an item in the SFPQ academic domain subscale is: “When you do something for your studies,
how often does it happen that you feel… fully focused?”. Participants rated each item ranging
from 1 (never) to 5 (every day). Mean scores were derived for each subscale. In this study,
Cronbach´s alpha coefficients of reliability were .79 for flow during academic activities, .77 for
flow during maintenance activities, and .84 for flow during leisure.
The importance of activities was measured with one item for each life domain. Participants
were asked to rate the importance of their studying, leisure activities, or household maintenance
on a scale from 1 (completely unimportant) to 7 (extremely important).
The usefulness of activities was measured with one item for each life domain. Participants
were asked to rate the usefulness of their studying, leisure activities, or household maintenance
on a scale from 1 (completely non useful) to 7 (extremely useful).
Well-being was assessed with two indicators.
Life satisfaction was assessed with the “Satisfaction with Life Scale” (SWLS; Diener
et al., 1985). This 5-item scale measures the cognitive component of subjective well-being.
(e.g., The conditions of my life are excellent). Participants rated each item on seven-point
Likert scales from 1 (strongly disagree) through 7 (strongly agree). Higher points indicate
greater life satisfaction. Previous studies on Croatian samples showed adequate psychometric
characteristics (e.g., Brdar, 2006; Rijavec et al., 2016). Cronbach´s alpha reliability coefficient
for the scale in this study was .80.
Flourishing was assessed with the “Flourishing Scale” (FS; Diener et al., 2010). It is an
8-item measure of positive human functioning. Items assess perceived success in important
areas such as competence, engagement with daily activities, meaning and purpose in life,
positive relationships, and optimism (e.g., I lead purposeful and meaningful life). Participants
rated items on a 7-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Higher
points indicate greater flourishing. FS showed adequate psychometric characteristics and is
strongly associated with other psychological well-being scales (Diener et al., 2009). Previous
studies on Croatian samples showed adequate psychometric characteristics (Rijavec et al.,
2016). Cronbach´s alpha coefficient of reliability in the present study was .88.
Academic achievement was measured with a self-reported grade point average (GPA)
at the end of the previous semester. The GPA in Croatia ranges from 1 (indicating failure) to 5
(indicating excellent performance).
Questionnaires were administered in group settings during regular psychology lectures.
Approximately 15 minutes were needed to fill out the questionnaires. Participation was
voluntary, anonymous and no credit was assigned to it.
Data Analysis
Before analysis, the data were screened with respect to missing data and extreme values.
Missing data were replaced with the arithmetic mean of the subscale. Results suggest that the
data distributions were acceptable for further analysis.

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916 Research Results
Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics and correlations between variables. It can be
seen that scores of flow in different life domains are positively correlated. Flourishing and life
satisfaction correlate positively with flow in different activities and with the importance of
different activities. Flourishing correlates positively with the usefulness of all activities, and
life satisfaction only with the usefulness of leisure activities. Academic achievement correlates
positively only with flow in academic activities and with the importance and usefulness of
routine activities.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations between Flow in Different Activities, the Importance
and Usefulness of Activities and Two Types of Well-being
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1. Academic
- .30** .30** .30** .12 .09 .26** .07 .13* .43** .47** .23**
activities
2. Routine
Flow in…
- .31** .12* .36** .03 .08 .29** .13* .23** .25** -.02
activities
3. Leisure - 0.12 .08 .32** .15* .05 .22** .26** .35** .09
4. Academic
- .24** .03 .43** .09 .02 .16** .24** .10
activities
Importance of...
5. Routine
- .15* .14* .50** .26** .18** .28** .18*
activities
6. Leisure
- .02 .10 .57** .22** .23** .07
activities
7. Academic
- .12 .00 .12 .20** .02
activities
Usefulness of...
8. Routine
- .34** .09 .27** .20*
activities
9. Leisure
- .31** .43** .04
activities
10. Life
- .68** .08
satisfaction
being
Well-
11. Flourishing - .01

12. Academic
-
achievement
M 3.65 3.90 4.37 6.62 4.78 5.84 6.73 5.23 5.64 3.70 6.64 3.57
SD 0.57 0.63 0.57 0.59 1.43 1.01 0.56 1.49 1.20 0.76 0.94 0.59
Rank 3 2 1 1 3 2 1 3 2 - - -
Note. *p< .05; **p< .01.
In order to assess in which life area students experience flow most frequently, a repeated
measures ANOVA was performed. The results indicated that there was a difference in the
frequency of flow experience in various domains (F(2/520) = 144.78; p < .001). Post hoc
comparisons using the Bonferroni adjustment indicated that students experienced flow most
frequently during leisure (M = 4.37, SD = 0.57), followed by in routine activities (M = 3.90,
SD = 0.63), while flow during academic activities was the least frequent (M = 3.65, SD = 0.57).
Thus, the results were in line with hypothesis 1.

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Table 2 917
Comparison of Correlation Coefficients between Flow in Different Domains and Well-being
Variables with Meng's Test for Heterogeneity and Planned Contrasts
Z-test p (one tailed)
Dependent variable: Life satisfaction
χ2(2) = 14.47, p = .002
Academic activities Routine activities + Leisure activities 3.27 .001

Flow
in…
Routine activities Leisure activities 1.94 .030
Dependent variable: Flourishing
χ2(2) = 14.15, p = .003
Academic activities Routine activities + Leisure activities 3.23 .001

Flow
in…
Routine activities Leisure activities 1.91 .030
According to hypothesis 2, the strongest relationship between flow and well-being is in

domain that is perceived as the most useful and important. To test this hypothesis, correlation
coefficients between flow and well-being (life satisfaction and flourishing) in different domains
were compared. Meng's test for the heterogeneity of a set of correlated correlation coefficients
(Meng et al., 1992) was performed. The results presented in Table 2 show that experiencing
flow in some domains of life is more related to life satisfaction (χ2(2) = 14.47, p = .002) than in
others. Planned contrasts demonstrate that flow in academic activities correlated significantly
more highly with life satisfaction than flow in routine and leisure activities, and flow in leisure
activities correlated significantly more highly with life satisfaction than flow in routine activities.
When the relationship between flow in different life domains and flourishing was examined, it
is evident again that flow experienced in some domains was more related to flourishing (χ2(2) =
14.15, p = .003) than in others. Again, planned contrasts showed that flow in academic activities
correlated most strongly with flourishing, and flow in leisure activities correlated more strongly
with flourishing than flow in routine activities.
Next, the importance and usefulness of activities in different domains was examined. In
order to assess which life area students find most important, repeated measures ANOVA was
performed. The results indicate that students find some life domains more important than others
(F(2/520) = 217.38; p < .00). Post hoc comparisons using Bonferroni adjustment indicated that
students find academic activities the most important (M = 6.63, SD = 0.66), followed by leisure
activities (M = 5.84, SD = 1.14), while routine activities are perceived as the least important
(M = 4.78, SD = 1.43). It was also shown that students found some life domains more useful
than others (F(2/532) = 142.21; p < 0.00). Post hoc comparisons using Bonferroni adjustment
indicated that students found academic activities the most useful (M = 6.73, SD = 0.56),
followed by leisure activities (M = 5.64, SD = 1.20), while routine activities were perceived
as the least useful (M = 5.23, SD = 1.49). Taken together, the results showed that academic
domain was perceived as the most important and useful domain and that flow in the academic
domain has the strongest relationship with well-being indices. Thus, the results are in line with
hypothesis 2.
Next, the assumption that the association between flow in academic activities and well-
being is mediated by academic achievement was tested (Hypothesis 3). The results did not
confirm this hypothesis. There was a direct effect of flow in academic activities on life satisfaction
(b = 0.09, p = .001) and a significant direct effect of flow in academic activities on academic

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918 achievement (b = 0.03, p = .007). On the other hand, the effect of academic achievement on life
satisfaction was not statistically significant (b = -0.05, p = .63) and the indirect effect of flow in
academic activities on life satisfaction through academic achievement was also not significant
(b = -0.002, 95% CI [-0.01 – 0.01]). Mediation was also tested with flourishing as a dependent
variable, and the results were similar as in the previous analysis (b = -0.007, 95% CI [-0.02 –
0.01]). Thus, the mediating role of academic achievement was not found, but only the direct
effect of flow in academic activities on academic achievement and also direct effect of flow on
both indices of well-being.
Discussion
The results obtained in Study 1 showed that students experienced flow the least often in
academic activities, followed by routine activities, and the most in leisure activities. This is in
line with our previous findings (Rijavec et al., 2016; Rijavec et al., 2017). To experience flow
in some domain, a person has to have skills that are appropriate for the level of the challenges
in that domain. To experience flow repeatedly the challenges and the individual’s skills have to
grow proportionally (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 2005; Fong et al., 2014; Moneta, 2012). In leisure,
a person usually has more freedom to choose activities that are in line with his or her skills
level. A person who enjoys knitting will knit increasingly complex garments, and a person who
enjoys skateboarding will choose more and more complex routes. Therefore, students have the
opportunity to experience flow in leisure more often. Unfortunately, while studying, students
usually cannot choose material that is more in line with their interests and more appropriate to
their skill level. They are set with the same material which is for some more difficult to digest
than for others. This leads to some students experiencing flow in the academic domain less
often than others.
Additionally, it was hypothesized that the more important the life domain is for the
students, the stronger the relationship between flow and students’ well-being will be. Academic
activities, which students find the most important and most useful, are related most to students’
flourishing and life satisfaction. Flow in routine activities, which are perceived as the least
important and least useful of the three examined domains, contribute the least to students’ well-
being.
The third hypothesis was that the relationship between flow in academic activities and
well-being is mediated by academic achievement. In other words, it was hypothesized that
experiencing flow in the academic domain more often builds up skills, which is evident in a
higher GPA which then leads to higher student well-being. However, the results did not confirm
this hypothesis. Although flow in academic activities was related both to a higher GPA and to
higher well-being, the students’ GPA and well-being were not related, and thus mediation effect
of GPA was not found. Some previous studies found a positive correlation between students’
GPA and well-being (El Ansari & Stock, 2010; Gilman & Huebner, 2003; Verkuyten & Thijs,
2002), but this study failed to confirm these findings. In our study there is a direct relationship
between experiencing flow in academic activities and well-being. It may be that students
experience more positive emotions during learning while experiencing flow, and these positive
emotions lead to higher well-being. Besides emotions as a potential mediating mechanism
between academic flow and well-being, it may well be that there are also some other mediating
mechanisms that should be explored in future studies.
STUDY 2
The aim of the Study 2 was to examine the association of flow operationalized as a state,
i.e., intensity of flow at the moment and well-being at the same moment. As already stated, flow

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may be assessed not only as a trait but also as a state (Fullagar et al., 2013; Olčar, 2019; Ullén 919
et al., 2010). Previous studies have shown a positive relationship between flow in learning
and well-being when the flow was measured as a trait (Asakawa, 2010; Rijavec et al., 2016),
but there is a lack of research on flow measured as a state and how it is related to well-being.
Measuring flow as a state with the ESM method is considered a gold standard for measuring
flow since there is no delay between experiences and reporting these experiences (Hektner et
al., 2007). ESM gathers information at the present moment or shortly thereafter. Earlier studies
showed there can be differences between emotions and behaviors reported in retrospective
ratings and in those assessed in real time (Barrett, 1997; Schimmack, 2003). In retrospective
ratings, individuals more often report experiences that occurred more recently, that are more
personally relevant, that are consistent with the mood in which they are in, or that are unusual
to them (Ebner-Priemer & Trull, 2009). Methods such as ESM assess experiences in real time
which add to the accuracy, generalizability and ecological validity of the data (Hektner et al.,
2007).
Based on the previous findings that flow as a trait is most frequently experienced in
leisure activities and less frequently experienced in academic activities, it was hypothesized
that flow measured as a state using ESM method will be also most intensely experienced during
leisure (Hypothesis 4). Based on previous research showing that experiencing flow in academic
activities is more strongly related to students’ well-being than experiencing flow in other life
domains (Rijavec et al., 2017), it was hypothesized that the same is true at flow state level.
In other words, it was hypothesized that the relationship of flow with momentary happiness
and momentary satisfaction was the strongest during learning and the weakest during routine
activities (Hypothesis 5). Both the previous research (Rijavec et al., 2017) and the results of the
Study 1 have shown that tendency to experience flow domain that is perceived as more important
and useful, i.e., studying contributes more to students’ well-being than the flow experienced in
domains perceived as less important and useful. In the Study 2 we hypothesized that the flow
state experienced in the domain perceived as more important and useful contributes more to
momentary well-being (Hypothesis 6).
Study 2 hypotheses:
Hypothesis 4: Students experience the highest intensity of flow during leisure activities, followed
by routine activities and learning
Hypothesis 5: The relationship of intensity of flow state with momentary happiness and momentary
satisfaction is the strongest during learning and the weakest during routine activities
Hypothesis 6: A flow state experienced in a domain that is perceived as more important and useful
contributes more to momentary well-being.
General Background
Study 2 is of correlational type, with flow state experiences in various domains used
as predictors and momentary well-being as criteria (momentary happiness and momentary
satisfaction). Students assessed flow state with questionnaire and samples of flow were collected
using ESM method.
Sample
The convenient sample consisted of 101 university students (82% female). The mean age
of the participants was 20.82 (SD = 1.85; range = 19 to 28). The participants were students from
the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Science (76%), and students from the Catholic University
of Croatia, Department of Psychology (24%).

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920 Instruments
Flow state was assessed by first asking students to state what they were doing at the
moment. Then, they were asked to rate this activity on the adapted version of the Swedish Flow
Proneness Questionnaire (SFPQ; Ullen et al., 2012) which consists of seven items. An adaption
was made in the instruction section in terms that all items referred to the activity students
were doing at the moment. An example of an item in the SFPQ is: “When you were doing this
specific activity, did you feel fully focused?” Participants rated each item on a scale ranging
from 1 (not at all) to 5 (completely). In this study, Cronbach´s alpha coefficients of reliability
for SFPQ in a specific domain were .81 for academic activities, .76 for maintenance activities,
and .83 for activities during leisure.
Momentary happiness (“How happy do you feel at the moment?”) and momentary
satisfaction (“How satisfied do you feel at the moment?”) were assessed each with a single
item. These items were rated on a Likert type scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (completely).
Students also rated the importance and usefulness of the activity they were doing at the
moment they received signal:
The importance of the activity was assessed with one item. Participants were asked to rate
how important they perceived the activity they were doing at the moment on a Likert type scale
from 1 (completely unimportant) to 7 (extremely important).
The usefulness of the activity was assessed with one item for each life domain. Participants
were asked to rate how useful they perceived the activity they were doing at the moment on a
Likert type scale from 1 (completely not useful) to 7 (extremely useful).
Procedure
Participants were approached during regular psychology classes with an offer to be

included in the experience sampling method (ESM) study on flow. ESM belongs to a broader
category of intensive longitudinal methods (Bolger & Laurenceau, 2013). It was developed
in the 1970s to study human experience in real time and in an everyday context (Hektner et
al., 2007; Larson, & Csikszentmihalyi, 1983). Participants report on their experiences at the
moment they happen or short afterwards. Usually, the participants are prompted by a signal
in a fixed or variable schedule or after a predefined event (e.g., every time a person lights up
a cigarette, he or she has to fill in a short questionnaire). Since information is collected in real
time, the advantage of this method over other methods is its high ecological validity while
limiting recall bias (Shiffman et al., 2008). By assessing experience while it is happening,
the possibility of distorting the experience and giving socially acceptable answers is lower
(Hektner et al., 2007). As subjects complete multiple assessments over time, this makes data
suitable for inter-subject and intra-subject comparisons, and also makes the data more reliable.
The disadvantage of ESM is that the respondents are not always able or willing to interrupt the
activity they are doing to complete the questionnaire. A sample of situations may therefore be
selected.
During six consecutive days, participants received signals via SMS on their mobile
phones. The signals were sent randomly within four equally long segments of the day, between
9 am to 9 pm. The minimum gap between the signals was 90 minutes. The text message the
students received contained a web link which directed them to a short mobile survey. The
questionnaire that students filled in was always of the same content. Approximately 5 minutes
were needed to complete the questionnaires. Participation in study was voluntary, anonymous,
and small course credit was given to participants.

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Data Analysis 921
Because data collected by ESM include multiple observations in one person, data were
analyzed using multilevel modeling (MLM). MLM was chosen because when data are nested
(in this study within a person), multilevel modeling solves the multiple comparison problem. A
total of 2,147 experiences samples were collected. The results show that there is about 26.9%
variability in the flow state between students, 21.4% variability in momentary happiness, and
23.5% variability in momentary satisfaction between students, showing that the data are suitable
for multilevel modeling.
Research Results
The results presented in Table 3 (Model 1) showed that students reported the highest
momentary flow during leisure time and the lowest momentary flow during learning. Thus,
hypothesis 4 was supported.
Table 3
Observed Means of Flow, Happiness and Satisfaction in Different Contexts and the
Relationship between Flow and Happiness and Satisfaction in Different Contexts at the
Momentary Level
All contexts Domain of activity

together Learning Routine activities Leisure
Number of observations 2147 882 815 450
Model 1: DV – state flow
Intercept 5.29 5.07** 5.31** 5.67**
Standard error 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.09
Confidence interval 4.97 - 5.16 5.18-5.45 5.53-5.82
Model 2: DV - momentary happiness
Intercept 4.90** 4.61** 5.02** 5.28**
Standard error 0.07 0.09 0.09 0.10
Confidence interval 4.51-4.75 4.88-5.17 5.13-5.44
Fixed effect
Flow 0.67** 0.69** 0.45** 0.54**
Standard error 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.06
Confidence interval 0.65-0.74 0.38- 0.52 0.44- 0.63
Model 3: DV - momentary satisfaction
Intercept 4.93** 4.66** 5.05** 5.27**
Standard error 0.07 0.09 0.09 0.10
Confidence interval 4.52 - 4.80 4.90 - 5.20 5.11 - 5.43
Fixed effect
Flow 0.63** 0.71** 0.45** 0.55**
Standard error 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.06
Confidence interval 0.64- 0.79 0.38 – 0.52 0.45 - 0.65
Note: **p < .01. DV - dependend variable.

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922 As it can be seen from confidence intervals, flow intensity during routine activities
was not significantly different from the flow intensity during learning activities and the flow
intensity during leisure. Next, MLM analyses were performed with momentary happiness and
momentary satisfaction as criterion variables. The results of Model 2 and Model 3 showed
that students experienced the highest level of momentary happiness and satisfaction during
leisure and the lowest level of momentary happiness and satisfaction during learning fully
supported the hypothesis 4. The relationship of flow with momentary happiness and momentary
satisfaction was the strongest during learning and the weakest during routine activities, thus
supported hypothesis 5.
Next, one-way ANOVA was performed to examine which activities students find most
important and most useful. There was a significant difference in how useful students found
activities (F(2, 2148) = 144.47, p < .001). Planned contrast revealed that students found studying
more useful than the other two domains (t(1690.11) = -15.28, p < .001), and maintenance
activities more useful than leisure activities (t(880.66) = -9.86, p < .001). There was also a
significant difference in how important students found activities (F(2, 2148) = 116.09, p < .001).
Students found studying more important than the other two domains (t(1694.34) = -15.94, p <
.001), and maintenance activities more important than leisure activities (t(893.05) = -9.86, p <
.01). Taken both results of MLM and ANOVA, it can be concluded that flow state experienced
in the domain that is perceived as more important and useful (i.e., studying) contributes more to
momentary well-being than the flow state experienced in domains perceived as less important
and useful (i.e., routine and leisure). Thus, hypothesis 6 was also supported.
Discussion
The results of the Study 2 using experience sample method showed that students
experienced flow state most intensely in leisure activities, and least intensely in academic
activities. It was also found that flow in academic activities was related to momentary well-
being assessed as happiness and satisfaction to a greater extent than flow in other domains.
Out of three assessed life domain activities, i.e., academic, maintenance and leisure activities,
academic activities were perceived as the most important and useful activities.
These findings are in line with previous studies assessing flow frequency over time, i.e.,
flow proneness (Rijavec et al., 2016; Rijavec et al., 2017). It should be noted that the ESM used
in Study 2 is a method which “captures daily life as it is” (Hektner et al. 2006; p. 6), and thus
recollection bias is reduced by collecting data in real-time or shortly afterward. Also, data were
collected at multiple points in time, so reliability is high, and questions were asked in real-time
about real situations thus adding to ecological validity.
The results of multilevel modeling showed that 27% of variance of flow can be attributed
to individual variance, i.e., to dispositional factors. The remaining 73% of variance (systematic
and error) of flow is within-individual variance. This means that although some people are more
prone to flow, flow behaves more as a state and less as a trait and varies considerably based
on situational characteristics. This is in line with earlier findings (Fullagar & Kelloway, 2009;
Fullagar et al., 2013) and adds an important bit of information for better understanding of flow
construct (Mischel, 1969).
General Discussion
Both Study 1 and Study 2 showed the importance of domain in which students experience
flow. Flow experienced in a domain that is perceived useful and important, i.e., the academic
domain for students, although experienced less often than in the other two measured domains, is
more related to students’ well-being. It is possible that academic domain is perceived as important

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and useful by students because it contributes to their life goal of getting academic education. 923
Flow is a beneficial and pleasant state experienced in various domains (Csikszentmihalyi et al.,
2005) and this research showed that it is more important in which domain flow is experienced
than the frequency and intensity of flow experiences. Flow in activities that we find useful
and important is more beneficial to us than flow experienced in domains that are perceived
as less useful and less important. This is in line with Delle Faves’ statement (2009, p. 286),
“optimal experience does not automatically bring well-being and development. Its outcomes
vary according to the features of the associated activities and their role within the value system
of the individuals and their social environment”. Spending time and energy on activities that are
not of high value does not lead to a sense of fulfillment and satisfaction as does spending time
on something that is perceived as highly valued. Students feel satisfaction because they know
that they are working towards their long-term goals which are aligned with their value system.
Study 1 assessed the frequency of flow over time (flow proneness) and Study 2 assessed
the intensity of flow at the moment (flow state). Flow as a state showed a similar pattern of
association with wellbeing as compared to flow measured as a trait. Students who experienced
the highest intensity of flow state also experienced the highest level of well-being measured at
momentary level. Both studies showed similar results, and these results are in line with previous
research (Rijavec et al., 2017).
The results of our studies presented in this paper are especially valuable since there
are not many studies that tackle the relationship between flow frequency and flow intensity,
and Keller and Landhäußer (2012, p. 57) argue that “the distinction between frequency and
intensity of flow experiences is worthwhile to consider”. Receiving similar results and pattern
of associations in both studies contributes to this polemic.
The results of the ESM study showed that about 27% of variance of flow can be attributed
to dispositional factors, suggesting that the flow state depends more on situational factors than
on intraindividual dispositions. This finding points to the importance of creating an academic
context which will facilitate academic flow. Such a context includes clear goals and feedback
(Steele & Fullagar, 2009), autonomy-supportive teachers (Ljubin-Golub et al., 2020), the
satisfaction of basic psychological needs (Liu & Flick, 2019), among other factors.
Next, it was found that the positive relationship between flow in academic activities and
well-being is not mediated by academic achievement. This finding shows that flow experience
leads directly to well-being, and this relationship is not mediated via higher academic
achievement. This is in line with research showing that flow experience is a pleasant experience
which makes the subject feel inherently good (de Manzano et al., 2010; Rogatko, 2009). If this
is experienced often, then it leads to higher general well-being. Obviously, flow in the academic
domain is related to positive psychological states which help students build psychological
resilience and allow them to function at an optimal level. It contributes to overall well-being
directly and not because it is related to some external achievement or reward.
This research has several limitations. Both studies are correlational and done at one point
in time or a short period, so it should be noted that the direction of causal relationships can go
both ways. In addition to that, both samples comprised mainly female students which makes
it difficult to generalize to male students and other samples. All questionnaires were based on
self-assessment and can be subjective.
General Conclusions and Implications
Flow experienced in a domain perceived to be important and useful, i.e., academic

domain, contributes to the well-being more than flow experienced in domains perceived as
less important and useful, such as routine and leisure activities, even though it is experienced
more often or intensely. Teachers should be aware of this and give students opportunities for

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924 experiencing flow in academic activities, as flow experience is beneficial for the overall well-
being of students. Furthermore, it was concluded that flow behaves more as a state than a
trait and can be experienced by anyone, given the right circumstances. Finally, the relationship
between academic flow and students’ well-being is not mediated by academic achievement.
Flow contributes to well-being directly, not through mediation by academic achievement.
This means that even low achieving students can enjoy high level of well-being if they have
opportunities for flow experience in their studies.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Funding
The studies were supported by grant of University of Zagreb.
Conflict of Interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of
interest.
Data availability
The datasets generated during and analyzed during the current study are available in the
Open Science Framework repository, osf.io/2gkn7
Ethical approval
All procedures performed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the
institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its
later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
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Received: September 28, 2021 Accepted: December 04, 2021
Cite as: Olčar, D., Ljubin Golub, T., & Rijavec, M. (2021). The role of academic flow in
students' achievement and well-being. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 79(6), 912-
927. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.912
Diana Olčar PhD, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Teacher Education, University of

(Corresponding author) Zagreb, Croatia.
E-mail: diana.olcar@ufzg.hr
Tajana Ljubin Golub PhD, Full Professor, Faculty of Teacher Education, University of
Zagreb, Croatia.
E-mail: tajana.ljubingolub@ufzg.hr
Majda Rijavec PhD, Full Professor, Faculty of Teacher Education, University of

Zagreb, Croatia.
E-mail: majda.rijavec@ufzg.hr

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928
ATTACHMENT STYLES AND RISKY SEXUAL
BEHAVIORS IN ADOLESCENTS
Walter Odera Owino, Newton Mukholwe Asakhulu
Maasai Mara University, Kenya
E-mail: walt_harry@yahoo.com, newton.mukolwe2008@gmail.com
Jonathan Muema Mwania, Rose Mwanza

South Eastern Kenya University, Kenya
E-mail: muemamwania@yahoo.com, rmwanza@seku.ac.ke
Abstract
Infection with sexually transmitted diseases and unwanted pregnancies are risks associated with
adolescents’ risky sexual behavior. Mental models of attachment relationships influence behavior and
may influence adolescents’ involvement in sexual activities that are risky. This study explored whether
attachment styles predicted adolescents’ involvement in risky sexual behavior. A correlational study
design was adopted with 367 students from public secondary schools in Nairobi County taking part in the
study. The Attachment Styles Questionnaire and Risky Sexual Behavior Scale were used to collect data.
Multiple regression analysis was used to determine whether secure, preoccupied, dismissing or fearful
attachment styles predicted students’ risky sexual behavior. The study found that preoccupied attachment
style and secure attachment style had predictive effects on risky sexual behavior. Preoccupied attachment
style was predictive of greater involvement in risky sexual behavior whereas secure attachment style was
predictive of less risky sexual behavior. It was evident based on the findings that secure attachment style
was protective against risky sexual behavior whereas preoccupied attachment style created vulnerability
to risky sexual behavior. It was recommended that special attention should be paid to adolescents with
insecure attachment styles in guidance and counseling programs aimed at discouraging adolescents’
risky sexual behavior and parents/guardians should be encouraged to be more nurturing towards their
children in order to encourage formation of secure attachment which was protective against risky sexual
behavior.
Keywords: attachment styles, attachment avoidance, attachment anxiety, secure attachment, risky sexual
behavior
Introduction

Globally, involvement in risky sexual behavior by adolescents (age 10 to 19) and youth
(15 to 24 years) is a matter of public health concern (Bryan et al, 2012; Chan, 2021). Twenty
three percent of the people living in sub-Saharan Africa are adolescents and their number is
growing rapidly (Wado et al, 2020). Tulloch and Kaufman (2013) note that adolescents are
attaining physical maturity at a younger age and marrying at an older age. As adolescents enter
puberty, they start exploring intimate relationships and experimenting with sexual behavior
(Tulloch & Kaufman, 2013). Early commencement of sexual activity, unprotected sex, sex in
exchange for money or other benefits, sex with multiple partners or sex with older partners
constitute risky sexual behavior (Eaton et al, 2003; Fetene & Mekonnen, 2018). According to
Firomsa et al (2019) adolescents who involve themselves in such behavior increase their risk
of getting HIV/AIDS or other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in addition to unplanned
pregnancies. Adolescents who become sexually active at an early age end up having significantly
higher numbers of sexual partners in their lifetimes (Imaledo et al, 2013; Pettifor et al, 2009).

Walter Odera OWINO, Newton Mukholwe ASAKHULU, Jonathan Muema MWANIA, Rose MWANZA. Attachment styles and risky
sexual behaviors in adolescents
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Researchers have found that the earlier an adolescent becomes sexually active, the 929
less likely they are to engage in safe sex. For instance, Finer and Philbin (2013) examined
the relationship between the age at which American adolescents became sexually active and
contraceptive use. Their analysis revealed that girls who started having sex when they were 14
years or younger were less likely to have used any contraception at first sex and took longer to
begin using contraception.
Involvement in risky sexual activity by young people is a problem the world over. In
the United States for example, Grubb (2020) reports that in the period 2013 to 2017, infections
with STIs increased by 31% with over half of the infected individuals being 15 to 24 years old.
Globally, approximately 300,000 15-19-year-old adolescents get infected with HIV and two
thirds of these adolescents live in sub-Saharan Africa (Idele et al, 2014). Moreover, according
to the United Nations Population Fund (UNPFA, 2013) the Sub-Saharan region recorded the
highest rate of teenage pregnancies globally between 1991 and 2010. In this region, individuals
tend to become sexually active at an early age, typically before the age of 20 years (Marston
et al, 2013). Premarital sex is common with many young people having unprotected sex with
multiple partners or concurrent partners (Chapman et al, 2010; Fetene & Mekonnen, 2018;
Maonga et al, 2018; Wamoyi et al, 2016).
Risky sexual behavior during adolescence is widespread in Kenya. Mbuthia et al (2019)
carried out a survey of sexual behavior among university students based in the Coastal region.
The 473 students had a mean age of 19.6 years. Although the students were relatively young,
59.4% of them had had sex at least once. Moreover, the survey found that 41.2% of the students
who had had sex before had their first sexual intercourse when they were between15 and 19
years old and 14% had their first sexual intercourse before they were 14 years old.
Beguy et al (2013) examined sexual behavior in young people (12 to 24 years) living
in the slum areas of Nairobi County. The data came from the Transition to Adulthood project
and was collected between the years 2007 and 2010. The data revealed that among adolescents
who started having sexual intercourse before they were 15 years old, only 38.5% of boys and
34.2% of girls used condoms during their first sexual encounter. A study by Maina et al (2020)
also focusing on adolescents living in slums in Nairobi County revealed that 13% of girls aged
between 10 and 14 years had had sexual intercourse at least once. According to Beguy et al
(2013) sexual activity by individuals who are not yet 15 years old can be considered as an early
sexual debut and is among the risky sexual behaviors (Eaton et al, 2003; Fetene & Mekonnen,
2018). Wanjiku (2015) surveyed risky sexual behavior specifically in 16 to 19 year old students
attending secondary schools in Nairobi County. Forty three percent of the students reported
having had sexual intercourse in their lifetime and the mean age at which they had sex for the
first time was 15 years. In addition, 55% of the students who reported having had sex before
had partners significantly older than them and only 26% of the sexually active students used
any form of contraception. A report by the United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS estimated
that in the year 2018, 1.6 million Kenyans were living with HIV (UNAIDS, 2020). Of particular
concern was that 51% of new HIV infections happened in young people or adolescents aged
between 15 and 24 years and females had twice the risk of infection of males. The main mode
of infection was unprotected sexual contact (Mbuthia et al, 2019).
Theoretical Framework

A child forms secure attachment with the caregiver if the caregiver responds promptly
to the child’s distress, is available, caring and attentive to the child’s needs (Bowlby, 1969,
1973, 1982). Insecure attachment forms if the caregiver is unresponsive to the child’s distress,
unavailable and generally uncaring. According to Bowlby (1973), the ongoing interactions
between the child and caregiver results in the formation of a mental model of the attachment

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930 relationship. The mental model consists of a “self-image” which is how the child perceives
himself or herself in relation to the caregiver and an “other-image” which is how the child
perceives the caregiver’s attitude towards him or her (Kerns & Brumariu, 2014).
These mental models of attachment influence how children interact with their caregivers
(Kerns & Brumariu, 2014). As children grow older, other people apart from the caregiver can
become secondary attachment figures and meet some of their attachment needs (Dubois-comtois
et al, 2013). During adolescence, attachment relationships can be formed with other members
of the family, friends and romantic partners. Attachment relationships formed with secondary
attachment figures resemble attachment relationships with caregivers (Hazan & Shaver, 1987).
This is because the mental models of attachment formed earlier in childhood remain relatively
stable over time and influence the relationships between adolescents and secondary attachment
figures (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991).
Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991) described attachment styles according to these mental
models of attachment relationships. Adolescents with secure attachment styles have positive
self-image and consider themselves to be worthy of attention and care from attachment figures.
They readily seek comfort from attachment figures whenever they feel distressed. They trust
attachment figures to be present when they need emotional comfort. Individuals with insecure
attachment styles relate with attachment figures differently depending on their mental image of
themselves and of attachment figures.
Individuals with preoccupied attachment styles feel unlovable and unworthy of
attachment figures’ attention and care. They derive validation and self-esteem through approval
and acceptance by attachment figures (Chow et al, 2017). They have high levels of attachment
anxiety and uncertainty about attachment figures’ availability and are preoccupied with fear of
rejection or abandonment (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2012). They adopt a hyperactivating
strategy in their relationships. For example, they may exaggerate their emotions to attract the
attention of attachment figures.
Individuals with dismissing attachment styles have positive self-image and find validation
from within themselves similar to individuals with secure attachment styles. However, they
do not trust attachment figures as a result of unsatisfying relationships with caregivers. They
adopt a deactivating strategy in the sense that they strive to be emotionally independent and
not depend on attachment figures (Sheinbaum et al, 2015). They suppress their emotions when
interacting with attachment figures. Individuals with dismissing attachment styles have high
levels of attachment avoidance and do not feel motivated to form intimate relationships with
attachment figures because they doubt attachment figures’ reliability or trustworthiness (Chow
et al, 2017).
Individuals with fearful attachment styles long for attachment figures’ attention and
acceptance as a source of self-validation. However, they distrust the attachment figures and
expect that their bids for intimacy will be met with rejection or hostility (Erozkan, 2011). They
have attachment anxiety as well as attachment avoidance (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2012) and
while interacting with attachment figures, they are torn between wanting to be close to and
avoiding rejection by the same attachment figures.

Attachment Styles and Risky Sexual Behavior

According to Shumaker et al (2009) each adolescent has a stable attachment style. Allen
(2008) noted that by adolescence, an individual’s mental models of attachment relationships are
so well established that an adolescent’s attachment style can be seen as a personality trait that
influences how one regulates their emotions, how they interact with significant people in their
lives and their thinking and behavior. The attachment theory therefore provides a framework
through which risky sexual behavior in adolescents can be viewed. Part of adolescents’

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attachment needs can be met within relationships with friends and members of the opposite 931
sex (Dubois-comtois et al, 2013). Hazan and Shaver (1987) described romantic relationships
as attachment relationships noting that attachment styles of partners are reminiscent of their
attachment styles in infancy. In this context, adolescents’ conduct in romantic relationships,
including their sexual behavior, may be influenced by their attachment styles.
Researchers have found an association between attachment anxiety, which characterizes
preoccupied attachment style, and risky sexual behavior. Paulk and Zayae (2013) investigated
whether attachment styles predicted risky sexual behavior in American high school students.
Two hundred and fifty eight students completed the Experiences in Close Relationships
Questionnaire and a scale designed by the authors to measure risky sexual behavior. The study
revealed that attachment anxiety predicted students’ risky sexual behavior but attachment
avoidance did not. The authors surmised that those students who had high attachment anxiety
were unlikely to turn down their partners’ overtures to engage in sexual activities, including
sexual activities that were risky. This was because such students were afraid of upsetting their
partners and losing the love and attention from their partners.
Potard et al (2017) carried out a study to determine whether sexual behavior in young
French adolescents with mean age of 13.8 years was related to their attachment styles to their
mothers and fathers. The study revealed that adolescents with ambivalent attachment (high
attachment anxiety) were more likely to have had sex compared to those adolescents who were
securely attached to their parents. At the same time, adolescents with avoidant attachment either
abstained from sex or engaged in casual sex without emotional connection to their partners.
According to the authors, adolescents with high attachment anxiety equated having sex with
their opposite sex partners with commitment to their relationships. Moreover, sexual intercourse
was a means of satisfying their craving for closeness and security that was not provided by
caregivers. The authors also noted that adolescents with avoidant attachment preferred casual
sex because they did not want to get emotionally close to one partner.
Saint-Eloi Cadely et al (2020) explored the relationship between insecure attachment
and high school students’ attitudes towards sex and relationships and a number of indicators of
sexual risk behavior such as the age at which students had sex for the first time, whether they
used condoms and the number of sex partners students had. The study showed that students with
avoidant attachment started engaging in sexual activities at an earlier age, were less committed
to sexual partners, engaged in sex with partners they did not take time to know well and had
more sexual partners. Those students with avoidant attachment were however more likely to
use condoms regularly. According to the authors, students with avoidant attachment had no
interest in building long term or intimate relationships with their opposite sex partners but
engaged in sex only to lose their virginity. They were careful to avoid pregnancies that might
tie them to a partner.
Individuals with avoidant attachment may not participate in sexual activities with
their partners as a means of achieving closeness and intimacy. Instead, they prefer casual
sexual relationships and may have multiple sex partners (Kastbom, 2015). In some studies,
adolescents with avoidant attachment abstained from sexual activity because they did not value
close relationships that involved sexual intimacy. For instance, Lemelin et al (2014) examined
predictors of risky sexual behavior in young adults and adolescents in Canada and found that
adolescents with avoidant attachment started engaging in sexual behavior at a later age and the
reason was they were less likely to be involved in serious romantic relationships that might
avail opportunity for sexual activities.

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932 Purpose of the Study

Secondary school students are at the adolescent stage of development characterized by
rapid physical, cognitive and emotional development (Cueto & Leon, 2016). When adolescents
enter puberty and mature sexually, they start exploring their sexuality and making decisions
concerning their sexual behavior. The attachment theory proposes that one’s attachment
security may influence behavior and decision making in interpersonal relationships (Mikulincer
& Shaver, 2012). Adolescents’ attachment styles may influence their decisions regarding sexual
behavior. Therefore, the goal of this study was to determine whether attachment styles predict
secondary school students’ involvement in risky sexual behavior.

General Background

A correlational research design was used in this study. A correlational design was chosen
because it enabled the authors use data collected from the same subjects at one point in time to
find out relationships among several quantifiable variables and the degree of those relationships
(Ary et al, 2014; Gays et al, 2012). The goal of this study was to find out whether there was a
relationship between students’ attachment styles and their involvement in risky sexual behavior.
A correlational design was also suitable because no variables were controlled or manipulated in
the study. The study was undertaken between May and June of 2021.
Participants

The study participants were 367 students from public secondary schools in three sub-
counties of Nairobi County. Nine out of the 28 schools in the three sub-counties were chosen and
385 students were randomly selected from the nine schools and issued with the questionnaires.
Three hundred and sixty seven properly filled questionnaires were returned hence the response
rate was 95.3% which was more than adequate for the study according to recommendations
by (Cooper & Schindler, 2003). The students’ demographic characteristics are summarized in
Table 1.
Table 1
Students’ Demographic Characteristics
Demographic Characteristic N %
Male 181 49.3
Gender
Female 186 50.7
15 16 4.4
16 to 17 176 47.9
Age (years)
18 to 19 146 39.8
20 and above 29 7.9
Boys Boarding 38 10.4
Girls Boarding 39 10.6
Boys Day 89 24.3
Type of School
Girls Day 92 25.1
Boys Co-educational 54 14.7
Girls Co-educational 55 14.9

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As presented in Table 1, 181 participants (49%) were male and 186 participants 933
(50.7%) were female therefore male and female students were equally represented in the study.
In regards to age, majority of respondents were in the 16 – 17 year age category (47.9%) or 18
– 19 year category (39.8%). The respondents in this study were representative of the adolescent
age group which was the target of this study. Students were selected from all types of public
secondary schools in Nairobi County.
Measures

Students’ attachment styles were measured using the Attachment Styles Questionnaire
(ASQ, Van Oudenhoven et al, 2003). This questionnaire contains 24 items that measure four
dimensions of attachment: secure attachment (e.g. I trust other people and I like it when other
people can rely on me), preoccupied attachment (e.g. I often wonder whether people like me),
dismissing attachment (e.g., It is important to me to be independent) and fearful attachment
(e.g., I am afraid that I will be deceived when I get too close with others). Students indicated
how much they agreed with each item on a scale from 1= strongly disagree to 5 = strongly
agree. A factor analysis using the main components method and orthogonal rotation was done
to verify the four factors in the ASQ (KMO = .784; Bartlett’s test of sphericity χ²df276 = 5309.24
p<.001) and four factors were obtained and together they explained 63.9% of the variance in
attachment styles. The 24 items were retained. Reliability of the ASQ as ascertained with the
following Cronbach’s alpha coefficients: α = .74 for secure attachment, α = .89 for preoccupied
attachment, α = .88 for dismissing attachment and α = .87 for fearful attachment.
A Risky Sexual Behavior Scale developed by the researchers was used to measure
students’ risky sexual behavior. It contained 11 items (e.g. Have you ever had sex with a person
you did not know very well?). Students responded to these items on a scale from 1 = Not at all to
5 = Six or more times. A higher total score indicated more involvement in risky sexual behavior.
The items in this scale were pilot tested on secondary school students and the authors were
able to refine the items based on the outcome of the pilot testing. Chronbach’s alpha reliability
coefficient for the final version of the scale was .76.
Data Analysis

Multiple regression was used to test whether attachment styles predicted students’
risky sexual behavior. Before the analysis, the data was examined to determine whether the
assumptions necessary for regression analysis were met. Kurtosis and skewness coefficients
presented in Table 2 were examined to ascertain that the data was normally distributed.
Table 2
Skeweness and Kurtosis Values for Normal Distribution of Variables
Variables Kurtosis Skewness

Secure attachment .425 -.566
Fearful attachment -.650 -.410
Preoccupied attachment -1.135 -.419
Dismissing attachment -.581 -.478
Risky sexual behavior .119 .871

As presented in Table 2, the coefficients for skewness and kurtosis generally ranged
between -1 and +1 thus the data was considered to be normally distributed as recommended in

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934 George and Mallery (2019). The exception was the kurtosis value for preoccupied attachment.
However, George and Mallery note that good results in regression analysis can still be obtained
if one of the predictor variables falls out of the recommended range of normality (p. 211).
The Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) was examined to determine whether there was
multicollinearity among the predictor variables. The VIF values ranged between 1.003 and
1.265, all below 2.5 as recommended by Allison (2012). In addition, the tolerance values
obtained were in the acceptable range (between .790 and .997) as recommended by George
and Mallery (2019). It can be argued therefore that the assumptions of normality and non-
collinearity were not violated in this study.
Ethical Considerations

The researchers adhered to the legal and ethical requirements to conduct research in
Kenya. A research permit was given by the National Council for Science, Technology and
Innovation (NACOSTI). After the permit was obtained, the County Director of Education
for Nairobi County issued authorization to visit the schools to collect data. Participants were
requested to voluntarily take part in the study.
Research Results

The results of the correlation analysis between risky sexual behavior and students’
attachment styles are presented in Table 3.
Table 3
Correlations between Students’ Risky Sexual Behavior and Attachment Styles
Risky Sexual Behavior

r -.192**
Secure attachment p <.001
N 367
r .194**
Preoccupied attachment p <.001
N 367
r .145*
Dismissing attachment p .004
N 367
r .023
Fearful attachment p .339
N 367
Note: * p < .01 **p < .001
The bivariate correlations shown in Table 3 indicate that risky sexual behavior was
negatively correlated with secure attachment style (p < .001). Risky sexual behavior was
positively correlated with preoccupied attachment style (p < .001) and dismissing attachment
style (p < .004). The correlation between risky sexual behavior and fearful attachment was
not significant (p = .339). The results of the correlation analysis show there were relationships
between risky sexual behavior and the attachment styles except fearful attachment style. The
results of the regression analysis conducted to find out whether the four attachment styles
significantly predicted students’ risky sexual behavior are shown in Table 4.

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Table 4 935
Regression Analysis Results for Attachment Styles as Predictors of Risky Sexual Behavior
Variable B S.E β t p
(Constant) 21.186 2.255 9.396 <.001
Secure Attachment -.247 .071 -.182 -3.480 .001
Preoccupied Attachment .168 .056 .176 3.000 .003
Dismissing Attachment .128 .080 .094 1.603 .110
Fearful Attachment -.101 .077 -.076 -1.318 .188
R = .285 R = .081 F = 7.427 p <
2
.001

The regression analysis given in Table 4 shows that the four attachment styles significantly
predicted students’ risky sexual behavior (F = 7.427, p<.001) and together they explained 8.1%
of the variance in the scores of risky sexual behavior. The standardized regression coefficients
show the contribution of each attachment style in predicting risky sexual behavior. Secure
attachment style (β = -.182, p = .001) and preoccupied attachment style (β = .176, p < .003)
significantly predicted risky sexual behavior whereas dismissing attachment style (β = .094, p
< .110) and fearful attachment style (β = -.076, p = .118) did not. The results of the regression
analysis show that the more secure a student’s attachment style was, the lower their propensity
for risky sexual behavior was. However, the more preoccupied their attachment style was, the
greater their propensity for risky sexual behavior.
Discussion

The findings in this study revealed a significant association between risky sexual behavior
and attachment styles in secondary school students. Regression analysis revealed that the more
secure a student’s attachment style was, the lower the likelihood that they were engaging in
risky sexual behavior. This finding is consistent with findings reported in earlier studies where
individuals with secure attachment styles were less likely to engage in risky sexual behavior.
Earlier studies by Potard et al (2017) and Matson et al (2014) found that adolescents with
secure attachment styles engaged in risky sexual behavior at lower rates compared to their
counterparts with insecure attachment styles.
Adolescents with secure attachment styles may be less vulnerable to engaging in sexual
behaviors that are risky because they have positive self-image and find validation from within
themselves. Their self-worth does not depend on acceptance or approval by other people. At
the same time, they are not concerned with rejection or abandonment by their romantic partners
because they have low level of attachment anxiety (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2012). As a result
of this disposition, students with secure attachment styles were less inclined to accept their
partners demands to engage in risky sexual activities to gain their partners’ approval or to hold
on to relationships (Olmstead, 2020).
Significant correlations were found between risky sexual behavior and attachment
anxiety and also between risky sexual behavior and attachment avoidance. The implication of
that finding was that risky sexual behavior was associated with both dimensions of insecure
attachment to some extent. When the regression analysis was carried out, the resulting
model showed that attachment anxiety was a significant predictor of risky sexual behavior
but attachment avoidance was not. The findings therefore confirmed the association between
attachment anxiety and risky sexual behavior reported in previous studies. For instance, Paulk

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936 and Zayac (2013) reported that attachment anxiety predicted risky sexual behavior in American
high school students whereas the study by Potard et al (2017) revealed that adolescents with
high levels of attachment anxiety started engaging in sexual activities at a younger age.
Individuals with preoccupied attachment styles tend to feel that they do not deserve
attachment figures’ love and attention and are sensitive to any hint of rejection (Mikulincer &
Shaver, 2012). When they are in romantic relationships, they readily concede to their partners’
sexual demands to demonstrate their love and to avoid rejection by their partners even if the
sexual activities they are asked to participate in are risky (Olmstead, 2020). Their fear of
rejection and desire to please their partner drives them to engage in sexual activities despite
the risks involved. According to Cook et al (2016), students with preoccupied attachment styles
start engaging in sexual activities, including those that are risky, when they are still young
because sexual relationships get them desperately needed attention and may satisfy some of
their unfulfilled attachment needs. Adolescents with preoccupied attachment styles seek the
emotional security they did not receive from caregivers in sexual relationships (Tracy et al,
2003). They readily engage in sexual activities with romantic partners in order to feel secure
and avoid loneliness. In their perspective, the more the sexual intimacy in their relationships,
the better the quality of the relationship (Tracy et al, 2003). Moreover, adolescents with
preoccupied attachment styles need acceptance and approval of others to validate their self-
worth. Therefore they may interpret romantic partners’ sexual interest in them as affirmation
of their value and agree to take part in sexual activities including those are risky (Antonacci,
2014). Adolescents with preoccupied attachment styles are eager to get others to like them
therefore they are likely to take part in risky sexual activities to please others and earn their
liking (Paulk & Zayac, 2013).
Dismissing attachment style did not significantly predict students’ risky sexual behavior
in the regression analysis although attachment avoidance was significantly correlated with
risky sexual behavior. This finding can be interpreted to mean that attachment avoidance
was associated with risky sexual behavior albeit to a smaller extent than attachment anxiety.
Individuals with avoidant attachment styles have a self-image that is positive but do not trust
attachment figures and prefer to be emotionally independent (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2012). They
do not depend on other peoples’ approval or acceptance for self-validation unlike individuals
with preoccupied attachment styles. As a result, they are unlikely to agree to sexual activity for
the sake of pleasing their partners.
According to Jones and Furman (2010), adolescents with high attachment avoidance may
abstain from sexual relationships because they are uncomfortable with intimate relationships
and prefer to remain emotionally independent. According to Mikulincer and Shaver (2007)
individuals with avoidant attachment may not form close relationships because they do not
trust other people and fear disappointment in close relationships. Since they have fewer close
relationships, they have fewer opportunities to engage in sexual behavior. It is possible that the
weaker association between dismissing attachment style and risky sexual behavior was because
students with high attachment avoidance were taking part in less sexual behavior generally.
Research on attachment security and sexual behavior suggests that adolescents with
dismissing attachment styles and those with preoccupied attachment styles are motivated to
engage in sexual behavior for different reasons and this might explain why attachment anxiety
was a better predictor of risky sexual behavior in this study. Whereas students with preoccupied
attachment styles may engage in sexual activities for the reasons mentioned earlier, students
with dismissing attachment styles might have sex for specific reasons such as to lose their
virginity and fit in with their peers who have already lost their virginity (Saint-Eloi Cadely et al,
2020) but with no intention of forming close relationships with the people they have sex with.
According to Thibodeau et al (2017) adolescents with avoidant attachment have little desire
for emotional intimacy or commitment to a partner so they prefer to have sexual relationships

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with strangers with whom they have no plan for long term relationships. Adolescents with 937
preoccupied attachment styles are less prone to casual sex because they have a stronger desire
for love, acceptance and security that is found in a committed relationship and view sex as a
means of strengthening such a relationship.
Individuals with fearful attachment styles score highly on both dimensions of attachment
anxiety and attachment avoidance (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2012). Students with this attachment
style were expected to be more prone to risky sexual behavior compared to students with secure
attachment styles (Paulk & Zayac, 2013). However, this study found no significant association
between risky sexual behavior and fearful attachment style. This finding contradicted the
finding reported by Dumas-Koylass (2013) in which fearful and dismissing attachment styles
predicted risky and impulsive sexual behavior in 18 to 19 year old respondents. The finding in
that study should be compared with this study cautiously because of the age difference of the
respondents. In a study looking at the links between sexual behavior and attachment styles in
homeless youth, Kidd and Shahar (2008) found that individuals with fearful attachment styles
were more likely to exchange sex for money, a behavior that is deemed to be harmful to them.
People who have fearful attachment styles have a negative self-image similar to
individuals with preoccupied attachment styles and crave for the love and attention of attachment
figures. However, they distrust attachment figures and are torn between seeking the attention
of attachment figures and avoiding closeness with attachment figures out of fear of rejection
(Erozkan, 2011). Students with this attachment style may not have stable relationships with
members of the opposite sex that might provide a context for sexual relationships because of
this conflict. It is possible, as Cooper et al (2006, cited in Gause, 2017) suggest, that attachment
avoidance acts as a buffer against risky sexual behavior because individuals with fearful
attachment avoid close relationships that might involve sexual intimacy. This might explain the
absence of any association between fearful attachment and risky sexual behavior in this study.

Conclusions and Recommendations

This study has shown that attachment styles, which are based on mental models of
attachment relationships, influence secondary school students’ sexual behavior. The attachment
theory predicts that individuals’ perceptions of themselves and how they perceive significant
others, based on their mental models of attachment relationships, influences their behavior in
interpersonal relationships. The findings of this study support the attachment theory in this
regard.
Most of the research on attachment has focused on children or adults and comparably
few researchers have examined how attachment influences adolescent adjustment in various
domains. The findings of this study demonstrate that attachment security is important in
adolescence and that the attachment theory is a valuable paradigm through which adolescents’
behavior can be understood. The findings also reinforced the cross cultural applicability of the
attachment theory. This is important since most of the research on attachment in adolescents has
been done in Western countries. Few studies have explored attachment in relation to adolescent
populations in Kenya. This was the first study to the authors’ knowledge that examined whether
attachment styles influence adolescents’ risky sexual behavior in Kenya.
The findings of this study are relevant to school guidance and counseling practice.
Based on the findings, it is recommended that school counselors pay more attention to students
with insecure attachment styles since they are the ones with greater propensity to engage in
risky sexual behaviors. It is also recommended that parents and guardians be educated on
the importance of secure attachment so that they can adopt parenting that enhances secure
attachment in their children.

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938 Declaration of Interest
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unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pubpdf/ADOLESCENT%20PREGNANCYUNFPA.pdf
Van Oudenhoven, J. P. L. M., Hofstra, J., & Bakker, W. (2003). Ontwikkeling en evaluatie van de
Hechtingstijllijst [Development and evaluation of the Attachment Styles Questionnaire].
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for HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the
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Repository. http://hdl.handle.net/11295/94504

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Received: September 15, 2021 Accepted: December 03, 2021 941
Cite as: Owino, W. O., Asakhulu, N. M., Mwania, J. M., & Mwanza, R. (2021). Attachment
styles and risky sexual behaviors in adolescents. Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
79(6), 928-941. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.928
Walter Odera Owino Department of Education Foundation and Psychology, Maasai Mara
University, Kenya.
E-mail: walt_harry@yahoo.com
Newton Mukholwe Asakhulu Department of Education Foundation and Psychology, Maasai Mara
University, Kenya.
E-mail: newton.mukolwe2008@gmail.com
Jonathan Muema Mwania PhD, Professor, Department of Educational Psychology, School of

(Corresponding author) Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, South Eastern Kenya
University, Kenya.
E-mail: muemamwania@yahoo.com
Rose Mwanza Department of Educational Psychology, School of Education, Humanities

and Social Sciences, South Eastern Kenya University, Kenya.
E-mail: rmwanza@seku.ac.ke

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942
ONLINE TEST ANXIETY AND EXAM
PERFORMANCE OF INTERNATIONAL
BACCALAUREATE DIPLOMA PROGRAMME
STUDENTS UNDER E-PROCTORED
EXAMS AMID COVID-19
G S Prakasha
Christ University, India
E-mail: prakasha.gs@christuniversity.in

KY Hemalathaa
Syracuse University, USA
E-mail: ky.hemalathaa88@gmail.com
Ponni Tamizh
Oakridge International School, India
E-mail: tamizhponnicit@gmail.com
Bhola Bhavna
Heritage Xperiential Learning School, India
E-mail: bhavii1983@gmail.com
Anthony Kenneth
Christ University, India
E-mail: anthony.kenneth@ed.christuniversity.in
Abstract
Outbreak of COVID-19, online examination, and e-proctoring have caused more exam anxiety and affected
exam performance among students’ studying in International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma Programme
(DP). Therefore, the present research aimed to find effect of online test anxiety on academic performance
of IBDP students in the subjects related to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM).
Study employed quantitative descriptive survey research design and administered survey questionnaire
to 200 IB DP students who took online test during COVID-19 through convenient sampling technique.
Sample included both first and final year DP students with due representation to boys and girls. Results of
the study revealed a moderate negative correlation between online test anxiety and academic performance
of IBDP students in STEM subjects. Regression analysis explained 14.1% variation in the STEM subject
performance because of online exam anxiety under e-proctored condition. There exists a statistically
significant difference between first and final year students’ online exam anxiety and STEM subject
average grades. Future research may focus on conducting comfortable online examination methods with
no additional exam anxieties.
Keywords: International Baccalaureate (IB), Diploma Programme (DP), e-proctored test, virtual
examination

G S PRAKASHA, KY HEMALATHAA, Ponni TAMIZH, Bhola BHAVNA, Anthony KENNETH. Online test anxiety and exam performance
of international baccalaureate diploma programme students under e-proctored exams amid Covid-19
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Introduction 943
Ever since the Covid-19 pandemic broke out, countries across the globe started to impose
various restrictions in order to curb the infection rates (Gonzalez et al., 2020). Institutions around
the world were faced with closures with an estimated 1.6 billion students from 180 countries
ceasing to attend schools (Panovska-Griffiths et al., 2020). During such a catastrophic and
unexpected scenario many institutions resorted towards rejuvenating the education system via
the online mode of instruction (Crawford et al., 2020). Teachers proceeded towards conducting
classroom lectures online (Abidah et al., 2020). The pandemic gave opportunities for digitally
immersed education. Conferences, examination, lectures, and student-teacher interactions are
now occurring virtually (Kumar, 2020; Strielkowski, 2020). The concept of Online learning
or e-learning is not relatively new and is historically originated as an alternative for students
who could not attend face-to-face teaching-learning (Wedemeyer CA, 1981). However, this
started to gain significant recognition over the past decades with numerous studies and research
exploring online learning (Daffin Jr. & Jones, 2018; Marshall, 2008; Roddy et al., 2017).
Assessment is a vital component of teaching-learning, it is often considered by students
as a measure of their success for their academic performance (Boud, 1990) but the restrictions
imposed due to lockdowns posed a major challenge for assessment (OECD, 2020). Initially,
countries were compelled to postpone the examinations for the higher education (Butler-
henderson & Crawford, 2020) but due to the increase in infectivity rates globally, institutions
resorted towards online testing via ‘e-proctoring’ in order to assess students. Monitoring students
over the internet through electronic tools remotely for examinations or test refers to ‘Virtual
proctoring or e-proctoring’ (Pathak, 2016). This mode of online assessment is deemed to be
effective and reduces mal-practice (Dendir & Maxwell, 2020). This mode of proctoring usually
monitors the candidate audio and video feed obtained from their gadgets (Webcam, microphone)
and their progress on the computer by mirroring their screens. E-proctoring software prevents
the candidate from opening other tabs or apps in the background (Caballero-González &
García-Valcárcel, 2020). Online proctoring is of two types: automated or live proctoring. In live
proctoring, the students are monitored in real time by a particular assigned proctor remotely.
Software flags any unusual physical activity or eye movements or nearby phone, indicating
mal-practice. In automated proctoring, the proctor is not constantly monitoring the students,
rather any forms of suspicious activity indicating mal-practice are recorded and reviewed later
(Hussein et al., 2020; Raman et al., 2021). Both these types are applicable for assessments, but
live proctoring can be suggested as a better option due to constant monitoring which prevents
any imposter taking the test on the candidate behalf (Nie et al., 2020). Even though tests like
the GMAT, LSATS and the TOEFL have adopted online testing via e-proctoring methods to
cater students to attend these tests from the comfort of their homes. Schools and colleges need
to understand the nuances of online testing in terms of procedures to be followed, kind of
questions to be set, assessment schemes and so on. Online testing and E-proctoring are already
prevalent in many MOOCs and the surging demand also paved the way for newer sophisticated
software which was seen replacing (Alessio et al., 2018; Daffin Jr. & Jones, 2018) the once
dominated modes of virtual proctoring such as video conferencing (Hylton et al., 2016; Weiner
& Hurtz, 2017). Platforms like the Mettl, Proctorio, Examity, Proctoru, and Proctortrack have
gained significant recognition during the pandemic (Ching, 2020). They replaced the online
virtual video conference proctoring to a software based proctoring (Alessio et al., 2018; Daffin
Jr. & Jones, 2018). Newer online testing software has features such as proctoring, question
paper releasing, answer script submission, anonymity of student submissions, and evaluation
system. Halem et. al. (2021) says it would be surprising to view the future that replaces the
traditional human proctored examination by virtual mode.

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944 Globally, student population is faced with high level of anxiety and stress (Afsar &
Kulsoom, 2015; Bayram & Bilgel, 2008). Even though the impact of Covid-19 has brought
about deteriorating effects on the mental health of the population (Roy et al., 2020; Xiao, 2020)
and measures were taken to diagnose such issues, the mental health among the students was
relatively ignored (Lee, 2020; Xiang et al., 2020). While some studies showed that teachers
and students provided positive feedback on online proctoring (Craig et al., 2020; Munshi et al.,
2020; Reid & Sam, 2020) the newer practice of evaluating the students online was adding on
the existing issues in the prevailing education system during the pandemic (Cao et al., 2020;
Talidong & Toquero, 2020). Studies revealed that anxieties related to examinations and tests
are the most common forms amidst students in the higher education (Furr et al., 2001) and
often displayed in the form of discomfort, sadness, and regret. These emotions piled up as a
result from previous test experiences and affect the self-esteem and motivation of oneself (Sari
et al., 2018; Stöber, 2004; Larreamendy-Joerns & Leinhardt, 2006; Sansgiry & Sail, 2006).
Even causing students to drop-out or instigate suicidal tendencies (Schaefer et al., 2007).
Given the current issues that online mode of learning is faced, which is aggravating the further
inequality in education (Jæger & Blaabæk, 2020; Thomas & Rogers, 2020). Studies during
pandemic pertaining to online teaching, online learning, and online testing have mostly focused
on technological support needed for them. Whereas students studying in crucial academic stage
like grade 11 or 12 have suffered the consequences of this initial technological adaptation.
Therefore, there is a need for in-depth understanding of consequences faced by students due
to online teaching and testing. Thus, present study aims to understand whether e-proctored
online testing has created exam anxiety among students and thereby affected their academic
performance.
Context of the Present Study
The IB Diploma programme is a globally recognized university entry qualification.

Students studying in this programme have a well-defined plan for their higher studies and
usually join the top universities around the world. Students who opted higher level Mathematics
and Sciences in the diploma programme aim to take up their higher studies in STEM education.
Outbreak of Covid-19 has left them disturbed. Nevertheless, it forced students onto online
classes, e-proctored online examination, and its evaluation. This situation is not limited to IB
school board alone but may be true for the other school boards as well. Researchers of the study
have witnessed it and therefore have planned to conduct the present research. Researchers were
quite inquisitive to know whether e-proctored online test caused anxiety among students and
affected their performance in pre-board examination. There is also gender-science stereotype
in many parts of the world as reported by world economic forum (WEF, 2017). Researchers in
the present study also planned to see the differences in online test anxiety and performance in
STEM subjects based on gender. Results of the present study have potential to inform the IB
and other education system on anxiety faced by the students in remote testing and the way their
performance was affected especially at their crucial stage of school education.
There exists a negative correlation between exam anxiety and exam performance as per
the reviews around six decades. However, in the present study the conditions are different due
to Covid-19. Students are used to face-to-face examination and were asked to take up online
examination all of a sudden therefore, it certainly adds on to the usual exam anxiety. E-proctoring
these online exams further aggravates it. Students studying in IB DP are usually from a higher
socio-economic status. They are hoping to join higher education in the best universities of the
world. Therefore, measuring situational anxiety gains importance, and performance of students
seriously matters at this crucial educational stage in their lives. Students who have opted for
STEM subjects are generally hoping for a bright future in sciences. Outbreak of Covid-19

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has brought a lot of uncertainty in students’ academic future. Therefore, present study was an 945
attempt to understand whether online exam anxiety under e-proctored condition is affecting
their performance especially in STEM subjects.
Research Objectives
• To find whether there is a relationship between online test anxiety faced by the IB
DP students and their academic performance.
• To find out whether the variation in academic performance is explained by
e-proctored online test anxiety faced by the IB DP students.
• To find out whether there is any difference in online test anxiety and academic
performance in STEM subjects among boys and girls
• To find out whether there is any difference in online test anxiety and academic
performance in STEM subjects among first year and final year IB DP students
Hypotheses
• There is no significant relationship between online exam anxiety and academic

performance in STEM subjects of IB DP students
• Online exam anxiety is not a significant predictor of academic performance of IB
DP students in STEM subjects
• There is no significant statistical difference between online exam anxiety and
academic performance in STEM subjects of IB DP boys and girls.
• There is no significant statistical difference between online exam anxiety and
academic performance in STEM subjects of first and final year IB DP students
General Background
The present study employed quantitative descriptive research survey design to address
the research objectives framed for the study. The study planned to collect data from the survey
questionnaire during the pre-board examination of IB DP students, which is planned to be
conducted online on an e-proctored mode. The study sample is limited to the IB students of
first and final year diploma programme. Researchers included students from only those schools,
which accepted our request to conduct the study. Usually, number of students in IB DP is less
unlike other school boards. Therefore, the sample size is limited to 200 only altogether.
Sample
Study employed convenient sampling technique and planned to collect data from
international schools located in India and offering IB diploma programme. Study included 200
students studying in IB diploma programme, which includes 78 boys, 122 girls, 61 first year
diploma students, and 139 from final year diploma programme. Study included only those who
have taken STEM related subjects for their diploma programme. Study sought permission from
the schools, first, for collecting the data and then from students and their parents. It included
assent form for students and consent form for parents. Study also sought institutional ethical
clearance to conduct the present study. Researchers assured the confidentiality of the data
collected to the school heads, students, and their parents. The data is encrypted and is accessible
only to the researchers.

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946 Instrument Used
The present study used online test anxiety inventory (OTAI) developed by Alibak et. al.
(2019) to measure the test anxiety of IB DP students before their pre board exams. Researchers
verified the adequacy and suitability of the instrument by obtaining the face and content validity
of the items from a panel of experts. The study established reliability of the instrument using
Cronbach alpha reliability statistics and found reliability coefficient of 0.892, which indicates
that the instrument is highly reliable (Nunnally, 1979).
Data Collection Procedure
Researchers visited the schools selected for the study and obtained permission from
the heads of the schools to collect the required data. Researchers circulated the survey
questionnaires to first year and final year IB DP students of the schools prior to their pre board
online examination. Survey questionnaire had consent forms and social demographic details
in the first section and second section had items of OTAI instrument. Researchers assured
anonymity of the data collected to students, parents, and school authorities. Out of the total
responses, the researchers included 200 completely filled responses for the study. Once the pre
board examination and its evaluation were over, the researchers collected, students’ average-
score grades of STEM related subjects. Researchers cleaned the data and then fed into SPSS
version 24 to carry out the quantitative data analysis.
Data Analysis
The study used correlation test, simple linear regression analysis, independent sample
t-test, and analysis of variance (ANOVA) test to test the statistical significance of the hypotheses
framed for the present study. The results are presented in the following section.
Research Results
Researchers conducted Pearson correlation test to find out the relationship between
online test anxiety and academic performance of IB DP students. Nevertheless, the study tested
whether the obtained relationship is true even in case of demographic variables such as gender
and studying year of IB DP. Table 1 shows the results of the correlation test.
Table 1
Pearson Correlation Statistics
Performance in STEM Subjects

Variables
Overall Boys Girls First year DP Final year DP
Online Test anxiety -.376** -.283** -.433** -.374** -.333**
**. Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed)
As shown in Table 1, there is a moderate negative correlation between online test anxiety
and performance of students in STEM subjects (r = -.376). To any increase in online test anxiety
there is a corresponding proportionate decrease in the performance in STEM subjects’ grade.

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Online test anxiety negatively correlated to boys, girls, first year, and final year DP students’ 947
performance in STEM subjects. All these negative correlations are statistically significant at
.01 level.
The regression analysis was to understand the total variation in the Performance of
students in STEM subjects (dependent variable) as explained by the online exam anxiety under
e-proctored condition (independent variable). Research data met all the assumptions required
of regression analysis. As shown in Table 2, it is clear that the correlation between student
performance in the STEM subjects and their online exam anxiety is 0.376 indicating moderate
correlation. 14.1% of the variation in students’ performance in STEM subjects’ is because of the
online exam anxiety they have under e-proctored condition (Quirk, et al., 2021).
Table 2
Model Summary Statistics of Regression
Model summarya
Change statistics
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the estimate
R Square Change F change
1 .376a .141 .137 1.15705 .141 32.584

a. Predictors: (Constant), Exam anxiety
Durbin-Watson statistical test conducted to find out the auto-correlation in the residuals
from regression analysis. The result of the auto-correlation between online exam anxiety and
STEM subjects’ average grade points presented in Table 3 shows that there is a slight positive
autocorrelation (1.785) between the variables.
Table 3
Durbin-Watson Statistics
Change Statistics
Model Durbin-Watson
df1 df2 Sig. F Change
1 1b 198 .0001 1.785

b. Dependent Variable: STEM subjects average grade points
ANOVA output of the regression analysis presented in Table 4 explains how well
the regression equation and model fits the data. Regression model significantly predicts the
dependent variable (p < .05) that means online exam anxiety predicts performance in STEM
subjects.

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948 Table 4
ANOVA Statistics
ANOVAa
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p
Regression 43.622 1 43.622 32.584 .0001b
1 Residual 266.076 198 1.339
Total 308.698 199

a. Dependent variable: STEM subjects average grade points (Exam performance)
b. Predictors: (Constant), Exam anxiety
The regression model coefficients presented in Table 5 determine whether online exam
anxiety statistically significantly contributes to the model. As shown in Table 5 online exam
anxiety contributes significantly to the model and is able to predict students’ performance in
STEM subjects. A regression equation formed out of the unstandardized coefficients (B) value
is; STEM subjects average grade point = 6.540 + (-0.033) x (exam anxiety).
Table 5
Showing Regression Coefficients Statistics
Coefficients a
Unstandardized Standardized 95.0% Confidence interval

Coefficients Coefficients p for B
Model
t Lower
B
bound Upper
Std. Error Beta
bound
(Constant) 6.540 .281 23.243 .0001 5.985 7.095

1
Exam anxiety -0.033 .006 -.376 -5.708 .0001 -0.044 -.021
a. Dependent variable: STEM subjects average grade points
In order to test whether there is any difference in online exam anxiety and academic
performance in STEM subjects among boys and girls studying in IB DP, the study conducted
independent sample t-test. Table 6 shows the results of the independent sample t-tests.

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Table 6 949
Independent Sample t-Test for Exam Anxiety and Academic Performance with Gender
Levine's Test t-test for Equality of Means

for Equality
of Variances
F p t df p Mean Std. 95% CI

(2-tailed) Differ- Error Dif- Differ- 95% CI
ence ference ence Difference
Lower Upper
Equal .016 .898 .427 198 .670 .892 2.090 -3.229 5.014
variances
Exam assumed
anxiety Equal var- .425 161.219 .672 .892 2.102 -3.258 5.042
iances not
assumed
Perfor- Equal .100 .752 -1.115 198 .266 -.20120 .18045 -.55705 .15466
mance variances
in assumed
STEM Equal var- -1.123 168.327 .263 -.20120 .17909 -.55475 .15235
sub- iances not
jects assumed
Table 6 shows that, there is no significant difference in online exam anxiety among boys
and girls studying in IB DP (t198 = 0.427, p = 0.670). Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted,
and alternative hypothesis rejected. Nevertheless, there is no significant difference in academic
performance in STEM subjects among boys and girls studying in IB DP (t198 = -1.115, p =
0.266). Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted, and alternative hypothesis rejected.
In order to test whether there is any difference in online exam anxiety and academic
performance in STEM subjects among first year and final year students studying in IB DP, the
study conducted independent sample t-test. Table 7 shows the results of the independent sample
t-tests.

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950 Table 7
Independent Sample t-Test of Exam Anxiety and Academic Performance with II and I DP
Levine's
Test for
t-test for Equality of Means
Equality of
Variances
95% CI 95% CI
Mean Std. Differ- Differ-
F p t df p (2-tailed) Differ- Error Dif- ence ence
ence ference
Lower Upper
Equal
variances .010 .919 2.714 198 .007 5.903 2.175 1.614 10.193
Exam assumed
anxi-
ety Equal
variances not 2.718 115.038 .008 5.903 2.172 1.602 10.205
assumed
Per- Equal
for- variances .316 .575 -3.547 198 .0001 -.65959 .18595 -1.02629 -.29290
mance assumed
in
STEM Equal
sub- variances not -3.471 109.044 .001 -.65959 .19006 -1.03628 -.28291
jects assumed
Table 7 shows that there is a significant difference in online exam anxiety among first and
final year IB DP students (t198 = 2.714, p = .007). Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected, and
alternative hypothesis is accepted. Online exam anxiety of first year DP students’ is more than
final year students’ (M first = 51.33, M final = 45.42). Nevertheless, there is a significant difference
in academic performance in STEM subjects among first and final year IB DP students (t198
= -3.547, p = .0001). Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected, and alternative hypothesis
is accepted. Performance in STEM subjects of first year DP students’ is less than final year
students’ (M first = 4.5451, M final = 5.2047).
Discussion
In the past two decades, there is an increase in the online educational programmes in
western education system especially in United States and Canada. This is posing a challenge
to exam integrity and there is variation in exam anxiety of the learners. Earlier studies mention
that to save time and to make examinations cost effective, many educational programmes do
conduct e-proctored online examination. Several survey research have shown that learners
misconduct if they get a chance and on contrary to this, if e-proctored method is used to reduce
misconduct during online testing, there is additional exam anxiety (Witherspoon et al., 2012;
Karim et al., 2014). Studies since last 4 decades have found that test anxiety negatively affected
academic performance (Huberty, 2009). In the study conducted by Cassady (2009) it is found
that, test anxiety is a situation specific type of trait anxiety. Therefore, measuring test anxiety
during Covid-19 pandemic situation gains unique importance and especially with International
baccalaureate diploma programme students who are aspiring to join the world’s best higher
education Universities. Interestingly present study found 14.1% of their performance is affected
by additional test anxiety, which is huge in an educationally competitive world.

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Study revealed a negative correlation between online test anxiety and overall 951
performance in STEM subjects and it is true for subgroups of the sample: boys, girls, first year,
and second year IB DP students. This result is in agreement with the recent study conducted in
an US university (Woldeab & Brothen, 2019). Earlier studies clearly suggested exploring the
relationship of online test anxiety and exam performance, accordingly the present study found
that, online exam anxiety under e-proctored condition has affected the students’ performance in
their examination. 14.1% of variation in the exam performance is due to online exam anxiety
faced by the students under e-proctored condition. This test anxiety as supported by earlier
study is, a condition or situation specific (Cassady, 2010). Study revealed that online exam
anxiety is the same across boys and girls. Their performance in STEM subjects also did not
differ. However, there is a significant difference in online exam anxiety between first year and
final year IB DP students under e-proctored condition. First year students have shown more
anxiety than final year DP students have. This could be due to the unexpected prevailing covid
situation and perceived online test anxiety and uncertain future ahead.
Nevertheless, first year students’ performance in STEM subjects is lower than the final
year students’ performance as they had higher anxiety. The proctor intrusiveness causes higher
anxiety as explained by Woldeab and others (Woldeab et. al., 2017). Overall, online exam
anxiety affected the academic performance of IB DP students, therefore schools have to work
towards the strategies to reduce online exam anxiety. Induction programmes on nature and
procedures of online examination may help students overcome their anxiety. Counselling
support programmes to deal with academic pressure, global competitions, coping-mechanisms,
and mental health techniques may help in reducing anxiety of students, which in turn may
enhance their performance in the upcoming examination be it final board exams and entrance
examination. Interestingly pre-university college (PUC) board in Karnataka state of India
gave their final PUC results based on student’s performance in their grade 10, first PUC, and
internal assessments in final PUC. Being Government college education board, it did not go for
any online testing and e-proctoring system. As diploma programme is a crucial stage of their
school education and determines their future education, stakeholders must pay attention to the
outcome of the present study. The study strongly recommends qualitative research to capture
the detailed account of their anxiety affecting performance, which helps the stakeholders to take
care of such future situations.
As intended, the study was able to find the relationship between online test anxiety and
students’ performance in STEM subjects in an e-proctored online examination and it is negative.
Further exploration of the relationship found that, online test anxiety explained 14.1% of exam
performance. The study revealed that, there is no difference in online test anxiety and exam
performance in STEM subjects with respect to gender. However, the differences were found in
online test anxiety and exam performance in STEM subjects between first year and final year
IB DP students. Few of the limitations of the study are: the study included exam performance
in STEM subjects only, drawn sample from students studying in international baccalaureate
diploma programme only, and socio demographics considered are gender and study years only.
The study can be conducted to a larger sample and to different types of student populations for
more comprehensive results. However, the study clearly points out the need for taking careful
steps by stakeholders while taking academic decisions especially in 11 and 12 grades level of
education. The study recommends future researchers to work on reducing proctor intrusiveness
and develop newer technologies for tensionless conduct of remote or online examination.

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952 Conflict of Interest
The authors have no conflicting interest towards this publication. All have contributed to
the work. The authors thank all those who cooperated for the data collection.
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955
Cite as: Prakasha, G. S., Hemalathaa, K., Tamizh, P., Bhavna, B., & Kenneth, A. (2021).
Online test anxiety and exam performance of international baccalaureate diploma programme
students under e-proctored exams amid Covid-19. Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
79(6), 942-955. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.942
G S Prakasha PhD, Assistant Professor, School of Education, Christ University, Bangalore,

(Corresponding author) India.
E-mail: prakasha.gs@christuniversity.in
K Y Hemalathaa MA, Research Scholar, Syracuse University, USA

E-mail: ky.hemalathaa88@gmail.com
Ponni Tamizh BE, Assistant Teacher, Oakridge International School, India.

E-mail: tamizhponnicit@gmail.com
Bhola Bhavna MSc, Assistant Teacher & Counsellor, Heritage Xperiential Learning School,
India.
E-mail: bhavii1983@gmail.com
Anthony Kenneth MSc, Scholar, Christ University, India.

E-mail: anthony.kenneth@ed.christuniversity.in

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956
THE USE OF THE INTERPRETATION
OF WORKS OF ART IN PRE-SCHOOL
EDUCATION
Ivana Rochovská, Božena Švábová
Catholic University in Ružomberok, Slovakia
E-mail: ikrupova@gmail.com, bozenasvab@gmail.com
Abstract
The research focuses on examining the use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school education
in three dimensions - the current state of the use of the interpretation of works of art, the opinions of
kindergarten teachers on art, and the opportunities for kindergarten teachers to acquire knowledge about
the theory and history of art in their undergraduate training or in other forms of education. The aim of
the research was to determine a correlation between the aforementioned variables. 366 kindergarten
teachers responded to the items of the self-constructed questionnaire. It has been proven that the current
state of the use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school education can be described as below
average, the opportunities for kindergarten teachers to acquire knowledge from the theory and history
of art in their pre-graduate training or in other forms of education were lower than average, and the
opinions of kindergarten teachers on art can also be described as below average. There is a statistically
significant positive correlation between the aforementioned dimensions of the interpretation of works of
art in pre-school education.
Keywords: empirical experience, kindergarten teacher, pre-school education, works of art
Introduction
Art and its application in education can have a very positive effect on the development
of the personality of the individuals learning, as well as their educational results. Plenty of
research has shown that art in various forms can bring measurable benefits to learners.
From a research study by Bowen and Kisida (2019), it emerged that the inclusion of
art in education has a positive impact on the lives of children, as these children have better
educational results, sooner show compassion to others and are more likely to have fewer
discipline problems. This study compared a group of children, who were provided with an
extended and enhanced art education, with a group of children who were not provided with
such an education. Other research has also shown that art education activities have a beneficial
effect on the development of self-expression, creativity, and empathy (Dewey, 1919; Ruppert,
2006). Numerous contemporary research studies have found that, from an early age, children
show sensitivity towards many aspects of works of art and their creation, and the arts play an
increasingly important role in the development of the child (Acer, 2014; Cox, 2005; Barton,
2015; Gardner, 1990; Nevanen et al., 2014; Novaković, 2014).
There is growing evidence within the plenty of international scientific research which
suggests that those who participate in culture (not excluding art, whether it be music, dance,
film, literature, etc.), have a better state of health and are more satisfied with life than those who
are not involved in culture and art (Mowlah et al., 2014).
Research focused on the benefits of visual arts for children has shown that the inclusion
of activities focused on visual arts has a positive effect on the development of their critical
thinking (Bowen et al. 2014). Tomas (2019) also verified the influence of experimental activities,

Ivana ROCHOVSKÁ, Božena ŠVÁBOVÁ. The use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school education
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focused upon contemporary visual art, on the development of a child’s potential for creativity, 957
as well as their artistic skills.
Research focused on the benefits of music for children has shown the positive effect of
music education, not only in awakening the child's interest in music and in the development
of musical abilities, but also that practical musical activity gradually leads to further positive
changes in various non-musical areas. According to several experiences, active musical activity
can also have a positive effect on the behaviour of children and young people (Rochovská
et al. 2021). Duke et al. (1997), believed that playing a musical instrument improves certain
personality traits of children, such as discipline, concentration, the ability to relax, reliability,
responsibility, and a better understanding of one's own personality.
Research on the application of dramatic expression by the methods of creative drama
found that its application contributed to coherence in the classroom and had a positive effect
on the behaviour of the children. Thus, the importance of applying creative drama as a didactic
tool in education was emphasised (Azlina et al. 2021). In connection with creative drama and
the development of creativity, the research of Toivanen et al. (2013) can be brought to our
attention. In fact, creative drama provides suitable opportunities to support children's creativity.
It develops not only individual creativity, but also group creativity in the school environment.
Similarly, Momeni et al. (2017) confirmed the development of the creativity of children, aged
four to six, using the methods of creative drama. The researchers used the creativity test of Jean-
Louis Sellier (1977). Švábová (2019) also pointed out the benefits of using dramatic expression
among children of a preschool age.
In connection with the trends of contemporary art (not only visual, but also music, literary
and dramatic), which uses the procedures of interpretation (appropriation, citation), the inclusion
of the problematic of the interpretation of works of art in education in pre-primary education is
one of the options of how to make different types of art accessible to children through their own
reaction to the works of art, and thus support them especially in the development of creative and
critical thinking and cultural literacy.
Research Issue
Thus, many of the cited studies have confirmed that the inclusion of activities aimed
at working with works of art has a positive effect on learners at different levels and types
of schools, not excluding children of a pre-school age. However, the interpretive activities
in the kindergarten are required to be led by a teacher who is competent both in pedagogy
and in art. Bea (2004) found that teachers had important roles in facilitating children’s artistic
development. It is possible to ask whether kindergarten teachers feel competent in this respect
and to what extent they include the topic of the interpretation of works of art in the framework
of educational activities in the kindergarten.
According to Bautista et al. (2017) there is limited research focused on documenting
what arts-related pedagogical practices look like in actual preschool classroom settings. A
search of online research databases indicated that no studies or large-scale surveys had been
conducted with kindergarten teachers to assess their opportunities to acquire knowledge from
the theory and history of art, nor the degree of use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-
school education.
The key topic of research was the interpretation of works of art in pre-school education.
The research problem was to examine if there is a correlation among the self-reflection of
kindergarten teachers on their knowledge of the theory and history of art, the opinions of
kindergarten teachers on art and the use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school
education. The examination of this correlation can lead to a better understanding of the
interpretation of works of art in pre-school education from the viewpoint of kindergarten
teachers.

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958 The Aim and Hypotheses of the Research
The main aim of the research was to find out the opinions of kindergarten teachers on
the use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school education. The aim of the research
resulted in the following goals:
1. To determine whether the opportunities of acquiring knowledge about the theory and
history of art among kindergarten teachers affect the level of the use of the interpretation of works
of art in pre-school education.
2. To find out whether the opportunities of acquiring knowledge about the theory and
history of art among kindergarten teachers affect the level of their opinions on art.
3. To determine whether the level of the kindergarten teachers' opinions on art has an
impact on the use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school education.
Based on field experience and on previous empirical experience, the hypotheses were
formulated:
H1: There is a statistically significant positive correlation between the opportunities of
kindergarten teachers to acquire knowledge from the theory and history of art and the degree of
use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school education.
H2: There is a statistically significant positive correlation between the ability of kindergarten
teachers to acquire knowledge from the theory and history of art and their opinions on art.
H3: There is a statistically significant positive correlation between the opinions of
kindergarten teachers on art and the rate of use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school
education.
General Background
The research was carried out from January 2019 to April 2021, as part of a project, “The
interpretation of works of art in pre-school education”. Quantitative and qualitative approaches
were applied in this project. The project focused on the creation and validation of an instrument
for the examination of the current state of the use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-
school education, the opinions of kindergarten teachers on art and their opportunities to acquire
knowledge of the history of art in their undergraduate training or other forms of education. The
questionnaire, semi-structured interview and unstructured observation of educational activities
focused on the use of works of art in the kindergarten were used in the research.
Sample
The research sample consisted of 366 kindergarten teachers in Slovakia. Teachers who
showed a willingness to participate in the research were chosen for the selection sample;
therefore, it constitutes an available selection.
A total of 377 questionnaires were received (via a Google.Docs form and in paper form).
A thorough inspection excluded 8 questionnaires, as nothing was filled in and they were sent
blank. Another three questionnaires were excluded due to replication.
352 respondents were female, one was male and 13 did not state. The age was stated
by a total of 346 kindergarten teachers. The age ranged from 20 years to 64 years, the average
age is M = 42.75 years (SD = 11.79). A total of 344 kindergarten teachers stated the number of
years of pedagogical praxis. The number of years of pedagogical praxis ranged from 0 years
to 46 years, the average number of years of praxis is M = 19.64 years (SD = 14.29). 57.9% of
respondents were from municipal kindergartens, 36.3% of respondents from rural kindergartens,
and the remaining 5.7% of respondents did not state. Most respondents (91.3%) were from state
kindergartens, 2.2% were from private kindergartens and 1.6% from church kindergartens.

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Instruments and Procedures 959
To meet the aim of the research, a questionnaire was chosen, with the aim of collecting
data from the largest number of respondents as possible in the shortest possible time. A self-
constructed research tool was used. It consisted of three parts. The first part of the questionnaire
(Part A) was related to the respondents' opinions on the current state of the use of the interpretation
of works of art in pre-school education. In the second part (Part B), the respondents' opportunities
to acquire knowledge from the theory and history of art were determined. In the third part
(Part C) the respondents' opinion on art was determined. In addition to this, sociodemographic
information was determined.
The questionnaire contained a total of 32 questions, whereby the first part was related to 7
scored items, the second part 5 scored items, and 4 scored items in the third part. An exploratory
factor analysis was used to determine the factor structure of the three variables. A one-factor
solution was confirmed in all three variables. For the variable, “the use of the interpretation of
works of art in pre-school education”, the internal consistency was α = .679, for the variable,
“the opportunity to acquire knowledge from the theory and history of art”, it was α = .551 and
for the variable, “the opinions of the teacher on art”, α = .577.
For Part A – “the current state of the use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-
school education”, the respondent was able to obtain a maximum of 104 points. In Part A, the
scoring of answers in the questionnaire was designed so that a higher overall score suggests a
greater level of, and a more frequent use of, various works of art by kindergarten teachers, more
sources of topics, sufficient publications, and a greater interest from the children, etc.
In the first semi-closed item, the respondents answered whether they used works of art or
their reproductions, in educational activities with the children, while choosing from the options
a) paintings, sculptures, b) musical compositions, c) theatre performances, d) literary works, e)
other, and they were asked to indicate which ones specifically for each option. For each circled
answer a) to e), the respondent could get one point.
In the second item, with a simple selection, the respondents indicated how often they
included work with various works of art within the kindergarten educational activities, namely
in the area of fine/visual art, music art, literary art, dramatic art and other types of art (they
were supposed to state which specifically). They were choosing from the options, according to
which they also received scores for the answers: a) every day (5 points), b) at least once a week
(4 points, c) at least once a month (3 points), d) at least once every six months (2 points), e) at
least once a year (1 point), f) not at all (0 points), g) another answer (they were supposed to state
specifically, while being scored individually with a maximum possible number of 5 points).
The third multi-selection item considered in which of the educational areas did the
respondents apply activities focused on the interpretation of works of art. The respondents
were supposed to mark one or more options a) - g), each option indicated one educational area
from a valid curricular document: Language and Communication, Mathematics and Work with
Information, Man and Nature, Man and Society, Art and Culture, Man and the World of Work,
Health and Exercise. One point was awarded for each specified area.
The fourth item with multiple selections was aimed at drawing suggestions from the
respondents for working with a work of art, namely in the area of fine/visual art, music art,
literary art, dramatic art, and other types of art (they were supposed to state which specifically).
They were choosing from the following options: a) from literature, b) from the Internet, c) from
colleagues, d) from conferences and professional seminars and workshops, e) from various
forms of continual education, f) I came up with my own one, g) another answer (they were
supposed to specify). One point was awarded for each option specified.
In the fifth semi-closed item, the respondents expressed whether they had sufficient
methodological materials and publications, related to working with works of art in pre-school

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960 education, at their disposal in their kindergarten, namely in the area of fine/visual art, music art,
literary art, dramatic art, and other types of art (they were supposed to state which specifically).
They were supposed to mark one of the options: a) yes, b) no, c) another answer (they were
supposed to specify). They received one point for each answer marked “yes”. Option c) was
scored individually, but they could get a maximum of one point. In order to obtain a more
objective picture about whether there were sufficient publications with the aforementioned
focus, the respondents were supposed to state the approximate number of publications available
in the kindergarten for each type of art.
In the sixth item, the respondents stated with a simple selection of how interested the
children were in working with works of art within educational activities, namely in the area of
fine/visual art, music art, literary art, dramatic art, other types of art (they were supposed to state
which specifically). They were choosing from options, according to which they also received
scores for the answers: a) great interest (4 points), b) interest (3 points), c) neither interest nor
disinterest (2 points), d) mostly disinterest (1 point), absolute disinterest (0 points).
The seventh open item focused on whether the respondents used innovative methods
(e.g., role-plays, creative drama, research methods) when working with works of art in the
kindergarten, and which ones specifically. They received 1 point for each aforementioned
innovative method, the maximum possible number of points obtained for answering this
question was 7 points.
For Part B – “opportunities for teachers to acquire knowledge from the theory and
history of art”, the respondent could get a maximum of 55 points. The scoring of the answers
in the questionnaire in Part B was designed so that the more points the respondent obtained, the
better their self-reflection on education in the area of art (knowledge, practical artistic activity,
theoretical, methodological and practical ideas for carrying out activities with children in the
kindergarten connected with art).
The first multiple-choice item focused on the evaluation of the ability of the respondent
to acquire knowledge from the theory and history of art during their studies, in the area of fine/
visual art, music art, literary art, dramatic art and other types of art (they were supposed to state
which specifically). They were choosing from options, according to which they also received
scores for the answers: a) excellent (4 points), b) very good (3 points), c) good (2 points), d)
sufficient (1 point), e) insufficient (0 points).
In the second multiple-choice item, the respondents were asked to mention some specific
disciplines they had attended in high school or university, in the area of fine/visual art, music art,
literary art, dramatic art and other types of art (they were supposed to state which specifically).
They were choosing from options, according to which they also obtained scores for the answers:
a) yes, during high school studies (1 point), b) yes, during university studies (1 point), c) no (0
points), d) I do not remember (0 points).
The third semi-closed item focused on finding out whether the respondents acquired
knowledge from the theory and history of art, even after completing undergraduate training
in the form of continuous, or non-formal or informal education (various courses, workshops,
conferences, etc.). They were choosing from options, according to which they also received a
score for the answers: a) yes, in the form of continuous education (1 point), b) yes, in the form
of non-formal education (e.g. courses, workshops) (1 point), c) yes, in the form of informal
education (spontaneously acquired knowledge) (1 point), d) no (0 points), other answer (they
were supposed to state specifically, while being scored individually, with the maximum possible
number of acquired points 1).
In the fourth item, the respondents were supposed to indicate whether they had attended
any courses, workshops or seminars aimed at getting acquainted with art or practical artistic
activities, (e.g., courses of painting, ceramics, dancing, theatre...), namely in the area of fine/
visual art, music art, literary art, dramatic art, and other types of art (they were supposed to state

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which specifically). For each type of art, they were supposed to give at least an approximate 961
name, whereby for each given name of a course, workshop or seminar within one type of art, 1
point was awarded, so it was possible to get a maximum of 5 points for the entire item.
In the fifth item, the respondents were supposed to state whether they had completed
any courses, workshops or seminars focused on theoretical, methodological or practical topics,
and how to implement activities with children in the kindergarten to learn about works of art,
namely in the area of fine/visual art, music art, literary art, dramatic art and other types of art
(they were supposed to state which specifically). For each type of art, they were supposed to
state at least an approximate name, with 1 point awarded for each given name of the course,
workshop or seminar within one type of art, but a maximum of 5 points could be obtained for
the entire item.
For Part C – “the opinions of the kindergarten teachers on art”, the respondent could
obtain a maximum of 71 points. The scoring of the answers in the questionnaire in Part C was
designed so that the more points the respondent obtained, the more important art was for her,
and the more active she was in art or aesthetic activities, not only passively as a recipient, but
also actively.
In the first multiple-choice item, the respondents answered whether they considered art to
be important in their lives, especially the area of fine/visual art, music art, literary art, dramatic
art and other types of art (they were supposed to state which specifically). They were choosing
from options, according to which they also received scores for the answers: a) very significant
(4 points), b) significant (3 points), c) partly significant (2 points), d) mostly insignificant (1
point), e) not significant at all (0 points).
The second multiple-choice item focused on how often respondents visited different
institutions and performances - art galleries and museums, classical music concerts, literary
cafes, theatre performances, ballet/musical/opera/operetta, and other art presentations (they had
the opportunity to add three other events or institutions they attended). They were choosing
from the options according to which they also received scores for answers: a) at least once a
week (4 points), b) at least once a month (3 points), c) at least once every six months (2 points),
d) at least once a year (1 point), e) never (0 points).
In the third semi-enclosed item, the respondents were supposed to circle the statements
that best described them: a) I have artistic paintings/sculptures or their reproductions in my
home (they were supposed to indicate which ones specifically); b) I own musical instruments
(they were supposed to indicate which ones specifically); c) I have art literature in my library
(they were supposed to indicate which ones specifically); d) I own video recordings of theatre
performances (they were supposed to indicate which ones specifically); e) I own other art or
art-related objects (they were supposed to indicate which ones specifically). One point was
awarded for each marked statement.
The fourth multiple-choice item was focused on whether respondents were actively
involved in artistic creation, indicating one option for each question, and being awarded points
a) yes, often (2 points), b) yes, occasionally (1 point), c) never (0 points). The questions were
as follows: Are you actively involved in drawing/painting/sculpture? Do you play a musical
instrument? Which one? Do you write poems/prose? Do you act in the theatre? The respondents
could also provide another related answer regarding their artistic/aesthetic work.
In the form in which the questionnaire is compiled (its individual parts are not
unidimensional and include within them several factors of the observed occurrence, it is more
focused on a description of the occurrence), it is difficult to analyse its validity and reliability.
On the other hand, with a questionnaire designed in this way, focused on a description of
the occurrence, it is not even necessary to monitor its validity and reliability. Based on the
preliminary research, an analysis of the items was applied, on the basis of which the quality
of the items was evaluated, and possible modifications were proposed (which were minimal in
this case).

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962 Data collection took place from 20th June 2019 to 30th September 2020. The questionnaire
was administered in several ways - on the one hand, it was sent by e-mail to kindergartens with
a link to an electronic form of the questionnaire. The lowest return was expected here, given
that kindergarten employees are burdened with administrative obligations to such an extent
that they often do not respond at all to requests to complete a questionnaire. The questionnaire
was also administered through social groups, where a slightly higher return was expected due
to the fact that not only managers but also teachers are registered, who to a greater extent
work directly with the children. The highest return expected for the questionnaires, was for
those which were administered in person, in paper form. The return cannot be calculated as a
percentage, as the real data can only be found in questionnaires administered in person, and
it is not possible to verify exactly how many teachers opened the e-mail with a link to the
questionnaire, or how many teachers from these social groups were registered at the time of the
request of its completion.
Data Analysis
The data were analysed using the Jamovi program. Basic descriptive characteristics such
as n, M, SD, Mdn, Mo, minimum and maximum were determined. An exploratory factor analysis
was used to determine the factor structure of the generated variables. Internal consistency
was determined by Cronbach's alpha coefficient, and linear regression was used to verify the
hypotheses.
Research Results
Current State of the Use of the Interpretation of Works of Art in Pre-school Education
The average value of the use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school education
is M = 46.7 (SD = 13.4) and the median is Mdn = 47. Values ranged from 0 to 91.
Table 1
Basic Descriptive of the Outcome of Part A of the Questionnaire
n M Mdn Mo SD min max

366 46.7 47 47 13.4 0 91
Based on the description, the current state of the use of the interpretation of works of art
in pre-school education can be described as lower than the scale average (scale range from 0
to 99).
Opportunities for Kindergarten Teachers to Acquire Knowledge of the Theory and History of
Art in their Pre-graduate Training or in Other Forms of Education
The average value for the variable, “opportunity to acquire knowledge from the theory
and history of art”, was M = 15.7 (SD = 7.78). The median was equal to Mdn = 16. Values
ranged from 0 to 40 points.

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Table 2 963
Basic Descriptive of the Outcome of Part B of the Questionnaire
366 15.7 16 20 7.78 0 40
Based on the above description of the variable, the opportunities for kindergarten teachers
to acquire knowledge of the theory and history of art in their pre-graduate training or in other
forms of education are lower than average (the range of the scale is from 0 to 55).
The Opinions of Kindergarten Teachers on Art
The average value of the variable, the opinions of teachers on art, was M = 21.6 (SD =
7.78) and with a median Mdn = 22. Values ranged from 0 to 46 points.
Table 3
Basic Descriptive of the Outcome of Part C of the Questionnaire
366 21.6 22 22 8.39 0 46
Based on the above description (range of points from 0 to 71), the opinions of kindergarten
teachers on art are rather low (based on average values and the median).
Verification of Hypothesis H1
Hypothesis H1 assumed that there is a statistically significant positive correlation between

the opportunities of kindergarten teachers to acquire knowledge from the theory and history of
art and the degree of use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school education. There is
a statistically significant positive correlation between the variables, which is moderately strong
r = 0.486 (p ˂ .0001). The coefficient of determination is R2 = 0.236, that is to say 23.6% of
the variance in the use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school education is explained
by the opportunities of acquiring knowledge of the theory and history of art among teachers.
The regression model predicts well the use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school
education, based on the opportunity of acquiring knowledge from the theory and history of art
(F (1.364) = 112.628, p ˂ .0001). Hypothesis H1 was confirmed.
Table 4
Additional Information to Verify Hypothesis H1
Unstandardised
95% CI interval
Coefficients β t p
Lower Upper
B SE
Bound Bound
(Constant) 33.542 1.387 24.188 ˂ .0001 30.815 36.269
Opportunities
to Acquire 0.838 0.079 0.486 10.613 ˂ .0001 0.683 0.994
Knowledge

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964 This means that if kindergarten teachers have enough opportunities to acquire knowledge
of the theory and history of art, this will then be reflected in the increased use of the interpretation
of works of art in pre-school education. On the other hand, if they use interpretive activities in
pre-school education, it forces them to focus more on art and study it.
Hypothesis H2 assumed that there is a statistically significant positive correlation

between the ability of kindergarten teachers to acquire knowledge from the theory and history
of art and their opinions on art. There is a statistically significant positive correlation between
the variables, which is moderately strong r = 0.569 (p ˂ .0001). The coefficient of determination
is R2 = 0.324, that is to say 32.4% of the variance in the level of the teacher's opinions on
art is explained by the opportunities of acquiring knowledge of the theory and history of art
among teachers. The regression model predicts well the opinions of teachers on art based on the
opportunities of acquiring knowledge from the theory and history of art (F (1.364) = 174.314,
p ˂ .0001). Hypothesis H2 was confirmed.
Table 5
Unstandardised
95% CI interval
Coefficients
β t p
Lower Upper
B SE
Bound Bound
(Constant) 11.979 0.817 14.67 ˂ .0001 10.373 13.585

Opportunities
to Acquire 0.614 0.047 0.569 13.203 ˂ .0001 0.523 0.705
Knowledge
This means that if kindergarten teachers have enough opportunities to acquire knowledge
of the theory and history of art, it will also be reflected in their opinions on art, they will gain
better opinions on it. On the other hand, if they have positive opinions on art and its discovery,
it motivates them to acquire additional knowledge, perhaps through continual education, or
various courses and workshops which are currently on offer.
Hypothesis H3 assumed that there is a statistically significant positive correlation between

the opinions of kindergarten teachers on art and the rate of use of the interpretation of works of
art in pre-school education. There is a statistically significant positive correlation between the
variables, which is moderately strong (r = 0.395, p ˂ .0001). The coefficient of determination
is R2 = 0.156, that is to say 15.6% of the variance in the use of the interpretation of works of art
in pre-school education is explained by the level of the teacher's opinions on art. The regression
model predicts well the use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school education, based
on the opinions of kindergarten teachers on art (F (1.364) = 67.174, p ˂ .0001). Hypothesis H3
was confirmed.

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Table 6 965
Unstandardised
95% CI interval
Coefficients
β t p
Lower Upper
B SE
Bound Bound
(Constant) 33.087 1.786 18.521 ˂ .0001 29.574 36.6
Opinions of
Kindergarten 0.631 -0.077 0.395 8.196 ˂ .0001 0.479 0.782
Teachers on Art
This means that if kindergarten teachers have positive opinions on art, it increases the
rate of use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school education. On the other hand, if
they use interpretive activities in pre-school education, their opinions on art are even better.
Discussion
The main aim of the research was to find out the opinions of kindergarten teachers on
the use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school education. It was confirmed that
there is a statistically significant positive correlation between the opportunities of kindergarten
teachers to acquire knowledge from the theory and history of art and the degree of use of the
interpretation of works of art in pre-school education. Furthermore, it was confirmed that there
was a statistically significant positive correlation between the ability of kindergarten teachers to
acquire knowledge from the theory and history of art and their opinions on art. It was also found
that there was a statistically significant positive correlation between the opinions of kindergarten
teachers on art and the rate of use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school education.
In curricular documents for pre-school education, scope is devoted to the interpretation
of works of art. With the exception of less than 1% of the respondents, each of the interviewed
kindergarten teachers commented on the use of works of art within educational activities, but
the current state of the use of works of art in pre-school education can be described as below
average. Most of them commented on the use of literary works/texts, on the use of musical
compositions, theatre performances, and only less than half commented on the use of paintings
and sculptures, or their reproductions. Among other types of art, dance and folk artwork were
also mentioned. These quantitative answers were specified in more detail (Rochovská et al.,
2021) and it turned out that the real numbers would be even lower if the works of so-called
“high art”, which the teachers reported, were the only ones taken into account.
The question is, why are teachers less inclined to use works of art in education? It turns
out that teachers still prefer classical forms and methods in children's education and prefer
to work with proven methodological ideas rather than experimenting in the given area and
looking for new ways to use the potential of the interpretation of works of art within children's
education.
Similarly, from a research study by Novaković (2014) it emerged that, in accordance with
the traditional concept, preschool teachers considered their role to be teaching children what
and how to draw (Novaković, 2014). Hsiao (2015) also found that parents (as non-professionals
in the area) believed that preschool art teachers should have basic drawing skills and be familiar
with art supplies and craft equipment.
Teachers who worked with works of art stated that the children were interested in this
work. In the area of fine/visual, musical, dramatic and other unspecified types of art, the teachers

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966 expressed the “great interest” shown by the children. Only the area of literary art stands out
from the average. The second largest group of teachers generally expressed the “interest” of
the children working with works of art. Only a negligible percentage of the teachers indicated
“absolute disinterest” or “predominantly disinterest”. The opinions of teachers on the children’s
interest in art are largely influenced by the interest of the teachers themselves in art, or by the
importance they give it in their life. The attractiveness of the educational methods applied
certainly contributes to the interest of the children. The teachers commented on the use of
creative drama and role-playing to a large extent, while a little less so to research methods,
brainstorming, experiments, tests, experiential learning methods, and other innovative and
active methods. Ponelienė and Širiakovienė (2018) found that most of the kindergarten
teachers preferred traditional art techniques in visual art education: drawing (73.1%), moulding
(54.9%), painting (50.5%), appliqué (44.5%), stamping (43.9%) and other techniques (42.9%).
The research also showed that the teacher must be prepared to individualise the curriculum,
and choose attractive, unconventional art techniques and tools. In accordance with the use
of innovative methods in art education in pre-school education, research by Yang and Chen
(2021), and Nevanen et al. (2014) can be mentioned, which recommended the use of new media
and art projects.
The kindergarten teachers involved in the research rated their ability to acquire knowledge
of the theory and history of art during their studies as “good” in the area of fine and dramatic art,
and as “very good” in the area of music and literary art. Thus, they were aware of their limits.
Similarly, Novaković (2014) examined preschool teachers’ self-reflection of their knowledge
of art. The research results showed that preschool teachers rated their knowledge of the areas
of art as “good”.
Despite the limitations of the teachers' self-reflection and their ability to acquire the
knowledge from the theory and history of art, only a small number of them (approximately one-
fifth or less) commented on continual, non-formal or informal learning, relying more on self-
study than on institutional education. That is in accordance with research by Leung (2018), who
found out that kindergarten teachers were unprepared for and varied in their implementation
of early visual arts teaching at both lower and higher class levels. According to Craw (2015),
students of pre-school teacher education, who complete three-years of university studies, have
only a few opportunities to develop a deeper and broader knowledge and understanding of the
broader contexts from a variety of disciplines, including the arts, as well as within curricular
documents, and also have no opportunities to make meaningful links to social and cultural
praxis in the arts.
On the contrary, many art teachers do not have a background in early childhood
education. The lack of knowledge and pedagogy about art teaching and the isolated teaching of
art pose several problems about how art education is included in early childhood curricula and
how art is taught to young children. The problem is that teachers’ art textbooks focus on early
childhood education tend to stress manual activities that promote simple skills and quickly
rendered products rather than help children make meaning through art (Ruismäki, Juvonen,
2008).
Kindergarten teachers have said that art plays a role in the significance of their lives.
Most consider it “important” (almost half expressed this opinion in each of the four areas of
art examined). About a third in the areas of fine art, music art and literary art said that they
considered it to be “very significant” in their lives. About a quarter of teachers commented
on dramatic art as “very significant”. Only a negligible percentage described art as “mostly
insignificant” in life, and almost no one said that art was “absolutely insignificant” for them.
With regards to the question about how often they visit institutions and art-related events
(museums and galleries, classical music concerts, literary cafes, theatrical performances, etc.),
the response was “very rarely”. It can be taken positively that each teacher at least had some

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area of art in which they sometimes supported those institutions tasked to present the so-called 967
“high art”. No teacher was found who did not mention any of the aforementioned institutions.
In the research (Novaković, 2014), regarding the question about how often teachers
implement art activities in a gallery or a museum, 61.8% of the preschool teachers answered,
“very rarely”; 25.1% “sometimes” use this kind of work, while 13% of preschool teachers
implement art activities in a museum or gallery “often” or “very often”.
The opinion of the teachers on art is also evidenced by their opinion about the ownership
of art objects. However, perceptions of teachers about the ownership of art objects still differ
significantly if the criterion of the art object is “high art” and objects falling into “low art”
would not be taken into account.
Similarly, regarding the active artistic creation of the teachers, it is possible to think more
from the point of view of an amateur creation and a hobby which, however, testifies about their
opinions on art and the effort to utilise the stimuli of art for their aesthetic activities.
The teachers believe that merely providing art materials in early childhood classroom
is not a sufficient condition for enhancing children’s artistic growth (Bea, 2004). Similarly,
Ponelienė and Širiakovienė (2018) found that art activities promoted teacher’s originality, self-
expression and creativity.
The research shows that there is a statistically significant positive correlation between
the opportunities of kindergarten teachers to acquire knowledge from the theory and history of
art and the degree of use of the interpretation of works of art in pre-school education. Similarly,
from a research study by Novaković (2014) it emerged that there was a statistically significant
correlation between the frequency of including art works in art activities with children and the
preschool teachers’ opinions about personal knowledge of art history basics (Novaković, 2014).
The research also shows that there is a statistically significant positive correlation between
the ability of kindergarten teachers to acquire knowledge from the theory and history of art and
their opinions on art. Similarly, from a research study by Novaković (2014) it emerged that
there was no statistically significant difference in preschool teachers’ opinions on their personal
knowledge of visual art, when considering the education degree and professional title. The
results also showed no statistically significant difference in the preschool teachers’ opinions
about their own role in the art activities, with regards to the education degree (Novaković,
2014).
The results of the research can also be compared with the results of interviews with
teachers who are known for the application of the interpretation of works of art in kindergartens
(Rochovská et al., 2021). In the interview, each of the five teachers answered “yes” to the
question of whether she thinks that, thanks to her education in the area of art, she applies
activities aimed at interpreting works of art in the kindergarten to a greater extent. Similarly, the
teachers stated that their preparedness from the history and theory of art, on the basis of their
studies, is very good, they were educated even after graduation; in their free time, they attend
events where one can encounter art and are also active in terms of art or aesthetic creation. At
the same time, they assessed their opinions on art as being very good. Likewise, each of these
teachers answered “yes” to the question of whether they think that, due to their opinions on art,
they apply activities aimed at interpreting works of art to a greater extent. One of them added
that if she did not have such an intense and personal opinion on art, she would not pay so much
attention to the interpretation of works of art in the kindergarten because according to her, it is
difficult to prepare and understand as a teacher (to know how to comprehensibly interpret art
to children).
The limits of the research are that the completion of the questionnaire was voluntary
and was probably completed mainly by teachers who have an opinion on art and felt the need
to comment on this topic. Thus, the real situation may be “worse” than described, especially in
terms of the current state of the use of art in kindergartens and the opinions of the respondents

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968 on art. Limited to the teachers’ answers, it can be considered that every teacher is aware that
having a certain positive opinion on art is desirable, from the point of view of carrying out their
profession.
The research clearly confirmed that the current state of the use of the interpretation of
works of art in pre-school education can be described as below average. The opportunities
of kindergarten teachers to acquire knowledge of the history of art, in their undergraduate
education or other forms of education, was lower than average; and the opinions of kindergarten
teachers on art can also be described as below average as well. There is a statistically significant
positive correlation between the aforementioned dimensions of the opinions of the kindergarten
teachers.
The benefits and recommendations for pedagogical praxis are derived from the research
results. It is recommended to increase the awareness of kindergarten teachers about the validity
of the topic of art interpretation already in pre-school education, to pay more attention to the
didactic use of art and to apply more specific stimuli to the preparation for the profession than to
work with art didactically. It is also recommended to increase the competencies of kindergarten
teachers in the area of art (especially the knowledge of various artistic directions and techniques,
and a broadening and deepening of knowledge from the theory and history of art). This can also
be expected to increase the interest of kindergarten teachers in the inclusion of art and its stimuli
in aesthetic activities (either as a recipient or a creator) into their lives and into the children’s
activities in the kindergarten. It is recommended to offer kindergarten teachers methodological
guidelines and practical ideas on how to carry out interpretive activities with children in the
kindergarten; to provide more teaching aids and materials in kindergartens (books, paintings,
musical instruments ...) and methodological publications, thus increasing the material equipment
of kindergartens in the area of the interpretation of works of art; to implement elements of the
use of art also into the school educational programs of kindergartens, for example by using
the work of artists who are from the region, thus also specifying in the regional education the
inclusion of the interpretation of works of art from that given region; and to cooperate with
primary art schools from the given locality and region, and organise mutual events.
The impetus for further research is to carry out case studies of specific kindergarten
teachers, who have begun to deal with the topic, based on suggestions from this project, "Artists
in the kindergarten - an interpretation of works of art in pre-school education" and successfully
move forward in the implementation of works of art in praxis.
Acknowledgements
The research was done as part of KEGA project No. 004KU-4/2019 “Artists in the
kindergarten - an interpretation of works of art in pre-school education”.
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environment for art. International Journal of Education through Art, 10(1), 7-22.
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possibilities. Issues in Early Education, 3(42), 134-143. https://doi.org/10.26881/pwe.2018.42.14
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Education, 2(2016), 69-87.
Ruismäki, H., & Juvonen, A. (2008). Kindergarten teacher students as art educators, Spaces of Creation,
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970 Tomas, I. (2019). Searching for agreement. On the difficulty in assessing artworks – Own research report.
The New Educational Review, 55(1), 121-131. https://doi/10.15804/TNER.2019.55.1.10
Yang, W., & Chen, M. (2021). Problems and development strategies for art education in kindergarten in
the new media era. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1852(4).
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https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.956
Ivana Rochovská PhD, Associate Professor, Faculty of Education, Juraj Páleš Institute in
(Corresponding author) Levoča, Catholic University in Ružomberok, Bottova 15, 054 01 Levoča,
Slovakia.
E-mail: ikrupova@gmail.com
Božena Švábová PhD, Professor, Special Assistant, Faculty of Education, Juraj Páleš Institute
in Levoča, Catholic University in Ružomberok, Bottova 15, 054 01 Levoča,
Slovakia.
E-mail: bozenasvab@gmail.com

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EXPLORING THE EFFECTS OF 971
IMPLEMENTING GUIDED READING

APPROACH TO ENHANCE THE READING
PROFICIENCY OF ENGLISH SECOND
LANGUAGE LEARNERS IN SOUTH AFRICA
Esther Molebogeng Thage, Patricia Namayammu Mokgosi,
Jane Tozama Mthembu
Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa
E-mail: molethage@webmail.co.za, mokgosipn@tut.ac.za, mthembujt@tut.ac.za
Abstract
Guided reading (GR) approach has been shown to have positive effect on reading fluency and
comprehension. However, most studies on GR have focused on primary schools, specifically the
Foundation Phase. Therefore, this study employed the GR approach to examine its possible effects on
the reading proficiencies of Grade 9 English Second Language (ESL) learners in Gauteng province.
Social and cognitive constructivism underpinned the study, which employed action research to determine
the possible effects of implementing GR on the reading proficiencies of a sample of eight Grade 9
ESL learners who were purposively selected to participate in this study. Data were collected through
interviews, observations, and reflection cards, oral and written reading tests. Results indicated that GR
approach had caused a significant improvement in these learners’ reading fluency and comprehension
because of collaborative learning and scaffolding. In addition, GR also developed a sense of ownership
in their learning, a sense of community and innovative and inquisitive minds. The study recommends that
learners who struggle with reading be identified early, and GR intervention strategies be implemented
and monitored. Every school needs to have a reading policy and the Education Department should ensure
that it is implemented and monitored.
Keywords: guided reading, reading proficiencies, reading fluency, reading comprehension, second
language
Introduction
Language, literacy and communication are essential to human development and

fundamental to life-long learning. Communication in the form of spoken or written words or
reading are intrinsic to the ways in which people generally act, think, and feel and language
is a fundamental tool for “expression and communication” (Shashkevich, 2019). As stated by
Doecke et al., (2014), all learners possess the right to be literate because the ability to read
and write empowers people and improves their lives. Reading forms the foundation for further
learning, and it is not inborn or cannot be learned naturally from parents or by watching and
listening to others. Talley (2017) has maintained that reading is an essential segment of our
day-to-day societal pursuit. Therefore, effective reading approaches need to be implemented to
teach and improve reading proficiency and to instil the culture of reading in learners.
Reading literacy has been reported to be a challenge both internationally and locally:
more than 100 million young people cannot read or write (Howie et al., 2017). According
to the Global Education Monitoring Report (UNESCO, 2017), about 56% of the 387 million

Esther Molebogeng THAGE, Patricia Namayammu MOKGOSI, Jane Tozama MTHEMBU. Exploring the effects of implementing
guided reading approach to enhance the reading proficiency of English second language learners in South Africa
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972 primary school learners do not reach the minimum required proficiency for reading due to poor
foundation and lack of interest in reading. This is the case with 81% of children in Central
Southern Asia and 87 per cent of children in Sub-Saharan Africa, which includes South Africa.
Only 7% of European and North American children did not reach the minimum proficiency
level in reading. In South Africa, as stated by Taylor (2013) in the 2012 National Education
Evaluation and Development Unit (NEEDU) report, “it is widely known that South African
schools perform below expectations”. This is a reason for the deficiency in language and
reading potential of learners, which are important skills needed for success in schools and
tertiary institutions. The report advocates that if poor performance is primarily caused by “ill
disciplined” educators, a firm hand is needed from the district levels to reinforce management.
In South Africa, reading in most primary schools has not been as progressive as it should
be (Spaull, 2013). The results of an international study of child literacy, Progress in International
Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2016, indicated the shortcomings in the culture of reading in
South Africa. Of the 50 countries surveyed for reading ability among school learners, South
Africa came last. The study also found that eight out of 10 South African Grade 4 learners
cannot read for meaning (Davis, 2017). In the global assessment of the reading skills of 9 and
10-year-olds in 50 countries around the world by PIRLS, South Africa ranked lowest (Spaull,
2017).
The results of the PIRLS 2016 global assessment confirmed that Grades 4 and 5 learners
in South Africa are struggling with reading comprehension in their mother tongue, consequently
affecting reading competencies in secondary schools. According to a report by Umalusi (South
African Examination Body), National Senior Certificate Examinations revealed worrying
evidence of Grade 12 learners “being unable to comprehend questions, formulate even short
responses to questions and that the extended response questions and essays were poor” (Howie
et al., 2017).
In most secondary township schools in Gauteng Province, the general performance of
learners is far below the level of performance expected of secondary school learners, including
the matric results, due to poor reading skills. This stems from a poor foundation of reading from
primary school and a lack of interest in reading and a reading culture amongst learners. Most
learners are not accustomed to reading at home and at school. They will not pick up a book and
read for leisure and access to leisure books is limited. This is confirmed in the study by Draper
and Spaull (2015), who pointed out that “the opportunity of learning to read with fluency,
accuracy, prosody and comprehension” is not given to most South African children.
According to these researchers, “whether children are tested in their home language or
in English, the results are the same: the vast majority of South African children cannot read
for meaning by the end of Grade 4 – even in their home language – and almost a third are still
functionally illiterate in English by the end of Grade 6” (Spaull, 2013 cited in Spaull, 2015). As
stated by Pretorius and Spaull (2016, p. 5), the learners are not given the foundation of reading
at an early age, and this results in poor comprehension skills.
“In terms of the Regulations pertaining to the National Curriculum Statement (NCS)
Grades R-12, promulgated on 28 December 2012, a learner may only be retained once in the
Further Education and Training Phase in order to prevent the learner from spending more than
four years in a phase” (Department of Basic Education, 2017). This means that a learner who
fails a grade for the second time cannot be retained in the grade but must be progressed to
the next grade (Department of Basic Education, 2012). The biggest challenge is that these
learners are progressed to the next grade while lacking the reading skills necessary to acquire
knowledge. “Schools have been requested to provide such learners with additional support to
address their specific subject deficiencies so that they will be able to cope with the demands of
the next grade” (DBE, 2017), but the reality in most schools is that these learners do not get
such additional support.

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Learning opportunities are finite in many South African township schools because of 973
overcrowding, which limits the likelihood for learners to participate in class, so learners’ main
activities are copying the text from the chalkboard and reciting it because of lack of teaching and
learning resources (Abraham & Barksdale, 2018). According to Pretorius and Klapwijk (2016),
the extensive poor performance of South African learners on literacy assessments has been
well recorded in various documents, for instance the Progress in International Reading Literacy
Study (PIRLS) and the international reports of the Southern and Eastern African Consortium
for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ). The reports reveal that a vast number of South
African learners cannot read for meaning and understanding. This is supported by the results
of the Annual National Assessment (ANA) in December 2013 on learners in Grades 1–6 and
Grade 9 in Language. Results indicated that learners were unable to read with understanding
and therefore had difficulties comprehending, wrote words and sentences that were incoherent,
and displayed an inability to make conclusions from the given information in a text, and also
had difficulties in spelling frequently used words correctly. The most noticeable weakness was
the inability of learners to read with understanding (DBE, 2012).
The teaching time in the intermediate phase (Grade 4–6) as outlined in the Curriculum
Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) (Department of Basic Education, 2011) document has an
influence on the educational challenges that open the reading ‘gap’ that hinders progress in the
education system (Moodley, 2013, p. 75). The learners spend only five hours a week on English.
Out of 27.5 hours’ instructional time allocated, 22.5 hours are spent on other learning areas such
as mathematics, social sciences, natural sciences, home language and life skills.
The Department of Basic Education (2011) document outlines all the learning constituents
that have to be covered and the duration of each. In one day’s Grade 4 to 6 learning schedule,
learners are engaged in a variety of learning areas and activities, leaving very little time to focus
on developing the most important skill, which is reading. The fact that reading is not given
enough attention opens gaps in reading that will ultimately lead to learning deficits. Learners are
to some extent able to decode in their second language but cannot comprehend what they read,
resulting in what is termed “barking at print” (Department of Basic Education, 2011). They lack
strong reading foundational skills, limited vocabulary, and grammar to give meaning to what
they read. The teachers have a mammoth task of exposing the learners to various texts, applying
scaffolding and reading strategies, building a sufficient vocabulary, and teaching grammar at the
appropriate levels so that reading does not become a problem to them.
Similarly, in the context of the secondary schools where this research was based in
Tshwane West, Grade 9 learners are expected to use the reading and comprehension skills
mastered in primary school to learn a great deal of new information in content area classes.
They are faced with a variety of text sources that contain complex vocabulary and complicated
syntax. The Grade 9 syllabus does not have a programme or the resources to help learners who
missed on reading skills in primary school and have difficulty in reading and comprehending. A
significant number of learners struggle with complicated academic literacy tasks they encounter
in their content areas and there is limited time for teaching reading skills.
In response to the challenges, the Gauteng Department of Education has initiated the
Read to Lead Campaign to promote the culture of reading in schools by introducing reading
clubs and a Drop All and Read campaign which promotes reading for 30 minutes at least
once a week. These initiatives are aimed at igniting the passion for reading and inculcating a
reading culture, turning learners into proficient readers (DoE, 2017). The challenge is that the
programmes do not address reading difficulties and promoting reading with understanding.
The researchers identified Guided reading approach as an intervention to address the reading
challenges in this context.
Fountas and Pinnell (1996) described GR as a small-group instructional context in which
a teacher works with groups of learners who display similar reading behaviours and can read

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974 similar levels of text. They assert that by bringing together a small group of learners who are
at the same level in their reading development and guiding them to process a text that is aimed
on an appropriate level of difficulty will assist in enhancing their reading skills. They learn
how to create meaning from the text with support from the teacher. The teacher helps each
learner develop strategies for comprehending increasingly challenging texts. Thus, GR builds
the process of individual reading and it teaches children how the reading process works (Kouri,
et al. 2006; McPherson, 2007; Schwarts, 2005). The learners gain reading confidence from
working together, with the help of the teacher.
A guided reading (GR) strategy has the potential to improve the reading proficiency
of all learners (Richardson, 2010; National Reading Panel, 2000; Clay, 2005). In the study
by Gaffner et al. (2014), foundation phase learners participating in the GR reading clinic
achieved progress. In the study by Hansen (2016), GR increased the reading comprehension
in average readers. This was confirmed in the study by Heeringa (2017), in which the majority
of the participating pre-school learners advanced one to two text levels and developed skills in
accuracy, comprehension, and fluency.
Most of the studies conducted on GR focused on improving reading in primary schools
and the focus is on reading fluency. More studies on the role played by GR approach to improve
reading proficiencies in the secondary schools are needed. It is against the above background that
the purpose of this study was to employ the GR approach to improve the reading proficiencies
of Grade 9 ESL learners in Tshwane West District.
Theoretical Framework
A review of the literature on the theoretical framework identified constructivism

(cognitive) and social constructivism as relevant lenses to guide the implementation of the GR
approach for the study. According to IGI Global (2017), the central idea of constructivism is that
human learning is constructed and that learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of
previous learning. Khadimally (2018) further explained constructivist philosophy, emphasising
the importance of social interactions in the construction of knowledge – as individuals
interconnect, they create meaning and understanding. This view of learning contrasts with one
in which learning is the passive transmission of information from one individual to another.
Khadimally (2018) viewed social constructivism as an established educational theory based on
the principle that learners and teachers co-construct knowledge through social processes. The
idea behind the notion of constructivism is that “individuals live in the world of their subjective
experiences – a world where they construct their own meanings” (IGI Global, 2017).
According to Lave and Wenger (1991), teaching models based on the social constructivist
perspective stress the necessity for collaboration among all learners and teachers in society. They
further assert that a society’s practical knowledge is embedded in relations among teachers,
their day-to-day practice, and the society at large. Knowledge and practice cannot be separated.
McMahon (1997) asserted that “[s]ocial constructivists view learning as a social process. It
does not take place only within an individual, nor is it a passive development of behaviours that
are shaped by external forces”. He believes “[m]eaningful learning occurs when individuals are
engaged in social activities”.
Vygotsky (1978, as cited in Woolfolk, 2014) asserted that in a constructivist learning theory
a zone of proximal development (ZPD) is reached between the student’s current development
level “as determined by independent problem solving” and the possible degree of development
the learner is capable of achieving with the teacher’s direction as well as collaboration with
peers. Vygotsky views the ZPD as an opening between what the learner has learned and has
mastered and possible achievement if given support by the teacher. This support can be in
the form of scaffolding, where the teacher models learning by giving learners a foundation of

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problem solving. Once the learners have grasped the skills of problem solving, he or she steps 975
back, allows them to work on their own, and offers them support where required – just like
scaffolding in building (Harr, 2008).
In the context of this research, part of the activities in the pre assessment phases was
for learners to look for meanings of words they did not understand and use the words in
simple sentences to show that they understand them. This helped in constructing meaning and
internalising the information. Researchers acted as facilitators and mediators throughout the
research study, giving instructions and strategies and applying scaffolding by supporting them
and allowing them to read on their own, using strategies like self-correct if they made mistakes
while reading.
Cognitive and social constructivism principles were relevant to this study as effective
reading should involve the teacher supporting learners to construct their own knowledge by
building on their existing knowledge. In addition, social constructivism was relevant as a lens
to our study because it concedes that knowledge develops because of social interaction and
language use, where people share ideas and experiences. It is therefore a shared rather than an
individual experience.
Research Aim and Research Questions
The aim of this study was to explore the possible effects of implementing GR approach
to enhance the reading proficiencies of Grade 9 ESL learners in secondary schools in Gauteng
province, South Africa.
This research addressed the following questions:
● What are the possible effects of guided reading approach on the reading
proficiencies of Grade 9 ESL learners in secondary schools in Gauteng province, South
Africa?
In order to address the above question, the following specific objectives were identified:
● To determine the standard of Grade 9 ESL learners’ current reading
proficiencies in English language.
● To implement the Guided Reading intervention programme and determine its
possible effects in enhancing learners’ reading proficiencies of Grade 9 ESL learners.
General Background
The study adopted an action research design located under the pragmatic paradigm
mainly because it allows for the researchers in taking action to bring a solution. Action research
in the pragmatic view of thinking encompasses three phases such as pre-assessment, where the
researcher perceives or observes the world and its action possibilities and considers different
courses of action. The second phase is the interventive action, where the researcher takes action
to improve the situation. The researcher also monitors and evaluates the situation. The third
phase is a post-assessment, when the researcher perceives and assesses the outcome of the
interventive action (Goldkuhl, 2012).
Therefore, the action research process in this research adapted the stages as suggested
above. Firstly, participants’ reading deficiencies were identified, and secondly the GR approach
intervention was planned and implemented, finally the possible effect of the GR reading
intervention on participant’s reading proficiencies was determined.

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976 Research Sample
Purposive sampling was used to select the learners as participants for this study. Grade 9
ESL learners who had performed poorly in English with an average percentage of 32% and who
were struggling with reading were selected as a sample for this research. The sample comprised
eight learners, all in Grade 9. Learners were selected from a multicultural and religious school
in a township. According to the system in South Africa, the school is classified as a no-fee
paying school where learners depend on the school feeding scheme.
Participants’ Background
Participating learners were between the ages of 13 and 15 years old. Two learners (B
and D) in the group did not pass Grade 8 but were progressed to Grade 9 because they met the
progression requirements, which means they had failed English only but were not repeating
Grade 8 and therefore were condoned to Grade 9. Two learners (F and G) were repeating
Grade 9 because they had failed English and two other subjects. One had repeated Grade 8 and
therefore progressed to Grade 9 because, according to the progression policy, learners cannot
be progressed twice in a phase (Grades 7–9).
In terms of languages, none of these learners used English at home, so English was
their second language. They only encountered written or spoken English at school. English
served as their Language of Learning and Teaching (LOLT. Unfortunately, all these learners
used indigenous languages at home and only came into contact with English, especially formal
written English, at school. This becomes a barrier in learning because learners have to grasp
the concepts, analyse, interpret and sometimes apply them in real-life situations through the
medium of English. This causes noun disorientation and delay in learning.
According to ethical procedures, before data are collected, official permission should be
sought by the researcher to gain access to the site and the participants (De Vos et al., 2003). For
this study researchers sought for and obtained permission from the Department of Education
conduct research in the secondary school described. The participants were informed about the
study, and they participated on a voluntary basis. The required permissions were granted from
the participants’ parents and guardians. The university where the researchers were based, at the
time of conducting their research, granted ethical clearance for the study.
Data Collection Instruments
Data were collected in all the three phases of this research. In the pre assessment phase
data were collected through oral and written reading standardized tests developed by the South
African Department of Education which the researchers adapted for this research. The tests
were given to colleagues who are experts in the applied languages and reading to review for
content validity. The oral reading test assessed learners’ level of reading aloud, fluency, and
comprehension, summarising and re-telling the story in their own words and giving meaning to
the text. The written test was standardised, and questions ranged from low order to high order
questions based on Bloom’s taxonomy. Semi-structured interviews. The tests were used in the
Pre assessment phase to establish the learners’ current reading and comprehension levels before
the GR intervention could be employed.
In the intervention phase data were collected through reading checklist, reflection
cards and field notes from researchers’ observations. The objective was to determine the role
Guided reading plays in improving learners’ reading proficiencies. Researchers listened to
learners as they were reading, using the reading checklist to collect data on their fluency and
comprehension levels so that the reading gaps, weaknesses and strengths can be identified to
make improvements.

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The oral and written reading tests including semi-structured interviews, were used in 977
the post assessment phase after the implementation of the GR intervention. Similar to the pre
assessment phase, the oral and written reading tests were adapted and also reviewed for content
validity. The data collection instruments in this phase aimed to determine the possible effect of
GR on participants’ reading proficiencies.
Reading Texts and Materials
Researchers chose content, stories and texts that would be interesting and relatable to
the learners and avoided fictitious stories to get them more interested in reading. Researchers
did not want them to “imagine” the stories while reading as though they were not happening in
real life. According to Smith (2014), “stories are an integral part of who we are as people”. The
stories chosen for this intervention and the rationale behind the choice are described as follows:
An extract from the book by Mamphele Ramphele: Steering by the Stars. Researchers
used this extract for pre-assessment comprehension because the story is about South African
families, school, communities, and society at large. It covers issues such as being different, not
being accepted in communities, class boundaries and corporal punishment. The story serves as
a voice to young South Africans, especially from townships; so, the assumption was that the
story would be of great interest to the learners, and they would relate easily to it.
100 most commonly used English words (DoE, 2015). This is a valuable list of words to
learn that will boost the learners’ English vocabulary and assist them with writing and reading
and understanding and differentiating between these words, and also classifying them according
to different categories or parts of speech. These words comprise about half of all written texts,
so they are valuable in English. Mastering these words would also assist learners to read faster,
fluently and with more understanding. This list was chosen because if learners are acquainted
with them, they will be able to recognise the words instantly in any book or text and then have
more time to focus on the words they are not familiar with. This study aimed to establish the
possible effects of guided reading on the reading fluency and comprehension of Grade 9 ESL
learners and mastering these words would have a profound effect on their reading proficiencies
in English.
THRASS phonics chart is a programme that is a blueprint to teach learners, especially
beginner readers. It comprises 44 speech sounds or phonemes used in English, 24 consonants
and 20 vowels, together with their key spelling words belonging to the same family of words
(Ritchie & Davies, 2018). Instead of learners learning 26 alphabets, they learn these sounds,
which teach key phonics and spellings, ultimately reinforcing reading proficiencies. Researchers
used the THRASS phonics chart to bridge the reading gap, as these learners were never taught
English sounds or phonics in Grade 1. They learned indigenous language sounds, which are
different from English sounds.
Maru by Bessie Head: Grade 9 Reader: Bessie Head is an established African author.
Maru is about prejudice in the African communities. It is about love against racial and tribal
prejudice, where people have difficulty accepting a Masarwa woman – as they are considered
the lowest class group in the society, and therefore viewed as outcasts. Researchers thought they
would relate with being treated differently, as it might be an issue, they might encounter in one
way or another.
Procedures
Guided reading sessions were facilitated within the 24-week period to improve learners’
reading proficiencies. During the implementation each participating learner was provided with
relevant texts and resources to be used throughout the entire project. GR sessions took place

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978 during the week, three times a week in the classroom. The processes followed are explained as
follows:
Introductory stage: At the beginning of every session, learners were welcomed. The
purpose for the specific day was outlined and explained as well as the reading strategy to focus
on. The text to be used on that day was introduced, took a picture-walk with learners; looked at
the picture and allowed them to tell what they see and think about the picture, and predict what
might happen in the story. Researchers then observed them while they were reading, took notes
and identified their strengths and weaknesses.
Reading stage: Researchers allowed learners to read silently to get what the story is
about, then prompted them to pay special attention to the title, what it means, and while reading
trying to infer so that they could get a deeper understanding of the text. After five minutes
learners are asked to read individually. While they were reading, researchers took notes on how
they were reading, encouraging them to self-correct if they made mistakes. If they could not
self-correct, they are guided or given the correct pronunciation.
They read independently and applied the comprehension strategy. Researchers coached
learners individually while they made predictions, reading and re-telling the story and focusing
on new vocabulary. Learners were prompted to read silently and visualise the characters and
how they relate to each other, as well as the setting and conflict in the text. Learners then
individually read aloud. As they were reading, researchers asked them questions about the
characters, their relationships, where the events were taking place and possible conflict.
Concluding stage: A conversation about reading is started, and learners are asked factual,
inferential and critical questions regarding the text. I also diagnosed, followed up on confusion,
prompted as needed for discussion. In order for learners to reflect on their reading, researchers
gathered them in groups and prompted them to name the characters, their roles in the story, what
they liked about them, and where the events took place. For learners who did not understand the
story, researchers explained to ensure they followed the events and were not confused.
Data Analysis
According to Leedy and Ormrod (2015), data analysis is a spiral that is ideally applicable
to a wide range of qualitative studies. In using this view, data were examined, read more than
once, and the following steps were followed:
• organised data collected from every learner as they read.
• skimmed the entire data more than once to get a sense of trends in reading by
learners.
• identified and categorised the reading groups according to reading levels
• amalgamated and summarised the data for the readers, to combine and form a
whole analysis.
Data from the interviews, field notes from observations and reflection cards also followed
the steps as described above. For quantitative data the reading rating checklist and assessment
rubric for reading were used for the marking of the oral test and a memorandum was used
for assessing written comprehension. The scripts were examined intensively when marked
to discover how participants answered and whether they used “own words” when answering
the questions to demonstrate understanding. This included their vocabulary knowledge and
application, language structures and conventions. Data were presented numerically.
Pseudonyms were used in place of learners’ names. Participating learners were coded as
Learner A. Learner B, Learner C, Learner D, Learner E, Learner F, Learner G, Learner and H,
Learner. The results are presented in the next sections.

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Research Results 979
When learners’ current reading proficiencies prior the GR intervention were determined,
the research results exposed the current negative situation regarding the proficiencies of these
learners. The results of learners’ scores in the oral and written reading test before the GR
intervention are presented and described in Table 1 and 2 respectively.
Table 1
Learners’ (scoresheet) Oral Reading Test
Fluency Character identification Summarising Re-tell a story
Learner Level Level Level Level

Not
A 1 2 Partly achieved 1 Not achieved 1 Not achieved
achieved
Not
B 1 1 Not achieved 1 Not achieved 1 Not achieved
achieved
Partly Partly
C 2 2 Partly achieved 2 1 Not achieved
achieved achieved
Partly Partly
D 3 Good 2 Partly achieved 2 2
achieved achieved
Not
E 1 1 Not achieved 1 Not achieved 1 Not achieved
achieved
Partly
F 2 2 Partly achieved 1 Not achieved 1 Not achieved
achieved
Not
G 1 1 Not achieved 1 Not achieved 2 Not achieved
achieved
Not
H 2 1 Not achieved 2 Not achieved 1 Not achieved
achieved
As noted in the table above, in the pre assessment phase before the intervention Learner
A obtained level 1 for fluency, which means he did not achieve the reading competency. He
lacked reading skills, his eyes were glued to the text when reading, he struggled to pronounce,
i.e., pronounced “aquatic” as “aguatic”, meaning he confused letters “q” and “g”, resorted to
swallowing words instead of pronouncing them. He tried to sound some words first before
pronouncing them. He obtained 2, which is partly achieved, for character identification. He
could not explain what an aquatic mammal is but could remember how they communicate.
Learner B obtained level 1 for fluency, meaning he did not achieve the reading
competency. He read fast, monotonously, without varying the pitch of his voice, he did not put
emphasis on some words and did not consider punctuation. He mispronounced words and did
not self-correct when mispronouncing. He could not answer the question “how do dolphins
swim?” which is stated clearly in the passage, because he read fast and did not think about what
he was reading.
Prior the GR intervention Learner C obtained level 2 for fluency, which implies partly
achieved on the rating scale. Her pace of reading was acceptable, meaning not too fast or too
slow. She tried to sound out the words correctly but swallowed some if not sure of how to
pronounce them. She could not answer some comprehension questions, i.e., “how do dolphins
communicate?” even though it was stated in the comprehension passage. She wanted to go
back to the passage to search for the answer.

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980 In the pre assessment phase Learner D obtained 3 for fluency, which implies that her
reading level was acceptable, but there was room for improvement. She tried to read with
expression and attended to punctuation marks. The learner was able to answer, “what is a
mammal?” and was able to give examples of other mammals. She was also able to give her
opinion about dolphins. She thought “they are great creatures”.
Learner E obtained level 1 for reading, which implies the learner lacked reading skills,
battled with pronouncing most words, like “intellect, aquatic, acrobatic”. She was unable to
respond to the text in her own words, and therefore could not re-tell the story. She was unable
to answer comprehension questions, i.e., “what are carnivores?” She became nervous when I
asked questions and asked if she could go through the text again.
In the pre assessment phase Learner F scored level 2 for fluency, meaning she partly
achieved on the rating scale. She read well but did not put emphasis on some words, especially
if she was unsure how to pronounce a word, i.e., “whistle, frequently, aquatic”. She had an idea
of the type of creature in the text (a dolphin) but could not summarise the passage in her own
words. When I asked her to summarise, she wanted to read again.
Learner G scored level 1 for fluency; that is, the learner needed attention; reading skills
were lacking. She mumbled when reading. Researchers battled to hear what she was reading.
She could not answer comprehension questions. The learner was asked a question, i.e., “what
are dolphins, what are carnivores? What is your opinion about dolphins?” She scored level 2 for
re-telling the story because she tried to re-tell the story but not in a coherent way.
In the pre assessment phase Learner H obtained level 2 for fluency, which means partly
achieved on the rating score. She had a good recognition for sound but read too fast and paid no
attention to punctuation marks. She did not pause, even for a comma or full stop. She scored 2
for summarising, because she attempted to summarise but omitted some important facts.
Table 2
Learners’ (score sheet) Written Test
Mark obtained out of Group

Learner Learner % Levels Level descriptors
40 (Total) Average
A 12 30 2 Partly achieved 32%

B 11 28 1 Not achieved
C 18 45 3 Moderate achievement
D 9 23 1 Not achieved
E 11 28 1 Not achieved
F 17 43 3 Moderate achievement
G 8 20 1 Not achieved
H 16 40 3 Moderate achievement
Learner A scored 12 out of a total of 40 (30%), rating level 2 on the coding system,
which implies elementary achievement or partly achieved. The learner experienced challenges
with phoneme awareness, understanding the text, i.e., comprehension, and answering language

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questions, i.e., “changing sentences to past tense” – the learner was not aware that “are” 981
becomes “were” when changing a sentence from present to past tense, i.e., “children are (were)
disciplined from a young”.
Learner B scored 11 out of a total of 40 (28%), rating level 1, meaning not achieved.
The learner answered the first four comprehension questions, got only two correct and did not
attempt to answer the rest. He found it hard to decode some words; hence they did not have
meaning to him. The learner did not know the language structures, i.e., changing sentences to
past tense, pronouns, and the degrees of comparisons.
Learner C obtained 18 out of a total of 40 (45%), rating 3, meaning moderate achievement.
The learner had a challenge with summarising and interpreting information in her own words.
She resorted to copying the sentences with keywords to the questions. She obtained 3 out of 20
for the first section of the test, which tested comprehension.
Learner D scored 9 out of a total of 40 (23%), rating level 1, implying the learner did
not achieve. The learner had a problem with understanding the text. She copied the sentences
verbatim that she thought could be possible answers, i.e., question 1 on the sample test. She
was unable to answer by interpreting and analysing. She had a problem also with language
structures, summarising and retelling the story using her own words.
Learner E scored 11 out of 40 (28%), rating level 1, which implies not achieved; she
needed attention. She experienced challenges with assimilating information, understanding and
interpreting, and using own words. She also struggled with questions like “give your opinion”,
summarising, abbreviations, and visual literacy.
Learner F obtained 17 out of a total of 40 (43%), rating level 3 on the rating scale,
meaning moderate achievement. There was room for improvement for her. She had trouble with
understanding the text, visual literacy, and punctuation.
Learner G obtained 8 out of a total of 40 (20%), rating level 1 on the rating scale,
indicating that she needed attention. The learner obtained 1 out of 20 marks for the section
on comprehension. She had serious difficulty in reading on her own, understanding the text,
interpreting and analysing it, putting meaning to it and answering the questions. Instead of
answering the questions using her own words to show comprehension, she copied sentences
from the passage verbatim that she thought had possible answers.
Learner H scored 13 out of 40 (33%), rating level 2 on the rating scale, indicating
elementary achievement or partly achieved. The learner’s difficulty was in synthesising the
information, interpretation, and comprehension.
It is clear from the results above that there was a serious problem regarding learners’
reading proficiencies. The results indicated reading fluency and comprehension to be the
major challenge of the participating learners in this study. Guided Reading intervention should
improve reading fluency and comprehension.
Reflection Cards and Observations
In determining the possible effects of GR in enhancing the reading proficiencies of the

Grade 9 ESL learners, evidence collected from the reflection cards and observations indicated
a significant improvement in learners’ reading proficiencies. Evidence pointed to the fact that
GR developed learners’ reading proficiencies in this study through collaboration and reciprocal
learning. Through interacting with one another they communicated and learnt from one another,
leading to the improvement of their reading vocabulary, fluency and comprehension. Below are
some examples of the extracts from learners’ reflection cards and researchers’ observation notes
during the GR sessions.

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982 Extract from observations and reflection cards
GR made a great improvement in the reading

proficiencies in all areas; especially fluency and
comprehension and the general attitude towards
reading.
It is clear from the learners’ reflections that they are
much more positive towards reading. They indicated
that they had a passion for reading;
“I feel confident because I can classify parts of speech”
“I feel good because I could select words referring to time”
“I learned the difference between nouns and verbs, and how they relate”
“I didn’t know the difference between using “a” and “the”, I used them randomly, now I
know the difference”.
“I learned the modal verbs “can. Will, could and would”.
“I enjoyed working in a group classifying the words on a chart”
“I enjoyed reading all 100 words within a minute and the group clapped hands for me”.
“I learned the difference between synonyms and antonyms”
“I liked being involved in discussions it helps me to and when we were being encouraged by
our teacher.”
“I like it when we read and practice reading together, I learn to read words well from my
friends and they learn something from me in return””
Oral Reading Test
The results from the oral test after the implementation of the intervention revealed that
GR made significant improvement in the reading proficiencies of ESL Grade 9 learners. The
results are summarised in Table 3 followed by a brief description.

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Table 3 983
Results of Oral Reading Test in the Post Assessment Phase
Fluency Character identification Summarising Re-tell a story
Learner Level Level Level Level

Outstanding/
A 3 Good 5 3 Good 3 Good
Excellent
3
B 3 Good Good 3 Good 3 Good
C 2 Partly achieved 4 Skilful 4 Skilful 3 Good

Outstanding/
D 4 Skilful 5 3 Good 4 Skilful
Excellent
E 3 Good 4 Skilful 3 Good 3 Good
F 4 Skilful 4 Skilful 5 4 Skilful
G 3 Good 4 Skilful 3 Good 3 Good
Outstanding/ Outstanding/ Outstanding/
H 5 5 4 Skilful 5
Excellent Excellent Excellent
The results revealed that the GR intervention made significant improvement in the
reading proficiencies of ESL Grade 9 learners. It can be noted that before the implementation
of GR intervention, the reading.
After the intervention Learner A improved from level 1 in the pre-test to level 3 for
fluency, which indicated a great improvement. He portrayed more confidence; though he made
minor errors, he was able to self-correct. For character identification he obtained 5. This time
he was able to explain how aquatic mammals communicate.
Learner B improved from level 1 to level 3 for fluency, which is a great improvement. He
read at an acceptable pace; being mindful of the punctuation marks and expression. He scored
3 for character identification, and he could also re-tell the story. In the post assessment phase
Learner C still scored level 2 for fluency, still struggled with sounding out some words but
improved a lot on character identification. She could describe what kind of animals dolphins are
and how they communicate, and related them with humans. She scored 4, which is adequate.
In the post assessment phase Learner D scored level 4 for fluency and showed growth and
adequate achievement. For character identification she achieved level 5, which is substantial.
She read with more expression and could explain what mammals are and gave examples.
Learner E scored level 3 for reading fluency; a moderate improvement; displayed
confidence in reading, level 4 for character identification and summarising. She could re-tell
the story in her own words and gave the characteristics of mammals.
In the post assessment phase Learner F scored level 4 for fluency, an adequate growth;
read with expression and emphasis. Level 4 for character and summarising, could describe the
dolphins. Learner G scored level 3 for fluency; a moderate achievement; improved reading
with more emphasis on sounds. She was able to give other types of mammals, scored level 4 for
re-telling the story; and was able to explain the story in a coherent way. Learner H progressed
from level 2 to 5 for fluency; showed substantial growth; good sound recognition and pauses for
punctuation. She showed a considerable improvement in summarising and re-telling the story.

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984 Written Tests
Results from the written test also indicated the positive effect of GR intervention on the
reading proficiencies of participating learners. The written test scores are presented in Table 4
below. The table also shows the scores from the pre assessment phase. The results are described
in the subsequent paragraphs.
Table 4
Results of the Written Tests from the Pre and Post Assessment Phases
Level Levels Level

Pre test Levels Group Post- Group
Learners descriptors post- descriptors for
% pre-test Average test % Average
for pre-test tests post tests
Partly
A 30 2 32% 48 3 Moderate 54%
achieved
B 28 1 Not achieved 53 4 Adequate
C 45 3 Moderate 60 5 Substantial
Moderate
D 23 1 Not achieved 43 3
Achievement
E 28 1 Not achieved 58 4 Adequate
F 43 3 Moderate 63 5 Substantial
G 20 1 Not achieved 50 4 Adequate
H 40 3 Moderate 58 4 Adequate
In the pre assessment phase Learner A scored 30%, rating level 2 on the coding system,
which implies elementary achievement or partly achieved. The learner experienced challenges
with phoneme awareness, understanding the text, i.e., comprehension, and answering language
questions, i.e., “changing sentences to past tense” – the learner was not aware that “are”
becomes “were” when changing a sentence from present to past tense, i.e., “children are (were)
disciplined from a young age”. Learner A scored 48% in the post assessment phase, rating
level 3 on the coding system, which implies moderate achievement. The score shows a great
improvement in answering questions.
Learner B scored 11 out of a total of 40 (28%), rating level 1, meaning not achieved.
The learner answered the first four comprehension questions, got only two correct and did not
attempt to answer the rest. He found it hard to decode some words; hence they did not have
meaning to him. The learner did not know the language structures, i.e., changing sentences to
past tense, pronouns, and the degrees of comparison. In the post assessment phase Learner B
scored 53%; rating level 4, meaning adequate achievement. The learner had improved markedly;
used own words as far as he could and did not copy the answer like previously.
In the pre assessment phase Learner C obtained 45%, rating 3, meaning moderate
achievement. The learner had difficulty with summarising and interpreting information in her
own words. She resorted to copying the sentences with keywords to the questions. She obtained
3 out of 20 for the first section of the test, which tested comprehension. In the post assessment
phase Learner C obtained 60%; rating level 3, meaning substantial achievement. She interpreted
the text and could give her opinion. Language structures: could change sentences to past tense.

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Learner D scored in the pre assessment phase, rating level 1, implying the learner did 985
not achieve. The learner had a problem with understanding the text. She copied the sentences
verbatim that she thought could be possible answers, i.e., question 1 on the sample test. She was
unable to answer by interpreting and analysing. She had a problem also with language structures,
summarising and re-telling the story using her own words. In the post assessment phase, Learner
D got 43%; rating level 3, implying moderate achievement, with a 20% improvement from the
pre-test. She displayed understanding of the comprehension passage and used her own words.
Language structures improved as well.
In the pre assessment phase Learner E scored 28), rating level 1, which implies not
achieved – she needed attention. She experienced challenges with assimilating information,
understanding, and interpreting, and using own words. She also struggled with questions like
“give your opinion”, summarising, abbreviations, and visual literacy. In the post assessment
phase this learner achieved 58%; rating level 4, which implies adequate achievement. She could
interpret the text and was able to give her opinion without copying the text but using her own
words.
Learner F obtained 43% in the pre assessment phase, rating level 3 on the rating scale,
meaning moderate achievement. There was room for improvement for her. She had trouble
with understanding the text, visual literacy, and punctuation. In the post assessment phase this
obtained 63%; rating level 5 on the rating scale, meaning substantial achievement. She showed
improvement from previous challenges of understanding the text and interpreting visual literacy.
In the pre assessment phase Learner G obtained 20%, rating level 1 on the rating scale,
indicating that she needed attention. The learner obtained 1 out of 20 marks for the section
on comprehension. She had serious difficulty in reading on her own, understanding the text,
interpreting, and analysing it, putting meaning to it and answering the questions. Instead of
answering the questions using her own words to show comprehension, she copied sentences
from the passage verbatim that she thought had possible answers. In the post assessment phase
Learner G got 50%; rating level 4 on the rating scale, which is adequate progress. The learner
improved on comprehension skills; was able to answer language questions successfully.
Learner H scored 33% in the pre assessment phase, rating level 2 on the rating
scale, indicating elementary achievement or partly achieved. The learner’s difficulty was in
synthesising the information, interpretation, and comprehension. In the post assessment phase
this learner scored 58%; rating level 4 on the rating scale, indicating adequate achievement. She
got the section on pronouns all correct and improved on language structures.
Interviews
In responding to the question of how the GR approach affected their reading proficiencies,
all participating learners indicated the positive effect GR had on their reading comprehension.
Learners indicated that they could now read with understanding and even their pace in reading
had improved. They were able to speak English more often, leading to the improvement in
mastering the language. The following comments from learners were noted:
Learner A: “My reading comprehension is improving”.

Learner D: “My pace of reading is getting better”.
Learner F: “It helps me to get used to the comprehension, and I get to speak English more often
than I did first. It helps to improve my English skill”.
Learner G: “A good and fluent reading, and a great pace”.
Further, the findings revealed that the guided reading approach had improved learners’
use of more the English language, leading them to pass tests in other subjects. Guided reading

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986 also increased learners’ self-efficacy. Learners believed that they had the potential to do more
and achieve their academic goals. Learners commented as follows:
Learner A: “I think my comprehension level is good, but I need to improve so I can get higher
marks”.
Learner G: “My comprehension improved. I really want to pass Grade 9”.
Learner H: “When I write a test in other subjects, I pass the tests. Sometimes I do not do well but
I will keep reading a lot so I can improve”.
Learner C: “I think my comprehension is good because I passed my term tests, though not with
so good marks”.
The findings revealed that the GR approach played a coaching role in improving the
reading fluency of the participating learners and assisted them in becoming fluent readers.
According to the learners’ responses, GR improved their reading, and they were reading
English more fluently. It also helped them with pronouncing words properly and increased
their vocabulary. GR also played a motivating role in instilling the love and passion for reading
books in these learners. The following comments were noted:
Learner C: “Guided reading helps me to read fluently in English”.

Learner D: “It plays a good role to make me love reading books”
Learner F: “I am improving English vocabulary”.
Learner G: “It can develop passion for books and increase our vocabulary”.
Learner H: “It helps me in pronouncing words properly”.
In addition, the findings indicated that GR played a nurturing role, where learners
developed a sense of ownership, community and were introduced to innovative ideas. The
participating learners suggested the establishment of a centre where all learners could go to
read. They also suggested initiatives where various reading activities could take place and
reading competitions where they could participate and showcase their talents. The following
comments were noted from learner F G and H respectively:
Learner F: “By opening a centre for learners to read will help all learners to be good readers”.
Learner G: “By having other reading activities and competitions will help us show our talents”.
Learner H: “Children can come to the guided reading groups and participate with us”.
Discussion
province, South Africa. In addressing the first objective which was to determine the standard
of Grade 9 ESL learners’ current reading proficiencies in English language, the results revealed
inadequate reading proficiencies particularly the reading fluency and comprehension. The
implication is that learners are likely encountering the same challenge when reading alone and
have to answer comprehension or test questions. Poor word recognition or word knowledge
is a signal of poor comprehension and understanding, which means that a learner would have
difficulty with understanding the text and also when learning.
Deficiency in these reading proficiencies was due to learners’ low socio-economic status,
which contributes significantly to learners’ reading and language development. The fact that
learners did not read regularly due to a lack of reading books which parents could not afford to
buy was a hindrance to their reading development. Another factor is that learners did not have
role models at home who encouraged them to read and exposed them to the world of words.

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Similarly, research by Akubulilo et al., (2015) in Nigeria and Merga, et al., (2020) in 987
Australia also found socio-economic background as a source of reading deficiency in ESL
learners. Learners in these contexts often lack role models to follow. Evidence in this study
showed that GR approach can significantly contribute to the reading deficiencies caused by lack
of role model learners can imitate to improve proficiencies in reading.
In implementing the Guided Reading intervention programme to determine its possible
effects in enhancing learners’ reading proficiencies of Grade 9 ESL learners, the findings revealed
that GR emphasised learning through modelling during the reading sessions, thus boosting
learners’ confidence and improving their reading comprehension and language proficiencies.
Stutz et al., (2016) affirm that positive partnerships have been found linking teacher modelling,
student morale, and increased reading comprehension skills. He further states that by integrating
modelling into a well-planned GR lesson, teachers are able to provide a concrete example of
what students need to be doing.
In a similar study conducted in America the pre-service teachers used GR approach for
learners who were struggling readers and low academic performers. The results showed that
learners learned through GR that emphasised modelling and learners improved their literacy
and motivational skills (McGrail et al., 2018). The difference is that these learners were in the
lower grades.
In addition, the studies on reading challenges found lack of confidence to be one of
the factors contributing to poor reading by ESL learners as in the case of the study conducted
in Ghana (Mohamed and Amponsah 2018). The study recommended the development of
confidence and collaborative reading among learners and teachers in secondary schools.
Evidence from GR approach in this study showed its potential to develop the mentioned skills
in poor readers.
Congruent with the social constructivist theory, the GR approach allowed researchers
an opportunity to play the role of a mediator and a scaffolder of learning throughout the entire
reading process. Researchers provided scaffolding at the right time and the right level through
the GR approach. GR closed the reading gap in these learners. The social constructivist learning
theory also affirms the findings in this study in that it emphasises the important aspect of learners
controlling their own learning process and reflecting on their experiences. Learners in this study
played a more active role in and accepted more responsibility for their own learning (Cohen,
et al., 2007).
Evidence from the GR sessions study showed that GR approach significant improvement
in participating learners’ reading fluency and comprehension is a result of collaborative
learning. The findings correspond with the principles of constructivist learning theory, which
advocates collaborative learning. Learners worked collaboratively throughout the programme,
learning and socialising. Social constructivists believe society’s practical knowledge is firmly
fixed in associations among learners, their day-to-day activities in their social context, which is
the school and society at large (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Collaboration between learners in the
form of reading, discussions, dialogues, exchanging spoken words and ideas helped to close
the reading gap. This study was able to show that equal partnership and consistency in the
application of GR approach increases chances of struggling learners to improve their reading
comprehension and fluency.
In contrast to the above results of the study by Maples (2016) which was conducted in
a primary school with Grade 5 learners, it was found that GR approach increased the reading
comprehension of average readers not the struggling ones. This was due to inconsistencies
in the application of the approach. This study evidently showed that GR approach if applied
effectively can improve reading proficiencies and entire learning for struggling learners in the
secondary schools.

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988 GR improved reading comprehension through scaffolding. Researchers consistently

supported learners to master reading skills throughout the reading sessions. Researchers also
used the resources and knowledge available to scaffold the reading lessons through modelling,
discussion, and questioning (Phillips, 2013). Scaffolding can look like many different things and
be used with many different strategies. Scaffolding used in this study took into consideration the
ages of the learners, the level of their grade and that they are in a secondary school environment.
Most studies have shown the benefits GR approach regarding scaffolding in primary schools.
This study showed the potential of GR to support reading in secondary schools.
The results of the study also showed that G approach not only improves reading skills
but other skills as well. Results also indicated that GR approach played a developmental role: as
learners repeatedly read the reading texts and re-told the stories, they learnt new terminologies.
They learnt reflective skills that enabled them to identify their weaknesses and strengths and
think about their thought processes. In so doing, they learnt to construct their own knowledge.
This is supported by O’Rourke (2017), who states that when “shared reading is incorporated in
a daily routine, students hear the teacher’s intonation, fluency, pausing, flow, and can ultimately
listen to their ‘thoughts’”, leading to the development of their meta-cognitive thinking skills
(O’Rourke, 2017).
GR not only improved learners’ reading fluency and comprehension but also developed a
sense of ownership in their learning, a sense of community and the development of an innovative
mind. The findings from the post-oral and written tests confirmed the significant improvement
in the reading fluency and comprehension of all participating learners. The implication is that
GR has the potential to improve reading proficiencies of secondary Grade 9 ES.
As indicated earlier, the reading challenge for all learners was fluency and comprehension;
being unable to read for meaning and understanding. As a result of the GR intervention, learners
showed significant improvement in most of the reading sessions. In general, the findings from
all reading sessions indicated consistent improvement for both fluency and comprehension
levels of all learners. Learners C and H showed considerable improvement, as it is indicated
by the highest rating scores achieved in each session, followed by learners A, D, F and G who
displayed adequate achievement, and learners B and E, who showed moderate achievement in
reading fluency and comprehension.
Researchers used GR to establish the learners’ reading deficit and executed the GR
approach with the goal of ameliorating reading deficits and planting a culture of reading in
them (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). In reflecting on the findings, researchers are on an opinion that
there is sufficient evidence to attest that the GR programme was productive; it yielded positive
results. Reading aloud, practising, and drilling the phonics in groups, and creating charts
to classify words according to different parts of speech assisted in stimulating the learners’
interest and knowledge of the English words and vocabulary, ultimately improving fluency and
comprehension. Collaboration is evidence that meaningful learning occurs when individuals
are engaged in social activities (McMahon, 1997).
Conclusions
province, South Africa. It was indicated that few studies on GR approach in secondary schools
existed. Most studies conducted were in the primary schools. Owing to the reading challenges
encountered in secondary schools this study was conducted. The evidence presented showed
that this study narrowed this gap. Learners developed reflective and metacognitive skills and
were able to develop the sense of community and innovative mind in this study. The study also
proved that GR can be a tool to effective classroom research by teachers. One of the researchers
in this study happened to be a teacher of learners who were participants.

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This study furnishes a motivation for the school and ultimately the Tshwane West District 989
to establish measures for identifying learners who are underperforming and cannot read at the
level of their grade and for meaning and understanding because they have a problem with
reading fluency and comprehension. This study showed the possible effects on the GR approach
on the reading fluency and comprehensions of struggling secondary school learners.
If such learners are identified early, they can be given reading intervention timely to
address reading deficiencies and enhance their academic performance. The magnitude of
improved academic performance will open opportunities for learners to study further and
acquire tertiary qualifications. This will minimise the dropout rate in township schools. The
country will have fewer young people who are not employed and idle during the day, leading
to other social problems like crime and drug or substance abuse, because GR empowers and
equips learners with a wealth of wisdom, and turns them into independent readers and later
leaders.
Recommendations and Implications
Based on the findings it is recommended that ESL learners be evaluated when they get
to high school (Grade 8) by means of a pre-test for oral fluency and a written pre-test for
comprehension to identify those who are struggling to read so that intervention strategies can be
implemented to address specific reading difficulties. The reading strategies need to be prioritized
when teaching language; especially reading to improve reading, and ultimately, education in
general. Educators need to ensure learners understand the strategies so that they can use them in
all spheres of life. Every school in the District should have a policy on GR. A recommendation
is that these policies should not only be given to schools, but implemented, monitored and
a follow-up made to ensure the execution of policy to eliminate reading problems. Further
research is needed on teachers’ knowledge of GR programmes, implementation, assessment,
and intervention strategies.
Limitations
Number of participants: This study was limited to eight participants, although it started
with twenty, reduced to fifteen, then ultimately to eight because of a lack of commitment and
the unavailability of some learners. Only eight were committed and consistent. There should
have been more participants to get a greater spectrum of the reading gap and a considerable
number of learners taking part in reading activities.
The setting: The backdrop was also limited to one school, one teacher and one district.
Other teaching staff, especially language teachers, could have been involved. The principal was
not involved in the programme, except giving permission to conduct the research at school.
Parents, SGB members and district Senior Education Specialists (SES) were not included
because of time constrains and limited budget.

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990 References
Abraham, G. Y., & Barksdale, M. A. (2017). Literacy and democracy in South African primary schools,
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992 Woolfolk, A. (2014). Educational psychology. Educational Psychology: Active Learning Edition, (12th
Edition). Pearson.
Received: June 23, 2021 Accepted: November 28, 2021
Cite as: Thage, E. M., Mokgosi, P. N., & Mthembu, J. T. (2021). Exploring the effects of
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Esther Molebogeng Thage MSc, Tshwane University of Technology, Soshanguve North Campus,
Aubrey Road, Soshanguve, Pretoria, South Africa.
E-mail: molethage@webmail.co.za
Patricia Namayammu Mokgosi PhD, Lecturer, Tshwane University of Technology, Soshanguve North
(Corresponding author) Campus, Aubrey Road, Soshanguve, Pretoria, South Africa.
E-mail: mokgosipn@tut.ac.za
Jane Tozama Mthembu MSc, Lecturer, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South
Africa.
E-mail: mthembujt@tut.ac.za

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EXAMINING EMPLOYMENT QUALITY 993
AMONG FEMALE IMMIGRANT TRAINEES

IN TAIWAN
Ya-Ling Wu
National Pingtung University of Science & Technology, Taiwan
E-mail: karinnpust@gmail.com
Abstract
This study examined a proposed model of employment quality among female immigrants after their
participation in vocational training in Taiwan, drawing on the developmental-contextual model of
career development. It simultaneously tested the relationship between the distal contextual variable (i.e.,
perceived Taiwanese attitudes toward immigrant women (PTAs)), proximal contextual variables (i.e.,
vocational training experiences (VTEs) and social support (SS)), the individual-level variable (i.e., self-
perceived employability (SPE)), and employment quality (EQ) in the model. A questionnaire survey was
conducted among 447 female immigrant trainees who had worked for over 6 months after vocational
training in Taiwan. The results supported the proposed model based on the developmental-contextual
approach, which explained 56.9% of the variance in EQ. The results further revealed that PTAs positively
affected SPE, VTEs and SS. In turn, VTEs and SS positively directly and indirectly affected EQ through
their impacts on SPE, and SPE positively influenced EQ. The three most important factors that determined
the EQ of immigrant women who participated in vocational training were VTEs, SPE, and PTAs.
Keywords: career development, employment quality, immigrant women, vocational training
Introduction
As the process of global and liberal economics has continuously called for flexibilization
of the labor market, employment conditions such as income, job security and career prospects
have changed tremendously. As a result, employment quality has become a human resource
issue of worldwide interest (Burchell, et al., 2014). An increasing number of research
demonstrates that employment quality is crucial for workers’ well-being and sustainable career
development (Berloffa et al., 2018; Burchell et al., 2014). Employment quality is a complex and
multidimensional concept that involves a comprehensive evaluation of the interaction between
workers and their working environment in the employment process (Almarshad, 2015; Burchell
et al., 2014). It can therefore fully demonstrate the actual employment situation of workers
and the dynamic relationship between workers' socioeconomic status and their labor market
participation (Liu, 2011).
The labor market participation experiences of immigrant women are significantly different
from those of immigrant men and native-born women. Due to the lack of labor marketability,
urgent personal economic needs, and institutional ethnic and gender discrimination, immigrant
women are usually located at the bottom of the labor market in host countries and become a
marginalized and disadvantaged labor force with low work dignity and social status (Anthias et
al., 2013). In fact, the employment of female immigrants improves their financial independence

Ya-Ling WU. Examining employment quality among female immigrant trainees in Taiwan
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994 and social integration in receiving countries and contributes to their family economic situation.
To facilitate the employability of female immigrants and to improve their employment quality,
involving female immigrants in vocational training to enter the labor market is one of the most
important immigration policies in many countries (Kogan et al., 2018).
There is growing recognition that employment quality has a profound impact on the
physical and psychological health of immigrant women (Berloffa et al., 2018). Compared with
international migration in western developed areas, such as North America, Western Europe
and Australia, just a small number of studies has focused on migration in Asia, although there
has been a rapidly increasing number of immigrants in the region since the 1990s. Over the
past two decades in Asia, Taiwan, like Japan and Korea, has had a stable growing number of
female marriage immigrants from Mainland China and Southeast Asia (Tsai & Lee, 2016), who
represent around 2.0% of the total Taiwanese population (Ministry of the Interior, 2021).
Taiwan’s rapid economic development has attracted women from less economically
developed countries in Asia to marry Taiwanese men of low socioeconomic status through
commercially arranged marriage in search of a prosperous life (Bélanger et al., 2010). Due
to the economic disadvantages of most Taiwanese husbands, labor market participation has
become the most urgent need for marriage immigrant women to improve the finances of their
personal and natal families (Wu, 2014). Immigrant women’s contribution to the Taiwanese
labor market has been documented. In 2018, 67.9% of immigrant women in Taiwan were
employed in paid work (Ministry of the Interior, 2020), while the labor force participation rate
of their Taiwanese counterparts was 58.2% (Executive Yuan, 2021a); the employment rate of
immigrant women therefore far exceeded that of Taiwanese women. The Taiwanese government
has invested some resources to encourage immigrant women to take vocational training and
improve their employability in response to their limited employment outcomes and relatively
low work earnings and status (Ministry of the Interior, 2020). However, the employment
achievement of immigrant women is still below that of their Taiwanese counterparts. In 2018,
the average monthly work income of immigrant women was only 51.8% that of Taiwanese
women (Executive Yuan, 2021b). Furthermore, immigrant women were overrepresented in
unskilled and low-skilled occupations, with 33.3% working as service and sales staff, 29.8%
working as elementary laborers, and 19.2% working as machine operators. Among immigrant
women, 32.9% worked in the manufacturing industry, 23.5% worked in the accommodation
and catering industry, and 11.3% worked in the wholesale and retail industry (Ministry of the
Interior, 2020). Overall, compared with Taiwanese counterparts, the employment quality among
immigrant women is poor, which may cause social and economic disadvantages.
In Taiwan, since 2005, pre-job vocational training programs especially for immigrant
women (VTPEIW) have been provided by public and private vocational training institutions
with government funding. These programs in VTPEIWs average 300 hours over three months
and provide training in personal services, basic computer skills, and cuisines. Around 22
VTPEIWs, which recruit about 660 trainees, have been offered every year. The training programs
are provided free for female immigrant trainees, and trainees receive living allowances. To
be eligible to attend the training, trainees must pass the basic Chinese reading and writing
proficiency exam and attend an interview. However, the government only examines the
employment experiences of female immigrant trainees through the follow-up investigation of
their employment rate three months after the training (Ministry of Labor, 2020). The disregard
of employment quality among female immigrant trainees might originate from rather limited
national concerns about the employment of female immigrants and the fact that in Taiwan,
commercially arranged marriage immigrant women are usually considered housewives instead
of laborers (Tang & Wang, 2011).
Although some employment research has focused on immigrant women in Taiwan, such
as their work income and barriers to employment (e.g., Hsia, 2009), there is little contextualized

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and comprehensive understanding of employment quality among immigrant women after their 995
participation in vocational training. Because employment quality is a key factor in immigrant
women’s well-being and career development (Berloffa et al., 2018), policies that cannot account
for the employment quality of female immigrants are unlikely to facilitate their employment
outcomes. This paper aims to fill this gap by exploring the essential factors that affect the
employment quality of female immigrants who participate in vocational training in Taiwan.
Literature Review and Hypotheses
Employment Quality
Employment quality is a complex, multidimensional concept referring to the overall

evaluation of various working conditions at the individual or aggregate (i.e., state or corporate)
level (Berloffa et al., 2018). Although the definition and dimensions of employment quality
vary across studies, it can be inferred that this concept revolves around laborers’ health and
well-being and can be a powerful predictor of labor mobility (Almarshad, 2015; Muñnoz de
Bustillo et al., 2011). Since the present study aims to identify the factors that affect female
immigrant trainees’ personal subjective assessments of their working conditions and because
using individual-level data can facilitate the analysis of specific employment experiences
among subgroups of workers (Burchell et al., 2014), the perspective of the individual worker is
adopted to measure employment quality in this study.
Employment is conceptualized by many different dimensions that are relevant to human
needs in various ways. Existing studies focusing on individual-level employment quality
usually encompass indicators such as earnings, workload (e.g., working hours), and insecurity
(e.g., unemployment risk) (Berloffa et al., 2018). Although a match between educational
qualifications and occupation is seldom emphasized in the literature on employment quality,
skill mismatch is a widespread and increasing phenomenon in many host countries, especially
for female immigrants (Wu, 2014). Thus, in this study, employment quality includes four
dimensions that are considered crucial for understanding immigrant women’s overall subjective
evaluation of their working conditions: compensation, workload, security of employment, and
match between educational qualifications and occupation.
Developmental-Contextual Model of Career Development As the Study Framework
The unique backgrounds of immigrant women display the complexity and diversity of
their personal life experiences and their sociocultural contexts (Sadeghi, 2008). Employment
quality is one of the most essential assessments and performances of career development
(Berloffa et al., 2018 ). Thus, the study examined individual-level and contextual factors, as well
as the interaction between them, to fully understand how the employment quality of immigrant
women who participate in vocational training develops.
It is clear that neither a contextual perspective emphasizing the sources outside individuals
nor an organismic perspective in terms of individual differences is appropriate to account for the
complexity of career development (Vondracek & Porfeli, 2008). The developmental-contextual
model of career development, which is a comprehensive approach, combines both organismic
and contextual perspectives. The approach conceptualizes development as the unfolding
process of the interaction between a developing individual and multiple levels of context. This
emphasizes three systems that interact in career development, including the individual, context,
and dyadic individual-contextual interaction (Vondracek et al., 1986).
From this perspective, individual characteristics and activities influence not only
individuals’ own career development but also the contexts in which they operate. Namely,

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996 individuals provide active contribution to their personal career development through their
behaviors, which influence the contexts. Further, the contexts offer feedback according to
individuals’ actions, which impact individuals and their career development (Araújo & do Céu
Taveira, 2009).
Career development must be fully understood by placing the individual within the
contexts that comprise various levels of systems that change interdependently. The contexts are
defined by social, cultural, psychological, and physical parameters and include both proximal
systems in which developing individuals directly participate and distal systems in which
individuals cannot actively operate and that are out of their control. Additionally, the approach
highlights the mutual and dynamic interaction between the individual and the contexts that
results in individuals’ career development. Since the individual and the contexts are mutually
embedded, no single level of factors can function alone (Vondracek & Porfeli, 2008).
Factors Associated with Employment Quality
The personal and contextual factors that would affect immigrant women’s employment
quality have been empirically explored infrequently in relation to one another or in combination.
Drawing on the developmental-contextual model of career development, this study examined
four factors that affect the employment quality (EQ) of female immigrants after their participation
in vocational programs in Taiwan. The selected factors represent three domains of impact: self-
perceived employability (SPE) as the individual-level factor, vocational training experiences
(VTEs) and social support (SS) as the proximal contextual factors, and perceived Taiwanese
attitudes toward immigrant women (PTAs) as the distal contextual factor.
PTAs. The attitudes of natives toward immigrants may affect immigrants’ psychological
health, employment, and well-being (Fernández et al., 2015; Tartakovsky et al., 2021). Although
numerous studies have examined employment discrimination among immigrants in North
America and Europe and there are potential influences of natives’ attitudes toward immigrants
on employment quality, little empirical research has explored the issue of marriage immigrant
women in Asia.
Some studies have confirmed that there is a negative relationship between immigrants’
perceived discrimination and their psychological well-being, which is moderated by the social
support that they receive. Furthermore, immigrants' perceived discrimination has a negative
impact on their level of received social support (e.g., Fernández et al., 2015; Jasinskaja-Lahti
et al., 2006). Earlier studies have also shown that ex-prisoners who perceive a higher level of
negative attitudes toward them tend to possess a lower level of perceived employability (Chui
& Cheng, 2013), and female graduates who suffer from negative attitudes due to their gender
are more likely to have difficulty in their work adaptation (Moreau & Leathwood, 2006).
In Taiwan, most immigrant women are from Mainland China and Southeastern Asia and
arrive through commercially arranged marriages to seek a better life. These women usually give
birth to descendants of their Taiwanese husbands and contribute to their natal families’ finances.
Thus, some Taiwanese people tend to stigmatize marriage immigrant women and their families.
Specifically, immigrant women are believed to enter Taiwan only to make money and to cause
social problems due to their family’s low socioeconomic status. Consequently, some Taiwanese
hold negative attitudes toward these women and even discriminate against them in work and
daily life (Hsia, 2009; Yang et al., 2014). Based on these empirical findings, we expected that
PTAs could be a predictor of the distal context of female immigrant trainees' EQ.
H2: VTEs are positively influenced by PTAs.

H3: SS is positively influenced by PTAs.
H4: SPE is positively influenced by PTAs.

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VTEs. Individuals’ employability is improved mainly through job-related learning 997

(Scholarios et al., 2008). Some studies have suggested that the curriculum, instruction,
interpersonal relationships, and career guidance of vocational training that meet female
immigrant trainees’ cultural needs can facilitate their employability (Sok et al., 2013; Wu,
2019). Previous studies have also revealed that immigrant women in Europe who participate in
customized forms of training programs tend to have a higher level of employability and obtain
well-paid jobs (Anthias et al., 2013). Moreover, Cohen-Goldner and Eckstein (2008) also found
that in the 1990s, the more that vocational training programs met the needs of female immigrants
from the Soviet Union to Israel, the more their working income increased. Budría and Telhado‐
Pereira (2009) also have confirmed that high-quality training programs could improve trainees’
job skills and access to jobs that match their education and training. Despite some general
conclusions from these studies, the findings are usually case dependent. Thus, given the above
empirical research, we expected that VTEs could represent a proximal contextual factor that
would affect female immigrant trainees’ EQ.
H5: SPE is positively influenced by VTEs.

H7: EQ is positively influenced by VTEs.
SS. Social support is the process by which individuals obtain emotional, instrumental,
and informational assistance from recognized social networks. When focusing on immigrants,
the role of social support must be examined in a multidimensional way. Migratory life involves
immigrants’ prior socialization in the homeland and new experiences in the host countries
(Gellis, 2003). Thus, in this study, the support that immigrant women trainees receive includes
support from their Taiwanese family and friends, their natal family, ethnic friends in Taiwan, and
the government. Some research has suggested that social support networks with ethic groups
and intimate families in host countries are an important mechanism for improving immigrants’
career development, including employability (i.e., the accumulation of human capital and work
adaptation) (Bolíbar, 2020) and employment quality (i.e., security of employment, work duties,
and work earnings) (Debono & Vassallo, 2020).
In Europe and Canada, immigrants pay attention to the social welfare resources (one
type of social support from the government) that are available to them because these resources
have much influence on their life adjustment in the host society. In most countries, immigration
is essential for welfare issues (Barrett & MacCarthy, 2008). Moreover, some studies have
revealed that immigrant women who are provided with more social support (e.g., vocational
training programs and settlement services) from the government tend to possess a higher level of
employability (Wu, 2019) and obtain employment with higher income and more security (Liu,
2011). According to these empirical studies, this study expected that SS could be a predictor of
the proximal settings of EQ in this study.
H6: SPE is positively influenced by SS.

H8: EQ is positively influenced by SS.
SPE. Employability is conceptualized as the ongoing fulfillment, acquisition, or

creation of sustainable employment by applying individuals’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
Employability is a multifaceted construct with both objective and subjective elements (De Vos
et al., 2011; Fugate et al., 2004). This study highlights individuals’ self-perceived employability,
which includes three dimensions: career identity, personal adaptability, and human and social
capital (Fugate et al., 2004). Some studies have indicated that immigrant women's investment
in their human capital, including language ability and training in host countries, could improve
their income, job security, and job prospects (Kogan et al., 2018). Additionally, previous studies

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998 have suggested that university graduates’ career identity and personal adaptability are related to
their job quality (i.e., pay, employment status, working hours, employment security) (González-
Romá et al., 2018). Building upon these findings, we aimed to test the relationship between the
SPE and EQ of female immigrant trainees and formulate the following hypothesis:
H9: EQ is positively influenced by SPE.
In sum, according to the above results of the literature review, this study aimed to test
the whole proposed theoretical model based on the developmental-contextual model of career
development; and propose the hypothesis:
H1: the proposed theoretical model fits the sample data.
The Aims of this Study and Research Model Hypotheses
Given the above theoretical background, a theoretical model of EQ among female

immigrant trainees in Taiwan and hypotheses are proposed in this study (see Figure 1). Thus, the
goals of this study were two-fold. First, it attempted to examine the proposed theoretical model
of employment quality among female immigrant trainees after their participation in vocational
training in Taiwan by applying the developmental-contextual model of career development as
the theoretical framework. Second, the study explored the relationship among the variables in
the proposed model. Overall, this study aimed to test nine hypotheses, H1-H9as shown above.
Figure 1
Proposed Hypothetical Model
Sample Selection
Data were collected by conducting a questionnaire survey. The research population

consisted of marriage immigrant women who moved to Taiwan by marrying Taiwanese men.

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Additionally, the participants had successfully completed vocational training. At the time of 999
their participation in the study, they had been employed in paid work for over 6 months after
training. These participants were likely to have comprehensive employment experiences upon
which they could reflect.
The study applied a stratified sampling method to select potential vocational training
institutions that provided VTPEIWs based on the programs that they offered and their
geographical locations. The types of job-related training programs comprised personal services,
cuisines, computer skills, and others; the geographical locations covered the eastern, northern,
central, and southern areas of Taiwan. In order to recruit more participants from each of the
institutions, institutions in each of the regions were sampled based on the criterion that the
institutions had more female immigrant trainees who had successfully finished vocation training
and then obtained employment than other institutions. Consequently, 24 vocational training
institutions were selected.
The sampled vocational training institutions were provided with the research proposal,
and they all approved participation in this study. Because of the small number of target
participants, all of the female immigrant women in every selected institution who met the above
qualifications for research participation were invited to participate.
Participants
The questionnaires were administered to 497 immigrant women, and 447 of the
questionnaires were usable (89.9%). The ages of the participants ranged from 22 to 64 years (M=
39.8, SD= 9.72). The majority of the participants were from Mainland China (58.4%), 28.0%
were from Vietnam, 7.2% were from Indonesia, and 6.5% were from other countries. In their
homeland, 42.0% of the participants held a senior high school degree, 32.9% held a junior high
school degree, and 8.6% held an elementary school degree. Almost 73.3% of the participants
were still married to Taiwanese husbands, and 14.6% were divorced. Of the sample, 84.0% had
at least one child, and 63.1% had obtained Taiwanese identification. The participants had lived
in Taiwan for an average of 10.9 years (SD=6.1). They had, on average, 7.3 years (SD=5.8)
of job tenure in Taiwan and 2.3 years (SD=3.4) of experience in their current job. Most of
the participants had finished vocational training in personal services (78.7%), 29.1% in meal
preparation, 10.7% in basic computer skills, and 5.4% in other types of training. Additionally,
43.2% had obtained technological certificates after completing training. Furthermore, 51.0% of
the participants were employed full time and 49.0% were employed part time. A large portion
of the women worked at only one job (91.3%), while 8.1% worked at 2 jobs. Approximately
33.3% of the sample worked in the cosmetics industry, 21.3% in the accommodation and food
service industry, 9.2% in the production industry, and 8.9% in the wholesale and retail industry.
The majority of them worked as service and sales staff (76.5%), and 13.4% of them worked
as elementary laborers. Approximately 61.1% of the participants were employees, 12.1% were
employers with employees, and 28.8% were self-employed without employees. Approximately
34.2% of the sample earned a monthly wage of US$601-900, 33.3% earned a monthly wage
of US$301-600, 14.8% earned less than US$300 monthly, and 11.2% earned US$901-1200
monthly. Approximately 35.6% of the participants worked over 41 hours weekly, 24.8% worked
31-40 hours weekly, and 15.2% worked less than 10 hours weekly.
Instructions for conducting the survey were provided for the vocational training institution
staff to ensure the trustworthiness of the questionnaire survey. In the recruitment stage, the
institution staff explained the research to the potential participants by phone and invited them
to attend the study. Then, the female immigrants who were willing to attend the study came to
the institutions and completed the anonymous self-report Chinese written questionnaires with
the assistance of the institution staff. The participants got gift vouchers as reimbursement for
participating in the research.

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1000 Measures
These scales of the questionnaire in this study were adapted primarily from various
published sources. Each item was written in Chinese and was measured on a 5-point Likert
scale ranging from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree.
EQ was measured using a 4-item scale adapted from Burchell et al. (2014) and Berloffa
et al. (2018) (α=0.93). The respondents indicated their perceptions of the degree to which their
current work life met their needs. The scale included compensation, workload, employment
security, and match between education and job (e.g., “I feel that there is a good match between
my educational qualifications and my current job”).
PTAs were assessed by a 3-item scale adapted from Tartakovsky et al. (2021) and
Fernández et al. (2015) (α=0.89). The scale assessed the respondents’ perceptions of Taiwanese
treatment toward immigrant women because of their female marriage immigrant status. The
scale included work context, daily life context, and legal context (e.g., “I feel that we immigrant
women in Taiwan have fair treatment in situations of possible promotion at work”). The higher
the score, the more positive attitudes the respondents’ perceived from Taiwanese people toward
female marriage immigrants.
VTEs were tested utilizing a 4-item scale based on the work conducted by Budría &
Telhado‐Pereira (2009) and Wu (2019) (α=0.92) to assess the respondents’ perception of the
degree to which the vocational training programs met their needs. The scale included curriculum,
instruction, interpersonal relationships, and guidance for certificate examinations (e.g., “The
delivery of vocational training considered the life and learning habits of immigrant women”).
SS was measured by a scale with 4 items adapted from Gellis (2003) and Fernández
et al. (2015) (α=0.89) to assess the level of concerns and support that the respondents received
when they needed help. The scale included support from Taiwanese family and friends, support
from ethnic groups in Taiwan, support from natal family in the homeland, and support from
the Taiwanese government (e.g., “My ethnic friends in Taiwan are willing to help me solve my
problems”).
SPE was measured using a 3-item scale (α=0.90) based on the work of Fugate et al.
(2004). The SPE scale tested the extent of the individuals’ perceptions of their competencies
required for maintaining or obtaining desirable employment appropriate to their qualification
levels. Career identity, personal adaptability, and human and social capital were included in this
scale (e.g., “The knowledge and skills that I possess are appropriate to the requirement of the
work that I desire”).
Data Analysis
Structural equation modeling (SEM) was applied to examine the proposed theoretical
model and included paths. A hypothesized model was statistically tested to evaluate the degree
to which it corresponded with the empirical data. SEM primarily comprises the measurement
model and the structural model. The measurement model, which specifies the proposed
relationship of the observed indicators to the constructs, is tested via confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA). The structural model estimates all the hypothetical dependencies based on path
analysis (Kline, 2015). In this research, the data were analyzed by applying AMOS 23.0 as the
SEM software with the maximum likelihood (ML) method of estimation.
Research Results
Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics for each variable. All the variables had mean
scores above the midpoint (3). Overall, the distribution of the mean scores for each variable was

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considered to be normal with skewness within ±3 (ranging from -0.29 to 0.15), kurtosis within 1001
±8 (ranging from -0.59 to 0.06), and the critical ratio value of multivariate kurtosis within 10
(8.97) (Kline, 2015). As illustrated in Table 1, the immigrant women generally perceived a
slightly high level of positive attitudes from the Taiwanese, and they reported a moderately high
level of social support that they could obtain when they needed help. Additionally, they reported
that they possessed moderately high levels of perceived self-employability and employment
quality.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics of Constructs
Construct M SD Skewness Kurtosis

PTAs 3.67 .59 .08 .06
VTEs 4.02 .60 -.29 -.59
SS 3.80 .49 -.02 -.01
SPE 3.97 .49 -.08 -.04
EQ 3.70 .56 .15 -.54
Convergent Validity and Discriminant Validity
The study examined convergent validity and discriminant validity to demonstrate the
validity and reliability of the measurement model. The convergent validity of the indicators
for each construct, which refers to the degree of which the observed indicators of a specific
construct share a proportion of variance in common, is assessed by item reliability, the composite
reliability of each construct, and the average variance extracted (AVE). All of the evidence
shown in Table 2 indicates the satisfactory convergent validity of all the constructs in this study.
The CFA results revealed good item reliability with significant loadings of all indicators (p<.01)
greater than 0.60 (Hair et al, 2018). The composite reliability and the AVE of every construct
were over the thresholds of 0.7 and 0.5, respectively (Hair et al., 2018).

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1002 Table 2
Convergent Validity of the Measurement Model
Item reliability Average

Composite
Constructs/ indicators Standardized Standardized variance
t-value reliability
loading errors extracted
PTAs 0.85 0.66
PTA1 0.85 -- --
PTA2 0.83 0.05 16.66***
PTA3 0.75 0.06 14.93***
VTEs 0.92 0.74
VTE1 0.73 -- --
VTE2 0.89 0.07 18.50***
VTE3 0.92 0.08 17.14***
VTE4 0.89 0.08 18.18***
SS 0.90 0.69
SS1 0.78 -- --
SS2 0.80 0.06 20.49***
SS3 0.88 0.08 22.38***
SS4 0.96 0.08 20.72***
SPE 0.90 0.75
SPE1 0.86 -- --
SPE2 0.91 0.05 22.21***
SPE3 0.82 0.05 18.35***
EQ 0.88 0.65
EQ1 0.75 -- --
EQ2 0.77 0.06 14.90***
EQ3 0.87 0.06 17.14***
EQ4 0.83 0.06 18.18***
Note: *** p<.001
Discriminant validity, which assesses the extent to which constructs are distinct from
one another, is measured by comparing the squared correlation between two constructs
with either of their individual AVE estimates. The AVE estimates should be greater than the
squared correlation estimate (Hair et al., 2018). The findings (see Table 3) indicated a high
level of discriminant validity. Having assured convergent validity and discriminant validity, the
constructs in the theoretical model were considered adequate.

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Table 3 1003
Discriminant Validity of the Measurement Model
Construct PTAs VTEs SS SPE EQ
PTAs .81
VTEs .41 .86
SS .26 .11 .83
SPE .58 .58 .17 .87
EQ .45 .63 .25 .69 .81

Note: Diagonals represent the square root of AVE. Other entries represent the correlations between constructs.
Assessment of the Measurement Model
Absolute fit measures, incremental fit measures, and parsimonious fit measures were
applied to examine the overall fit of the measurement model with the five constructs (see Table
4) (Hair et al., 2018). Table 4 demonstrates all the model fit indices and the recommended level
of acceptable fit. Except for the χ2 measure, the other values demonstrated acceptable goodness-
of-fit statistics. The χ2 measure shows a pronounced tendency to reveal significant differences
with increasing sample size, particularly in cases of sample sizes over 200 (Hair et al. 2018).
This anomaly applies to this study of a sample of 447. Additionally, the χ2/df value in this study
was within the acceptable range (<3, good). In sum, the proposed measurement model yielded
a satisfactory fit to the empirical data.
Table 4
Goodness-of-Fit Measures for the Measurement Model
Incremental fit Parsimonious fit

Model fit Absolute fit measures
measures measures
indices
χ2 χ2/df GFI RMSEA IFI TLI CFI PGFI PNFI PCFI
1150.22 0.92
Values 4.85 0.07 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.70 0.78 0.80
P<.001
Recom- Non- <3 good <0.05 good

>0.90
mended signifi- <5 accept- <0.08 accept- >0.90 >0.90 >0.90 >0.50 >0.50 >0.50
criteria cance able able
Note: χ2, Chi-square; χ2/df, the ratio of χ2 to its degree of freedom; GFI, goodness-of-fit index; RMSEA, root-
mean-square error of approximation; IFI, incremental fit index; TLI, Tacker-Lewis index; CFI, comparative fit
index; PGFI, parsimonious goodness-of-fit index; PNFI, parsimonious normal fit index; PCFI, parsimonious
comparative fit index.
Assessment of the Structural Model
The fit of the theoretical structural model was assessed by utilizing absolute fit measures,
incremental fit measures, and parsimonious fit measures (Hair et al., 2018). As shown in Table 5,
except for the χ2 measure, the other selected goodness-of-fit measures showed reliable model fit.

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1004 Moreover, the χ2/df value in the present study was within the acceptable value (<5, acceptable).
In sum, the proposed structural model indicated a satisfactory fit to the empirical data.
Overall, the model explained 56.9% of the variance in the EQ of female immigrant
trainees, supporting the hypothesis that the proposed theoretical model fits the sample data
(H1). In other words, the proposed research model based on the developmental-contextual
model of career development was effective in explaining the EQ of female immigrant trainees
after their participation in vocational training in Taiwan.
Table 5
Goodness-of-Fit Measures for the Structural Model
Incremental fit Parsimonious fit

Absolute fit measures
measures measures
Model fit indices
GFI
χ2 χ2/df RMSEA IFI TLI CFI PGFI PNFI PCFI
871.43 0.90
Values 3.59 0.06 0.91 0.90 0.93 0.71 0.79 0.80
p<.001
Recommended Non- <3 good <0.05 good

>0.90
criteria signifi- <5 accept- <0.08 accept- >0.90 >0.90 >0.90 >0.50 >0.50 >0.50
cance able able
Note: χ2, Chi-square; χ2/df, the ratio of χ2 to its degree of freedom; GFI, goodness-of-fit index; RMSEA, root-
mean-square error of approximation; IFI, incremental fit index; TLI, Tacker-Lewis index; CFI, comparative fit
index; PGFI, parsimonious goodness-of-fit index; PNFI, parsimonious normal fit index; PCFI, parsimonious
comparative fit index.
Figure 2 shows the examined path coefficients of the proposed theoretical model. All
eight hypotheses of the relationships between the variables were supported (H2-H5 and H7 at
the .01 significance level; H6 and H8 at the .05 significance level; H2: PTAs→VTEs, β=0.40,
t-value=9.10; H3: PTAs→SPE, β=0.40, t-value=9.10; H4: PTAs→SS, β=0.25, t-value=9.10;
H5: VTEs→SPE, β=0.34, t-value=8.23; H6: SS→SPE, β=0.08, t-value=2.41; H7: VTEs→EQ,
β=0.41, t-value=8.23; H8: SS→EQ, β=0.07, t-value=2.41; H9: SPE→EQ, β=0.49, t-value=7.76).
Moreover, the variance of four endogenous variables in the proposed model was
assessed. EQ was significantly determined by SPE, VTEs, SS, and PTAs, which resulted in an
R2 of 0.569. SPE was determined by VTEs, SS, and PTAs with an R2 of 0.483. VTEs and SS
were both determined by PTAs, which resulted in an R2 of 0.157, and 0.063, respectively.
Regarding the effects of independent variables on EQ of female immigrant trainees after their
participation in vocational training, as shown in Fig. 2, VTEs and SS had both direct and indirect
influences on EQ through their effects on SPE. Additionally, SPE directly affected EQ, and PTAs
indirectly affected EQ. Of all the independent variables, the total effect of VTEs on female immigrant
trainees’ EQ was the greatest (estimate=.41+.34×.49=0.538), followed by SPE (estimates=0.486),
PTAs (estimates=.40×.41+.40×.34×.49+.40×.49+.25×.07+.25×.08×.49=0.436), and SS
(estimates=.07+.08×.49=0.113). In sum, in this study, the three most important factors that
determined the EQ of immigrant women who participated in vocational training were VTEs,
SPE, and PTAs.

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Figure 2 1005
Results of Testing the Proposed Theoretical Model
Note: *** p<.001; * p<.05
Discussion
The empirical results supported the suitability of the research model according to the
developmental-contextual model of career development for explaining EQ among female
immigrant trainees after their participation in vocational training in Taiwan. The results further
revealed that PTAs, a distal contextual factor, positively affected VTEs and SS at the proximal
contextual level and SPE at the individual level. VTEs and SS, in turn, positively directly and
indirectly affected EQ through their impacts on SPE, which in turn positively affected EQ.
The finding that VETs, as one of the proximal contextual factors, had the greatest
positive direct and indirect impact on the EQ of female immigrants taking vocational training
in Taiwan confirms the significance of vocational training that responds to the learning needs
of female immigrant trainees in facilitating the sustainable employment development of this
disadvantaged minority group. In Taiwan, most immigrant women tend to participate in job-
related training not only to improve their employability and obtain meaningful employment but
also to obtain professional certificates to compensate for their low-education backgrounds and
to optimize themselves in the eyes of the host society. Consequently, immigrant women usually
become the targets and victims of vocational training markets that cannot take into account their
unique needs (Wu, 2014).
Although the access to vocational training is important, it is more essential to focus
on the achievement of training. Generally training in itself does not guarantee satisfactory
employment (Anthias et al., 2013). Nevertheless, in Taiwan, the primary goal of most vocational
training institutions seems to be to save money and assimilate female immigrant trainees rather
than responding to the barriers that they may experience in vocational training (Wu, 2014). For
immigrant women, participating in vocational training may be a frustrating and discouraging

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1006 process when the diversity of their needs and concerns is not acknowledged (Lior & Wismer,
2003). Although immigrant women’s needs and obstacles to training have been studied in
Taiwan, resources and mechanisms for implementing vocational training for immigrant women
have seldom been adequate to respond to their needs. Thus, access to proper and high-quality
job-related training has been identified as an issue for immigrant women in Taiwan (Wu, 2014).
Vocational training in isolation certainly cannot improve female immigrants’ employment
problems. However, job-related training that is integrated with the needs of immigrant women
as part of an integrated strategy for creating sustainable employment development would
remove the obstacles that prevent immigrant women from accessing the occupations they need
(Lior & Wismer, 2003).
SPE, an individual-level factor, represented another essential determinant that positively
and directly contributed to the EQ of female immigrant trainees in Taiwan. The results
empirically supported the suggestion that employability may even be an essential predictor
of an individual’s employment quality. Thus, possessing a certain level of employability with
career identity, personal adaptability, and human and social capital is necessary for immigrant
women to function well in the contemporary labor market (De Vos et al., 2011).
PTAs, at the distal contextual level, played a significant role in positively and indirectly
affecting the EQ of female immigrant trainees in Taiwan through their influence on the factors of
proximal contexts and the individual. Moreover, the results suggest that in the proposed model,
PTAs were the most important factors affecting the SPE of female immigrant trainees. This
indicates the significance of natives’ attitudes toward immigrant women on the employment
development of this ethnic minority group in Taiwan. Compared to the general public, the
employment of disadvantaged individuals, such as immigrants and ethnic minorities, is more
likely to be affected by the majority’s negative attitudes toward job search, work adaptation,
work advancement, income and security (Fernández et al., 2015). In Taiwan, immigrant women
tend to be vulnerable to the public’s negative treatment and even discrimination due to their
special status as marriage immigrants as well as their race and gender (Yang et al., 2014).
The mean score of PTAs, as shown in Table 3, indicated that the female immigrant trainees in
this study perceived slightly positive attitudes from the host society (M=3.67> 3.0, SD=.59).
However, previous studies have revealed the existence of some Taiwanese discrimination
against immigrant women in Taiwan (e.g., Hsia, 2009), and positive attitudes do not mean a lack
of unfair behaviour. Therefore, the effect of PTAs on female immigrant trainees’ employability
and employment quality must be carefully addressed.
Although, as expected, the findings indicated that SS, as the proximal contextual factor,
had positive direct and indirect impacts on immigrant women's EQ vis-à-vis its effect on
SPE, the total impact of SS on EQ was smaller than that of the other factors in this study
(estimate=0.113). For marriage immigrant women, access to and the establishment of social
support networks can be difficult in the host country, especially if the society of settlement is not
receptive to them. Furthermore, the ethnic and location composition of their support networks
may vary (Jasinskaja-Lahti et al., 2006). Although previous studies have suggested that social
support is beneficial to immigrants’ employment, membership and size are essential elements
of social support. The literature has shown that support from their husbands and their families
is an essential factor that influences marriage immigrant women's employment (Lin & Huang,
2007). Larger networks may have more potential to provide support, but they are more likely
to increase conflict and negative effects on immigrants' lives due to the pressure, responsibility
and restrictions originating from the intense involvement and ties among certain social networks
(Gellis, 2003). Additionally, high-density ethnic group networks may centralize the immigrant
labor force within ethnic occupational niches, and the exchange of solidarity and information
through social networks keeps migrants in occupational positions similar to those held by other
ethnic group members (Bolíbar, 2020).

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Additionally, the availability of ethnic community support in the host country can work as 1007
a buffer to improve the negative employment experiences of immigrants only when they suffer
from discrimination (Jasinskaja-Lahti et al., 2006). Thus, each type and size of social support
network may have a particular contribution to marriage immigrant women's employment
quality. In this study, SS was assessed by a combination of support from different members
and locations, which may lead to a mixed impact of these SS on marriage immigrant women's
EQ. Namely, the exact contribution of the separate sources of these SS to these women's EQ
could be offset. Nevertheless, it is encouraging that in this study, SS was empirically proven to
contribute to EQ among female immigrant trainees.
The results of the study supported the proposed model based on the developmental-
contextual approach, which explained 56.9% of the variance in EQ. The results further revealed
that PTAs positively affected SPE, VTEs and SS. In turn, VTEs and SS positively directly and
indirectly affected EQ through their impacts on SPE, and SPE positively influenced EQ. The
three most important factors that determined the EQ of immigrant women who participated
in vocational training were VTEs, SPE, and PTAs. Namely, this research demonstrates an
important extension of early studies on employment quality by confirming the applicability of
the developmental-contextual model of career development to explaining EQ among female
marriage immigrant trainees in Taiwan and recognizes the essential factors that influence the
EQ of the ethnic minority group. These results have implications for strategies and policies to
improve EQ among female immigrant trainees.
Female immigrant trainees could be offered job-related training programs in a culturally
responsive way that can meet their training needs and solve their training problems. Specifically,
the curriculum and instruction should be integrated with these women's cultural backgrounds,
and instructors should understand and treasure these trainees’ diverse experiences and assist
them in their career development. Furthermore, female immigrant trainees should be provided
with social support interventions during vocational training to make these trainees aware of the
importance of and access to social support. Additionally, although this is never easy to achieve,
the Taiwanese government could build more immigrant-friendly environments to facilitate the
Taiwanese people’s positive attitudes toward immigrant women. Specifically, the government
could produce legislation to protect immigrant women from negative treatment at work and in
daily life to facilitate their employment development.
To understand the significance of social support, future studies could distinguish
the effect of separate sources of social support with different members and sizes on female
immigrant trainees' EQ. Moreover, it is essential to highlight the importance of the cultural
contexts in which female immigrant trainees have lived. Future research may focus on cross-
cultural comparisons of employment quality among immigrant women from different cultural
backgrounds.
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PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 6, 2021
1010 Received: September 28, 2021 Accepted: November 30, 2021
Cite as: Wu, Y.-L. (2021). Examining employment quality among female immigrant
trainees in Taiwan. Problems of Education in the 21 st Century, 79(6), 993-1010.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.993
Ya-Ling Wu Graduate Institute of Technological and Vocational Education, National Pingtung

University of Science & Technology, Taiwan.
E-mail: karinnpust@gmail.com

PROBLEMS
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IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 6, 2021
1011
GUIDE FOR AUTHORS
ISSN 1822-7864 /print/ ISSN 2538-7111 /Online/
General Information
The publication language is English. All authors must take care of the language revision on their
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The editor reserves the right to send the manuscript to be reviewed. If English is a second language
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Format of Manuscripts
Title
The main research idea/problem should be reflected in the title. The title should show the nature of
the research/study. It is recommended to avoid the title of the question form. The recommended
length for a title is no more than 12 words (APA, 2.01, p. 23).
The title of the paper 14-point, bold with capital letters, align left; titles in the text (chapters)
12-point bold, not numbered; sub-titles (subchapters) 12-point, italic, not numbered. There must
be 1 empty line before and after a title or a subtitle. The text chapters must be separated by 1
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Abstract
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methods and procedures employed; the number of participants; the main outcomes and results;
the conclusions drawn from these data and results, including their implications for further research
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Please provide 3 to 5 keywords in alphabetical order. Note that a keyword does not have to be
made of only one word. At least one of these should indicate the topic area and one should indicate
the methodology of the research.

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Vol. 79, No. 6, 2021
1012 The structure of the manuscript (recommended)

The body of the text of the manuscript must generally have the following parts:
• abstract + keywords;
• introduction (it can be divided into some subchapters if needed);
• methodology of research (it is recommended to divide /rubricate);
• results of research;
• discussion;
• conclusions and/or implications;
• acknowledgements (if any);
• references (in APA style, 7th Ed);
• appendix (if any).
P.S. The structure can be different if the paper is only theoretical qualitative research.
The length of the manuscript
The manuscript should be not shorter than 6 pages (including references, tables and figures).
Manuscripts should be typed on A4, in Times New Roman 12-point font size, single-spaced, 2.5 cm
with all the margins, word-document (Word 6.0 or later) format.
Acronyms
Acronyms should be defined the first time they appear.
Tables and figures
Tables and figures should be valuable, relevant, and visually attractive. Tables (made in Word or
another software) and figures must be referred to in the text and numbered in the order of their
appearance. Each table and figure should have a complete, descriptive title; and each table column
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or Excel); resolution 1200 dpi. Figures, tables (black and white colour, without ground-colour) and
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Figures should be carefully explained in the text and cited in numerical order.
It is the author’s responsibility to obtain permission to reproduce illustrations, tables, etc. from
other publications.
Discussion
Focus the discussion to the two important questions: What is already known about your topic?
What your research adds? It is recommended that the aim and major findings of the research
should be reminded. And then the similarities and differences of the findings with previous research
studies should be exemplified in detail.
Conclusions
This part is not a summary. Bring out the significance of your research. Show how you’ve brought
closure to the research problem, and point out remaining gaps in knowledge by suggesting issues
for further research. The main research outcome should be clearly seen.

PROBLEMS
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Vol. 79, No. 6, 2021
References 1013
The title „References“ must be used. APA style for writing references in the text and in the reference
list must be used. References in the text should be presented in parentheses (Knox, 1988; Martin,
1995). If necessary, the page can be indicated: (Martin, 1995, p. 48). The list of references should
be presented after the text.
The author should make sure that there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the names
and years in the text and those on the list. All the references should be listed in alphabeti¬cal order
by author’s name.
For the sake of accuracy, references should always be as updated as possible, also in the interest of
the readers and researchers on the topic the paper is dealing with.
Notes
Note 1: Manuscripts in which references are not in the APAstyle will be returned without review.
Note 2: References to online sources should include the type of medium (such as “serial online”
or “monograph online”), the date of that specific reference (if applicable), the uniform resource
locator (URL), and the date that the source was accessed. A source accessed online should al-ways
be referenced accordingly, even if it is also published in printed form.
Note 3: All papers must meet the criteria of originality and scientific quality. Obviously, they must
also comply with style and format requirements. The paper will not be subject to further review,
if the manuscript is NOT WITHIN THE SCOPE and/or there is POOR USAGE OF LANGUAGE (all
manuscripts must be written in clear and grammatical English).
Note 4: Submitted papers will be assessed based on their novelty, technical quality, potential
impact, and clarity of writing.
Note 5: All papers are checked by CrossCheck system.
Editorial Board
Updated: July 2018
Website: http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/pec/

Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
Vol. 79, No. 6, 2021
Compiler Vincentas Lamanauskas

Designer Jurgina Jankauskienė
Paste-up artist Loreta Šimutytė-Balčiūnienė
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Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 79, No.

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

THE PARADOX BETWEEN TRUTH AND LIES

CYBERSPACE AS A SPACE: ANALYSIS OF METAPHORICAL

RECONSTRUCTION OF IRANIAN ENGLISH FOREIGN LANGUAGE

INVESTIGATION OF USE CASES OF MATHEMATICS TEXTBOOKS IN THE

SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ INTEREST IN PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY

THE ROLE OF ACADEMIC FLOW IN STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT AND WELL-BEING

ATTACHMENT STYLES AND RISKY SEXUAL BEHAVIORS IN ADOLESCENTS

ONLINE TEST ANXIETY AND EXAM PERFORMANCE OF INTERNATIONAL

THE USE OF THE INTERPRETATION OF WORKS OF ART

EXPLORING THE EFFECTS OF IMPLEMENTING GUIDED READING APPROACH

EXAMINING EMPLOYMENT QUALITY AMONG FEMALE

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 1011

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

"It is comparatively easy to make computers exhibit adult level performance on

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.834 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Consider three random variables X, Y, and Z. Define a 2 × 2 × K cross-classification table

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.834

Avoiding Simpson’s Paradox

Minsky, M. (1986). The society of mind. Simon and Schuster.

Received: September 10, 2021 Accepted: November 30, 2021

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.834 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.834

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

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840 The Space construction in Pragmatism and Social Constructivism

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Research into various societal phenomena through conceptual metaphors is gradually

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Semester/Designation Analysed answers Return [%]

Students answered a more comprehensive reflective questionnaire with some questions,

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

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Research Limits and Ethics

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Code Frequency Description

Autumn 2019 Spring 2021 Spring 2020

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838

Space as the Phenomenon

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Space as a Place of Movement

Space and Orientation

For the movement to be an expression of will, it must be possible to orient oneself in

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838

Specific students, of course, talk about search as an essential competence. It is vital

Usefulness and Connectivity

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Environment and Resource

Compliance with the Truth

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Conclusions and Implications

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Adams, P. C. (1997). Cyberspace and virtual places. Geographical Review, 87(2), 155-171.

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Received: September 01, 2021 Accepted: November 29, 2021

Cite as: Černý, M. (2021). Cyberspace as a space: Analysis of metaphorical statements

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.838