Module - 2

Transmission
media
⬡ In a data transmission system, the
transmission medium is the physical path
between transmitter and receiver.
⬡ It can be classified into 2 classes:
∙ Guided medium
∙ Unguided media
∙
⬡ Guided medium
∙ Electromagnetic waves are guided
along a solid medium, such as
copper twisted pair ,copper coaxial
cable and optical fiber
⬡

3
⬡ Unguided media
∙ Wireless transmission occurs through
the atmosphere, outer space, or
water.

4
5
Guided Transmission
Media
⬡ Guided media provide a contact from
one device to another,which mainly
includes twisted-pair cable, coaxial
cable, and fiber-optic cable.
⬡ A signal travelling along any of these
media is directed and contained by the
physical limits of the medium.
⬡ Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use
metallic (copper) conductors that accept
and transport signals in the form of
electric current.
⬡ Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and
transports signals in the form of light.

8
⬡ For guided transmission media, the
transmission capacity, in terms of either
data rate or bandwidth, depends critically
on the distance and on whether the
medium is point-to-point or multipoint.

9
⬡ In the design of data transmission
systems, key concerns are data rate
and distance: the greater the data rate
and distance the better.
⬡

10
⬡ design factors relating to the transmission
medium and the signal determine the data
rate and distance:
∙ Bandwidth: higher bandwidth gives
higher data rate
∙ Transmission impairments: limits the
distance of transmission. eg. attenuation

11
∙ Interference: Interference from
competing signals in overlapping
frequency bands can distort or wipe out a
signal.
∙ Number of receivers: A guided medium
can be used to construct a point- to-
point link or a shared link with multiple
attachments.

12
 Frequency Typical Typical Delay Repeater
Range Attenuation Spacing

Twisted pair (with 0 to 3.5 kHz 0.2 dB/km @ 1 50 µs/km 2 km

loading) kHz

Twisted pairs 0 to 1 MHz 0.7 dB/km @ 1 5 µs/km 2 km

(multi-pair cables) kHz

Coaxial cable 0 to 500 MHz 7 dB/km @ 10 4 µs/km 1 to 9 km

MHz

Optical fiber 186 to 370 THz 0.2 to 0.5 dB/km 5 µs/km 40 km

13
Twisted
pair cable

14
⬡ A twisted pair cable comprises of two separate insulated copper
wires, which are twisted together and run in parallel.
⬡ The copper wires are typically 1mm in diameter.
⬡ One of the wires is used to transmit data and the other is the
ground reference.
⬡ It is the most common guided transmission medium.
⬡ It is much less expensive
⬡ It is also easier to work with.
16
⬡ A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires
arranged in a regular spiral pattern
⬡ A wire pair acts as a single communication link.
⬡ Typically, a number of these pairs are bundled
together into a cable by wrapping them in a tough
protective sheath.
⬡ Over long distances ,cable may contain hundreds of
pairs.

17
⬡ All transmissions are prone to noise, interferences, and
crosstalks.
⬡ When the wires are twisted, some part of the noise
signals is in the direction of data signals while the other
parts are in the opposite directions.
⬡ Thus the external waves cancel out due to the different
twists.
⬡ The receiver calculates the difference in the voltages of
the two wires for retrieving data.
⬡ Thus a much better immunity against noise is obtained.
18
⬡ Neighboring pairs in a bundle typically have somewhat different
twist lengths to reduce the crosstalk interference.
⬡ On long-distance links, the twist length typically varies from 5 to
15 cm.
⬡ The wires in a pair have thicknesses of from 0.4 to 0.9 mm.

19
⬡ There are two types of twisted pair
cables −
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair ( UTP ):
∙ These generally comprise of wires
and insulators.
2. Shielded Twisted Pair ( STP ):
∙ They have a braided wired mesh
that encases each pair of
insulated wires.

20
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
– ordinary telephone wire
– cheapest
– easiest to install
– suffers from external EM interference
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
– metal braid or sheathing that reduces
interference
– more expensive
– harder to handle (thick, heavy)

21
⬡ Transmission Characteristics
∙ Twisted pair may be used to transmit both analog
and digital transmission.
∙ For analog signals, amplifiers are required about
every 5 to 6 km.
∙ For digital transmission (either analog or digital
signals), repeaters are required every 2 or 3 km.
∙ Compared to other guided transmission media
(coaxial cable, optical fiber), twisted pair is limited in
distance, bandwidth, and data rate.
∙ The attenuation for twisted pair is a very strong
function of frequency. 22
∙ Twisted-pair cabling used for data transmission is highly
immune to interference from low frequency (60Hz)
distributer due to
∙ The well-controlled geometry of the twisted pair
itself (pairs are manufactured with a unique and
precise twist rate that varies from pair to pair within
a cable) and
∙ The media’s differential mode transmission scheme.
∙ For point-to-point analog signaling, a bandwidth of up
to about 1 MHz is possible.
∙ This accommodates a number of voice channels.
∙ 23
∙ For long-distance digital point-to-point signaling,
data rates of up to a few Mbps are possible.
∙ Ethernet data rates upto 10Gbps can be achieved
over 100 m of twisted- pair cabling.
∙ The medium is quite susceptible to interference
and noise because of its easy coupling with
electromagnetic fields.
∙ Shielding the wire with metallic braid or sheathing
reduces interference.

24
⬡ Applications
∙ It is the most commonly used medium in the
telephone network and for communications
within buildings (for LANs running at
10-100Mbps).
∙ Twisted pair is much less expensive than the other
commonly used guided transmission media and is
easier to work with.

25
∙ Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines
to provide voice and data channels.
∙ The local loop-the line that connects subscribers
to the central telephone office commonly
consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
∙ The DSL lines that are used by the telephone
companies to provide high-data-rate
connections also use the high-bandwidth
capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.

26
27
Coaxial cable

28
⬡ Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher
frequency ranges than those in twisted pair
cable
⬡ coax has a central core conductor of solid or
stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an
insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in
an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a
combination of the two.

29
30
⬡ The outer metallic wrapping serves both
as a shield against noise and as the
second conductor, which completes the
circuit.
⬡ This outer conductor is also enclosed in
an insulating sheath, and the whole
cable is protected by a plastic cover

31
⬡ Advantages of coaxial cables
∙ can be used over longer distances
∙ support more stations on a shared
line than twisted pair.
∙ operate over a wider range of
frequencies
∙ much less susceptible to interference
and crosstalk than twisted pair.

32
⬡ Coaxial Cable - Transmission
Characteristics
∙ superior frequency characteristics
compared to Twisted Pair
∙ performance is limited by attenuation &
noise
∙ For analog signals, amplifiers to be
placed at every few km
∙ For digital signals, repeaters to be placed
at every 1km
33
⬡ Coaxial Cable standards
∙ Categorized by Radio Government
(RG)
∙ Based on wire gauge of inner
conductor, thickness & type of
insulation

34
⬡ Coaxial cable Connectors:
∙ To connect coaxial cable to devices, we
need coaxial connectors.
∙ The most common type of connector used
today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman
(BNe), connector.
⬡

35
⬡ Three popular types of these connectors:
1) BNC connector - used to connect the
end of the cable to a device, such as a TV
set.
2) BNC T connector- used in Ethernet
networks to branch out to a connection to
a computer or other device.
3) BNC terminator- used at the end of the
cable to prevent the reflection of the
signal.
36
⬡ BNC Connectors in Coaxial cables

37
Optical fibre

1
⬡ A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or
plastic and transmits signals in the form
of light.
⬡ Light travels in a straight line as long as
it is moving through a single uniform
substance.

2
⬡ If a ray of light travelling through one
substance suddenly enters another
substance (of a different density), the ray
changes direction.

3
⬡ If the angle of incidence is less than the
critical angle, the ray refracts and moves
closer to the surface.
⬡ If the angle of incidence is equal to the
critical angle, the light bends along the
interface.
⬡ If the angle is greater than the critical
angle, the ray reflects (makes a turn) and
travels again in the denser substance.
4
⬡ Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a
channel. A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a
cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference
in density of the two materials must be such that a
beam of light moving through the core is reflected off
the cladding instead of being refracted into it.

5
Physical Description
⬡ An optical fiber is a thin (2 to 125 µm),
flexible medium capable of guiding an
optical ray.
⬡ Various glasses and plastics can be
used to make optical fibers.
⬡ The lowest losses have been obtained
using fibers of ultrapure fused silica.

6
⬡ An optical fiber cable has a cylindrical
shape and consists of three concentric
sections: the core, the cladding, and
the jacket.
⬡ The core is the innermost section and
consists of one or more very thin
strands, or fibers, made of glass or
plastic; the core has a diameter in the
range of 8 to 50 µm.
⬡
7
⬡ Each fiber surrounded by its own
cladding, a glass or plastic coating that
has optical properties different from
those of the core and a diameter of 125
µm.
⬡ The interface between the core and
cladding acts as a reflector to confine
light that would otherwise escape the
core.
⬡
8
⬡ The outermost layer, surrounding one or
a bundle of cladded fibers, is the jacket.
⬡ The jacket is composed of plastic and
other material layered to protect against
moisture, abrasion, crushing, and other
environmental dangers.

9
Advantages of Optical Fiber:

⬡ Higher bandwidth –
∙ Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher
bandwidths (and hence data rates) than either twisted-pair
or coaxial cable.
∙ Currently, data rates and bandwidth utilization over
fiber-optic cable are limited not by the medium but by the
signal generation and reception technology available.

10
Advantages of Optical Fiber:

⬡ Less signal attenuation

∙ Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly
greater than that of other guided media.
∙ A signal can run for 50 km without requiring
regeneration.
∙ We need repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or
twisted-pair cable.

11
Advantages of Optical Fiber:

⬡ Immunity to electromagnetic interference –

∙ Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber optic
cables.
⬡ Resistance to corrosive materials –
∙ Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than
copper.

12
Advantages of Optical Fiber:

⬡ Light weight –
∙ Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper
cables.
⬡ Greater immunity to tapping –
∙ Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping
than copper cables.
∙ Copper cables create antenna effects that can
easily be tapped.
13
Transmission characteristics:

⬡ Optical fiber transmits a signal-encoded beam of light by

means of total internal reflection.
⬡ Total internal reflection can occur in any transparent medium
that has a higher index of refraction than the surrounding
medium.
⬡ In effect, the optical fiber acts as a waveguide for
frequencies in the range of about 1014 to 1015 Hertz; this
covers portions of the infrared and visible spectra.

14
Propogation Modes:

15
Multimode:

⬡ multiple beams from a light source move

through the core in different paths.
⬡ How these beams move within the cable
depends on the structure of the core.
⬡ There are two types under multimode
transmission: multimode step index and
multimode graded index.

16
⬡ Multimode step – index fiber:
∙ In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the
core remains constant from the center to the
edges.
∙ A beam of light moves through this constant
density in a straight line until it reaches the
interface of the core and the cladding.
∙ At the interface, there is an abrupt change due to
a lower density; this alters the angle of the beam's
motion.
17
∙ The term step index refers to the suddenness of
this change, which contributes to the distortion of
the signal as it passes through the fiber.

18
⬡ Multimode graded – index fiber:
∙ In multimode graded-index fiber, decreases
this distortion of the signal through the cable.
∙ The word index here refers to the index of
refraction.
∙ the index of refraction is related to density.
∙ A graded-index fiber, therefore, is one with
varying densities.
∙ Density is highest at the center of the core and
decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge.
19
20
Single mode:

⬡ Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused

source of light that limits beams to a small range of
angles, all close to the horizontal.
⬡ The single mode fiber itself is manufactured with a much
smaller diameter than that of multimode fiber, and with
substantially lower density (index of refraction).
⬡

21
Single mode:

⬡ The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is

close enough to 90° to make the propagation of beams
almost horizontal.
⬡ propagation of different beams is almost identical, and
delays are negligible.
⬡ All the beams arrive at the destination "together" and
can be recombined with little distortion to the signal
⬡
22
23
24
⬡ Two different types of light source are used in fiber optic
systems: the light emitting diode (LED) and the
injection laser diode (ILD).
⬡ Both are semiconductor devices that emit a beam of
light when a voltage is applied.
⬡ The LED is less costly, operates over a greater
temperature range, and has a longer operational life.
⬡ The ILD, which operates on the laser principle, is more
efficient and can sustain greater data rates.

25
26
Wireless
transmission
⬡ Unguided media transport electromagnetic
waves without using a physical conductor.
⬡ This type of communication is often referred
to as wireless communication.
⬡ Signals are normally broadcast through free
space and thus are available to anyone who
has a device capable of receiving them.
⬡ The electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3
kHz to 900 THz, used for wireless
communication.
3
⬡ Frequencies in the range of about 1 GHz to 40 GHz are
referred to as microwave frequencies.
⬡ At these frequencies, highly directional beams are
possible, and microwave is quite suitable for point-to-point
transmission.
⬡ Microwave is also used for satellite communications.
⬡ Frequencies in the range of 30 MHz to 1 GHz are suitable
for omni directional applications.
⬡ This range is the radio range.

4
Antennas
⬡ Antenna is defined as electrical
conductor used to radiate or collect
electromagnetic energy.
⬡ There are mainly two types of antenna:
Transmission antenna & Reception
antenna.

5
⬡ transmission antenna
∙ radio frequency energy from
transmitter is converted to
electromagnetic energy by antenna
and radiated into surrounding
environment

6
⬡ reception antenna
∙ electromagnetic energy impinging on
antenna is converted to radio
frequency electrical energy and fed in
to receiver
⬡ In two-way communication, same
antenna is often used for both
transmission and reception .

7
Radiation Pattern
⬡ Antenna will radiate power in all directions but,
typically, does not perform equally well in all
directions.
⬡ Radiation pattern is a graphical representation of
the radiation properties of an antenna as a
function of space coordinates.

8
Isotropic antenna
⬡ In isotropic antenna, power is radiated in all
directions equally.so the radiation pattern follows
a spherical radiation pattern

9
Horn Antenna
⬡ It is a Uni directional antenna which looks like
gigantic scoop.
⬡ Outgoing transmissions are broadcast up a stem
& deflected outward in a series of narrow parallel
beams by curved head.
⬡ Received transmissions are collected by
scooped shape of horn & are deflected down in
to the stem.

10
Parabolic Reflective Antenna
⬡ Parabolic Reflective Antenna is used in
terrestrial microwave and satellite applications.
⬡ A parabola is the locus of all points equidistant
from a fixed line (the directrix) and a fixed point
(the focus) not on the line.
⬡ If a parabola is revolved about its axis, the
surface generated is called a paraboloid.

11
12
⬡ If a source of electromagnetic energy (or
sound) is placed at the focus of the
paraboloid, and if the paraboloid is a
reflecting surface, then the wave will bounce
back in lines parallel to the axis of the
paraboloid .
⬡ On reception, if incoming waves are parallel
to the axis of the reflecting paraboloid, the
resulting signal will be concentrated at the
focus. 13
Antenna Gain
⬡ It is the measure of directionality of antenna.
⬡ It is defined as the power output in a particular
direction compared to that produced in any
direction by a perfect omnidirectional antenna
(isotropic antenna ).
⬡ It is measured in decibels (dB).

14
⬡ Antenna Gain is mainly based on effective area of antenna which
inturn relates to size and shape.

⬡ The effective area of an ideal isotropic antenna is λ2/4∏ with a

power gain of 1.
⬡ The effective area of a parabolic antenna with a face area of A is
0.56A, with a power gain of 7A/ λ2.

15
16
Radio Waves
⬡ Electromagnetic waves ranging in
frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz
are normally called radio waves
⬡ Radio waves, for the most part, are
omnidirectional.
⬡ When an antenna transmits radio waves,
they are propagated in all directions.

17
⬡ This means that the sending and
receiving antennas do not have to be
aligned.
⬡ A sending antenna sends waves that
can be received by any receiving
antenna.

18
⬡ The omnidirectional property has a
disadvantage, too.
∙ The radio waves transmitted by one antenna
are susceptible to interference by another
antenna that may send signals using the
same frequency or band.

19
⬡ Radio waves, particularly those waves
that propagate in the sky mode, can
travel long distances.
⬡ This makes radio waves a good
candidate for long-distance broadcasting
such as AM radio.
⬡ Radio waves, particularly those of low
and medium frequencies, can penetrate
walls.

20
⬡ It is an advantage because, for example,
an AM radio can receive signals inside a
building.
⬡ It is a disadvantage because we cannot
isolate a communication to just inside or
outside a building.
⬡ suffers from multipath interference
∙ reflections from land, water, other objects

21
Microwave Transmissions
⬡ They are highly directional beams
suitable for point to point transmission.
⬡ Possible range of frequency between
2GHz to 40GHz.
⬡ There are basically two types of
microwaves: Terrestrial and satellite
microwaves.

22
Terrestrial Microwave
⬡ Terrestrial microwave transmissions
are sent between two microwave
stations on the earth (earth station).
⬡ It is the most common form of
long-distance communication.

23
⬡ It is used for long haul
telecommunications; commonly used for
both voice and television transmission
⬡ It support short point-to-point links
between buildings, LAN .
⬡ It only requires far fewer amplifiers or
repeaters than coaxial cable over the
same distance but requires line-of-sight
transmission.

24
⬡ It uses a parabolic dish to focus a narrow
beam onto a receiver antenna.
⬡ Typical of size 3m in diameter.
⬡ Microwave antennas are usually located
at substantial heights above ground level
to extend the range between antennas.

25
⬡ The higher the frequency used, the
higher the potential bandwidth and
therefore the higher the potential data
rate.
⬡ The main sources of loss are:
∙ attenuation, related to the square of
distance.
∙ effects of rainfall
∙ interference.

26
Satellite Microwave
⬡ Satellite microwave transmissions involve
sending microwave transmissions between two
or more earth-based microwave stations and a
satellite.
⬡ It is used to link two or more ground-based
microwave transmitter/receivers, known as earth
stations, or ground stations.

27
⬡ A communication satellite is, in effect, a
microwave relay station.Satellite receives
transmissions on one frequency band (uplink),
amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits it
on another frequency (downlink).
⬡ eg. uplink 5.925-6.425 GHz & downlink 3.7-4.2
GHz.

28
⬡ A single orbiting satellite will operate on a
number of frequency bands, called transponder
channels, or simply transponders.
⬡ The optimum frequency range for satellite
transmission is in the range 1 to 10 GHz.

29
⬡ Applications:
∙ television
∙ long distance telephone
∙ private business networks
∙ global positioning

30
⬡ For a communication satellite to function effectively, it is
generally required that it remain stationary with respect to its
position over the earth to be within the line of sight of its earth
stations at all times.
⬡ To remain stationary, the satellite must have a period of
rotation equal to the earth's period of rotation, which occurs at
a height of 35,863 km at the equator.
⬡ Two satellites using the same frequency band, if close
enough together, will interfere with each other.
⬡ To avoid this, current standards require a 4° spacing in the
4/6-GHz band and a 3° spacing at 12/14 GHz.
31
⬡ Satellite Point to Point Link:
∙ Satellite is being used to provide a
point-to-point link between two distant
ground-based antennas.

32
⬡ Satellite Broadcast Link:
∙ Satellite provides communications between
one ground-based transmitter and a number
of ground-based receivers.

33
Infrared
⬡ Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz
to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm),
can be used for short-range communication.
⬡ Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot
penetrate walls.

34
⬡ This advantageous characteristic prevents
interference between one system and another; a
short-range communication system in one room
cannot be affected by another system in the next
room.
⬡ When we use our infrared remote control, we do
not interfere with the use of the remote by our
neighbors.

35
⬡ However, this same characteristic makes infrared
signals useless for long-range communication.
⬡ In addition, we cannot use infrared waves
outside a building because the sun's rays contain
infrared waves that can interfere with the
communication.

36
Propagation methods
⬡ A signal is radiated from an antenna
travels along one of three routes
∙ Ground wave (below 2 Mhz)
∙ Sky wave (2-30 Mhz)
∙ Line of sight (above 30 Mhz)
Ground Wave
⬡ Radio waves travel through the lowest portion of
the atmosphere ,hugging the earth
⬡ Low frequency signals radiates in all directions
from transmitting antenna and follow the
curvature of earth.
⬡ Distance depends on amount of power in the
signal.
⬡ Greater the power, greater the distance.
⬡ Used in AM Radio 3
4
Sky Wave
⬡ a signal from an earth-based antenna is reflected
from the ionized layer of the upper atmosphere
(ionosphere) back down to earth.
⬡ allows greater distance with lower output power.
⬡ used for amateur radio, CB radio, and
international broadcasts such as BBC

5
6
Line of Sight
⬡ Very high frequency signals are
transmitted in straight lines directly from
antenna to antenna
⬡ Antennas must be directional, facing
each other, and tall enough such that it
should not be affected by the curvature
of earth.
⬡
7
8
Refraction:
⬡ Refraction occurs because the velocity of an
electromagnetic wave is a function of the density
of the medium through which it travels.
⬡ In a vacuum, an electromagnetic wave (such as
light or a radio wave) travels at approximately
3 x 108 m/s
⬡ This is the constant, c, commonly referred to as
the speed of light, but actually referring to the
speed of light in a vacuum.
9
⬡ When an electromagnetic wave moves from a
medium of one density to a medium of another
density, its speed changes.
⬡ The effect is to cause a one-time bending of the
direction of the wave at the boundary between
the two media.
⬡ Moving from a less dense to a more dense
medium, the wave will bend toward the more
dense medium

10
⬡ Although an abrupt, one-time change in direction
occurs as a signal moves from one medium to
another, a continuous, gradual bending of a
signal will occur if it is moving through a medium
in which the index of refraction gradually
changes.

11
Optical and Radio Line of Sight:
⬡ With no intervening obstacles, the optical line of sight can be
expressed as
∙ d = 3.57 √h
∙ where d is the distance between an antenna and the
horizon in kilometers and h is the antenna height in
meters.

12
Optical and Radio Line of Sight:
⬡ The effective, or radio, line of sight to the horizon
is expressed as
∙ d = 3.57 √(Kh)
∙ where K is an adjustment factor to account
for the refraction. Normally k taken as 4/3.
⬡ the maximum distance between two antennas for
LOS propagation is
∙ d = 3.57 (√(Kh1)+ √(Kh2))
∙ where h1 and h2 are the heights of the two 13
 Find the maximum distance between
two antennas for LOS transmission if
one antenna is 100 m high and the other
is at ground level.
d = 3.57 (√(Kh1)+ √(Kh2))
h1=100m
h2=0
d=41 Km (distance always in Km)

14
Now suppose that the receiving antenna
is 10 m high. To achieve the same
distance,how high must the transmitting
antenna be?
d = 3.57 (√(Kh1)+ √(Kh2))
h2=10
41 = 3.57 (√(Kh1)+ √(K*10))
h1 =46.2 m

15
Impairments specific to wireless line-of-sight
transmission.

⬡ Free space loss:

∙ The transmitted signal attenuates over
distance because the signal is being spread
over a larger and larger area.
∙ This form of attenuation is known as free
space loss.

16
⬡ For the ideal isotropic antenna, free space loss is
∙ pt/pr = (4ℼd)2/λ2
∙ pt/pr = (4ℼfd)2/C2
∙ where pt= signal power at the
transmitting antenna
∙ pr= signal power at the receiving antenna
∙ λ = carrier wavelength
∙ d = propagation distance between
antennas
⬡ In decibels; LdB=10log (pt/pr)
17
⬡ Atmospheric Absorption
∙ An additional loss between the transmitting and
receiving antennas is atmospheric absorption.
∙ Water vapor and oxygen contribute most to
attenuation.
∙ A peak attenuation occurs in the vicinity of 22
GHz due to water vapor.
∙ At frequencies below 15 GHz, the attenuation is
less.
∙ Rain and fog cause scattering of radio waves
that results in attenuation. This can be a major
18
cause of signal loss.
⬡ Multipath
∙ For wireless facilities where there is a
relatively free choice of where antennas are
to be located, they can be placed so that if
there are no nearby interfering obstacles,
there is a direct line-of-sight path from
transmitter to receiver.
∙ In cases, such as mobile telephony, there
are obstacles in abundance.
∙ The signal can be reflected by such
obstacles so that multiple copies of the signal
with varying delays can be received. 19
For a parabolic reflective antenna with a diameter of 2 m, operating
at 12 GHz, what is the effective area and the antenna gain?
given diameter=2m, then radius= 1m
f=12GHz= 12*109Hz
c=3*108 m/s2
effective area of a parabolic antenna with a face area of A is 0.56A
A= ∏ r2 i.e A= ∏ m2
Ae =0.56 ∏ A i.e Ae = 0.56 ∏ m2
G= 4 ∏ f2Ae/C2 i.e G= 35,186
G in dB= 10 log 35186
G in dB= 45.46 dB
20
Problem 1

⬡ Determine the isotropic free space loss

at 4 GHz for the shortest path to a
geosynchronous satellite from earth
(35,863 km).
2
L in db=20log10(4x10
9)+20log10(35.863x10 6)-147.56dB
L=?
Wavelength=?

3
⬡ Answer
∙ λ= 0.075 m
∙ L=3.61*1019
∙ LdB =195.6 dB

4
Problem 2
⬡ what is the length of an antenna one-half
wavelength long for sending radio at 300
Hz
⬡ λ =c/f

5
⬡ Answer
∙ So the length of an antenna which is
one-half of wavelength long is
λ /2 =1000 Km/2 =500 Km

6
Problem 3
⬡ A microwave transmitter has an output of 0.1W
at 2GHz. Assume that this transmitter is used in
a microwave communications system where the
transmitting and receiving antennas are
parabolas, each 1.2m in diameter.
∙ What is the gain of each antenna in
decibels?
∙ Taking into account antenna gain, what is the
effective radiated power of the transmitted
signal? 7
⬡ The effective area of an ideal isotropic antenna is
λ2/4 ℼ with a power gain of 1.
⬡ The effective area of a parabolic antenna with a
face area of A is 0.56A, with a power gain of 7A/
λ2.
⬡
8
⬡ G=7A/ λ2.
⬡ A=pi*r*r
⬡ λ =c/f
⬡ effective radiated power=P*G

9
⬡ Answer
∙ G = 351.85
∙ GdB = 25.46 dB
∙ P=0.1 W x 351.85 = 35.185 W

10
Problem 4
⬡ Determine the height of an antenna for a
TV station that must be able to reach
customers 80km away
⬡ d = 3.57√kh

11
⬡ H=376m

12
Problem 5
⬡ Show that doubling the transmission
frequency or doubling the distance
between transmitting antenna and
receiving antenna attenuates the power
received by 6 dB.

13
⬡ ratio of transmitted power to received power is
⬡ Pt/P r = (4πd/λ)2
⬡ If we double the frequency or if we double the
distance, so the new ratio for either of these
events is:
⬡ Pt/Pr2 = (8πd/λ)2
⬡ Therefore: 0 log (Pr /Pr2) = 10 log (22 ) = 6 dB

14
Problem 6
⬡ For a parabolic reflective antenna with a
diameter of 2m, operating at 12 GHz.
Calculate the antenna gain? Given
effective area= 56π.
⬡ The effective area of an ideal isotropic antenna is
λ2/4 ℼ with a power gain of 1.
⬡ The effective area of a parabolic antenna with a
face area of A is 0.56A, with a power gain of 7A/
λ2.
⬡
2
⬡ G=3537266
⬡ Gdb=65.48

3
⬡ Give the purpose of CAT5e, CAT6,
CAT7 twisted pair cables.

4
Cat 5
⬡ This is the network cable that is widely used for 100Base-T and
1000Base-T networks as it provides performance to allow data at
100 Mbps and slightly more (125 MHz for 1000Base-T) Ethernet.
⬡ Cat 5 cable is now obsolete and therefore it is not recommended
for new installations.
Cat 5 cable uses twisted pairs to prevent internal crosstalk and
also crosstalk to external wires.

5
Cat 6
⬡ This cable is defined in TIA/EIA-568-B provides a significant
improvement in performance over Cat5 and Cat 5e.

⬡ Cat 6 cables are more tightly wound than and they often have an outer
foil or braided shielding.

⬡ The shielding protects the twisted pairs of wires inside the Ethernet
cable, helping to prevent crosstalk and noise interference

⬡ Cat-6 cables can technically support speeds up to 10 Gbps, but can only
do so for up to 55 metres - even so this makes them relatively long
Ethernet cables.

⬡ The Cat 6 Ethernet cables generally have 2+ twists per cm and some
6
may include a nylon spline to reduce crosstalk, although this is not
Cat 7
⬡ This is an informal number for ISO/IEC
11801 Class F cabling.
⬡ It comprises four individually shielded
pairs inside an overall shield.
⬡ It is aimed at applications where
transmission of frequencies up to 600
Mbps is required.

7
Mention the purpose of cladding in Optical Fibres?

⬡ The function of the cladding is to provide a lower refractive

index at the core interface in order to cause reflection within
the core so that light waves are transmitted through the fiber.
⬡ Each fiber surrounded by its own cladding, a glass or plastic
coating that has optical properties different from those of the
core and a diameter of 125 µm.
⬡ The interface between the core and cladding acts as a
reflector to confine light that would otherwise escape the
core.
8
Indicate some significant differences between broadcast
radio and microwave.

⬡ Radiowave Transmission :
∙ The radio waves have frequency range from 3 KHz and
1 GHz.
∙ These waves are easy to generate and these can travel
along long distances.
∙ These waves are omni directional in nature which means
that they can travel in all the directions.

9
Indicate some significant differences between broadcast
radio and microwave.

∙ They are widely used for the communication between

both indoor and outdoor because they have the property
that they can penetrate through the walls very easily.
∙ These waves are usually used for AM and FM radio,
television, cellular phones and wireless LAN.

10
Indicate some significant differences between broadcast
radio and microwave.

⬡ Microwave
∙ Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves which have
frequency range between 1 GHz to 300 GHz.
∙ These can travel along long distances.
∙ These are unidirectional in nature which means that
they can travel only in straight line.
∙ At very high frequency that cannot penetrate into walls.
∙ These waves are usually used for one to one
communication between sender and receiver, cellular
phones, satellite networks and wireless LAN. 11
Briefly discuss Line of Sight Propagation

⬡ the wave travels to the distance up to which a

naked eye can see.
⬡ need to employ an amplifier cum transmitter here
to amplify the signal and transmit again.
⬡ The line-of-sight propagation will not be smooth if
there occurs any obstacle in its transmission
path.
⬡ As the signal can travel only to lesser distances
in this mode, this transmission is used
for infrared or microwave transmissions. 12
Direct broadcast satellite (DBS)

⬡ Direct broadcast satellite (DBS) refers to satellite television (TV) systems

in which the subscribers, or end users, receive signals directly
from geostationary satellites.

⬡ Signals are broadcast in digital format at microwave frequencies.

⬡ DBS is the descendant of direct-to-home (DTH) satellite services.

⬡ A DBS subscriber installation consists of a dish antenna, a conventional

TV set, a signal converter placed next to the TV set, and a length
of coaxial cable between the dish and the converter. The dish intercepts
microwave signals directly from the satellite.

⬡ The converter produces output that can be viewed on the TV receiver. 13

Write physical and transmission characteristics of Optical
Fibre Cable guided transmission media

⬡ Physical Description:
∙ An optical fiber is a thin (2 to 125 µm), flexible medium
capable of guiding an optical ray.
∙ Various glasses and plastics can be used to make
optical fibers.
∙ The lowest losses have been obtained using fibers of
ultrapure fused silica.
∙ An optical fiber cable has a cylindrical shape and
consists of three concentric sections: the core, the
14
Write physical and transmission characteristics of Optical
Fibre Cable guided transmission media

∙ The core is the innermost section and consists of one or

more very thin strands, or fibers, made of glass or
plastic; the core has a diameter in the range of 8 to 50
µm.
∙ Each fiber I surrounded by its own cladding, a glass or
plastic coating that has optical properties different from
those of the core and a diameter of 125 µm.
∙ The interface between the core and cladding acts as a
reflector to confine light that would otherwise escape the
core. 15
Write physical and transmission characteristics of Optical
Fibre Cable guided transmission media

∙ The outermost layer, surrounding one or a bundle of

cladded fibers, is the jacket.
∙ The jacket is composed of plastic and other material
layered to protect against moisture, abrasion, crushing,
and other environmental dangers.

16
Write physical and transmission characteristics of Optical
Fibre Cable guided transmission media

⬡ Transmission characteristics:
∙ Optical fiber transmits a signal-encoded beam of light by
means of total internal reflection.
∙ Total internal reflection can occur in any transparent
medium that has a higher index of refraction than the
surrounding medium.
∙ In effect, the optical fiber acts as a waveguide for
frequencies in the range of about 1014 to 1015 Hertz; this
covers portions of the infrared and visible spectra.
17
Ground wave propagation

⬡ Ground wave propagation of the wave follows the contour of earth.

Such a wave is called as direct wave.

⬡ The wave sometimes bends due to the Earth’s magnetic field and
gets reflected to the receiver. Such a wave can be termed
as reflected wave.

⬡ The wave when propagates through the Earth’s atmosphere is

known as ground wave.

⬡ The direct wave and reflected wave together contribute the signal at
the receiver station.

18
Ground wave propagation

⬡ When the wave finally reaches the receiver, the lags are cancelled
out. In addition, the signal is filtered to avoid distortion and amplified
for clear output.

19
Sky wave propagation

⬡ Sky wave propagation is preferred when the wave has to travel a

longer distance

⬡ the wave is projected onto the sky and it is again reflected back onto
the earth.

⬡ The waves, which are transmitted from the transmitter antenna, are
reflected from the ionosphere.

⬡ It consists of several layers of charged particles ranging in altitude

from 30- 250 miles above the surface of the earth.

⬡ Such a travel of the wave from transmitter to the ionosphere and

from there to the receiver on Earth is known as Sky Wave 20
Sky wave propagation

⬡ Here the waves are shown to be transmitted from one place and
where it is received by many receivers. Hence, it is an example of
broadcasting.

⬡ Ionosphere is the ionized layer around the Earth’s atmosphere,

which is suitable for sky wave propagation.

21