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Computing Fundamentals Revision Notes
Computing Fundamentals Revision Notes
All systems need instructions of some sort which generally come from the user.
Some systems need text, some high-quality images, and some video images.
Input devices are chosen for their quality and ease of use.
Used so that the computer can be told what to do and what data to use.
Storage devices are used so that the computer can remember what it is meant to do
when it is switched back on after having been turned off, otherwise by the time you
tried to give it a second instruction it would have forgotten the first.
Software: actual programs or data that a computer system uses (two types...)
o Systems software: set of programs that organise, utilise and control hardware
o Applications software: designed to make use of system for specific purposes
Software (3.1.2)
The systems lifecycle is a set of rules written as a series of stages that need to be
followed in order to produce a new computer system.
It is a term used to describe the stages in an ICT project.
Commonly it is the process by which an existing system is replaced with another.
Page 1 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
Problem Definition
•Define problem the
system is to
Maintenance overcome
•Problems cleared;
tweaks to improve Feasibility Study
system; data
•Looks at alternative
backed up;
solutions
peripherals
upgraded; relocate
system
Information
Installation Collection
•How to install new •Define how old
system system works and
problems
Evaluation Analysis
•Does the finished •Analyse how
solution meet its current system
requirements? works - uses lots of
•Does it solve the diagrams and
problem? flowcharts
Design
Implementation
•Exact details of
•Establishing new requirements are
system defined
Installation: analyst must decide how to install system into business, alternatives...
o Switch off the old system and switch on the new.
o You run the old and new system in parallel for a time.
o You run only part of the new system (phased approach).
Page 2 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
The waterfall model is one model of the cycle in which progress is seen as flowing
steadily downwards (like a waterfall) through the phases of:
1. Conception
2. Initiation
3. Analysis
4. Design (Validation)
5. Construction
6. Testing
7. Maintenance
The first formal description of waterfall model is often cited to be from an article
published in 1970 by Winston Royce.
Well suited to projects that have low risk in the areas of user interface and
performance requirements, but high risk in budget and schedule predictability and
control.
Page 3 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
BATCH – from the 1950s, to stop people slowing down the few computers, similar tasks run
sequentially.
REAL TIME – safety critical systems; responses within a critical timeframe; failsafe
conditions.
Functions of an OS...
o Provide and manage hardware resources (memory management etc.)
o Provide Human Computer Interface between computer and user
o Provide interface between applications and the machine itself
o Provide security for the data on the machine (particularly for multi users)
o Provide utility software for maintenance
With batch processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together.
They are run through the computer as a group.
Performance is increased by attempting to keep CPU busy at all times.
o Buffering, offline operation, spooling and multiprogramming.
Page 4 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
MENU BASED – often confused with GUI (menus). The whole interface is run from
menus. Screens are in hierarchical layers so are often intuitive and simple.
FORM BASED – DVD film control. Multiple options displayed as forms where there
are buttons to move forms.
Page 5 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
To convert a number from our system to binary (base 2), we use a column diagram
to simply puts 1s in each column that is needed to make the number, for example...
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 172
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 75
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
If the column headings are changed so that we have base 8 numbers, then in the
case of 75, we have 0113 – this is called the octal system.
512 64 8 1 75
0 1 1 3
Page 6 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
If you have to be able to count from 0 to fifteen before going back to the
start and putting a 1 in front of the 0 to stand for sixteen it means we have
to have sixteen digits.
If the column headings are changed so that we have base 16 numbers, then in the
case of 75, we have 4B.
256 16 1 75
0 4 11
for example, 7 in binary is no eights, 1 four, 1 two and 1 one – i.e. 0111
5 in binary is no eights, 1 four, no twos and 1 one – i.e. 0101
We cannot store negative numbers as there is nowhere to put the minus sign.
Therefore we put a 1 in front of the number to stand for a – sign.
Page 7 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
Using -75, it goes from 01001011 (in binary) to 11001011 as the first bit changes its
meaning – i.e. it no longer stands for “128” but instead “+/-”.
This makes it very difficult to do arithmetic because different bits mean different
things.
Another way of doing negative numbers which gets round the problem of having a
bit that is no longer a number is to use a system called 2s complement.
In 2s complement the first bit stands for -128 instead of just a minus sign...
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Now, -75 must start with a 1 because it is the only place where it can get the minus
sign from, but -128 is 53 too many.
So as well as 1 lot of -128 we will need +53 to get back to -75.
To obtain +53...
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 -75
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
Page 8 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 75
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 14
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 =89
CARRY ==> 1 1 1
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 75
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 -14
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 =61
1 1 <== CARRY
A character set consists of a code that pairs each character from the alphabet with a
sequence of natural numbers, in order to store text on a computer.
ASCII is a binary code used to handle text using the English alphabet.
Stands for ‘American Standard Code for Information Interchange’.
ASCII uses 7 binary digits to represent characters:
o 1000001 represents the upper-case letter A;
o 1000010 represents B;
o 1000011 represents C and so on in sequence
Page 9 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
Designed to include all the symbols that are used throughout the world including all
Arabic, Chinese and Japanese characters.
It is constantly growing in size as more and more characters are accepted.
Data can be collected in a manual way – i.e. not directly connected to a computer –
such as via questionnaires, and then it can be typed into a computer using a
keyboard.
o For this reason, forms must be designed in such a way that they are not at all
ambiguous in gathering the required data.
The person entering data from the forms can make typos in processing so much
data, taking the date of birth 1st February 2003 (01/02/03) as an example.
The typist may accidently key in 41/02/03 – they have broken a rule, as there are at
most 31 days in a month.
As long as the computer knows the rules, it can tell the operator their mistake.
This is known as data validation.
This type of data validation is known as a range check because it checks that the
data is within a certain range, in this case between 1 and 31 (or 1 and 28 if it’s a bit
more sophisticated!).
Page 10 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
Barcode readers read the light and dark parallel lines on many products and devices,
but the barcode has had to be created first.
Dark lines are read in pairs and correspond to digits that combine to form the
barcode that will convey information about the article to the computer.
A typical computer game such as a car racing game will have many outputs:
o Video – realistic view of the race on screen
o Sound – atmosphere and clues as to the engine performance
o Graphical images – map of the track (position), speedometer, time etc.
o Tabular information – show salient points from last lap
o Text – report any problems that arise
o Some form of alarm to warn when fuel is low
Page 11 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
THE SYLLABUS STATES THAT IN THE EXAM YOU MAY NEED TO...
Describe possible forms of output such as graphs, reports, interactive presentations,
sound, video, images, animations, stating the advantages and disadvantages of each
with reference to the target audience.
Archiving is the storing of data that is not being actively used, but may be needed at
some point in the future.
Data is copied to a suitable storage medium, but then original data is removed.
MAIN PURPOSE of archiving is that it frees storage space on main system.
However archived data is still available should it ever be needed.
Hardware (3.1.4)
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the central part of a computer.
o Consists of special registers – ALU, CU and IAS.
Page 12 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
The Arithmetic Logic Unit is where any arithmetic instructions or logical comparisons
are carried out. It also acts as the gateway to the processor.
All inputs/outputs pass through it before being directed to other parts of the system.
The Immediate Access Store is simply the main memory of the computer.
Special registers keep a check on the progress of the instructions and data as they
move around the processor...
PC always be able to tell the processor where the next instruction is.
•MEMORY ADDRESS REGISTER: this is where the address that was read from
the PC is sent.
MAR
CIR •Another part is an address that tells the processor whereabouts in the
memory the data is that is to be used.
•So if the instruction is ADD 20, it will be split up, the control units works
out how to do an 'add', and the 20 is where the processor will find the data
that has to be added.
Page 13 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
The address part (20 in the example) is sent back to the MAR.
The memory is then searched.
o Whatever is in the address 20 is copied into the MDR.
The value in the MDR can then be used according to the instruction in the CIR.
If the instruction is to do some arithmetic or logical comparison the data is sent to
the Accumulator that will carry out the task.
Control bus sends instructions from control unit to different parts of processor.
Data bus carries data from one register to another.
Address bus carries location address to which the data is going.
As they travel around the processor...
o The various localities look at the address as it passes,
If it matches then the data is grabbed.
Magnetic devices are typified by the hard disk that is part of most computers.
Misnamed because it will consist of series of disks stored on top of each other.
Data is stored as small amounts of magnetism on surface of disks can be read by
heads and can then be interpreted as standing for a 0 or a 1.
Diagram to show components of a hard disk...
Page 14 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
Optical devices are typified by CDs, DVDs and BDs (which are similar to hard disks).
They store data as pits (little indentations) on the surface of a reflective disc.
Data is read by moving a laser beam across the surface of the disc and reading the
change in position of the reflected beam.
Solid state storage is typically found in flash memory (USB pen drive).
No moving parts = no mechanical process involved.
Data is stored in a thin layer of oxide between non-conductive layers.
Main disadvantage compared to magnetic media is that they are more easily lost.
Buffers are small areas of memory that act to temporarily store data while it is
waiting to be used or to be sent somewhere else.
A printer will have a buffer whose job it is to store work sent from the processor while
the printer prints it out – this lets the processor get on with something else and not
have to wait until the printout is finished before it can carry on.
Page 15 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
Page 16 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
Pneumatic actuators are like hydraulic ones but are powered by air pressure.
Therefore less powerful but more responsive.
Often used to power robots on fast moving automated production lines.
Page 17 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
A Wide Area Network (WAN) connects computers over a large distance to other
towns or countries using telecommunication links, e.g. the internet.
There has been a large increase in the number of WANs in recent years, due to the
reduced costs of transferring data and the demand for more instant communication.
WANs use long distance communication technologies.
HARDWARE SOFTWARE
Each computer needs a The server itself needs a network operation system and
network interface card (NIC) software.
and a connection to the
network. Network software will usually allow data compression,
encryption and error correction.
There’s usually a main central
computer (server) which often Each machine will need a browser to view the
stores shared programs and internet/intranet pages.
individual files.
Email software will be needed to communicate across
To connect to a WAN, like the the LAN.
internet, a modem or
gateway/router will be If an internet connection is required then the server will
needed. need connection software and software to stop
unauthorised access from outside the LAN (a firewall).
If data is going to be transmitted from one computer to another, then the bits have
to be sent from one machine to another.
Using the 8-bit byte as an example...
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
Page 18 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
One way of doing the transmission would be to send the byte, one bit at a time,
through a single wire (connection) – this is known as serial data transmission.
1 1
0 0
0 0
1 1
1 1
0 0
1 1
1 1
Another way would be to use a number of wires, one for each of the bits in the byte,
this is known as parallel data transmission.
1 1
0 0
0 0
1 1
1 1
0 0
1 1
1 1
Simplex data transmission: one way data communication (e.g. radio station).
Duplex transmission: bidirectional data communication (e.g. telephone).
Half-duplex: data only in one direction at a given time (e.g. walkie talkies).
The more wires connecting devices, the more data that can be transmitted in a given
period of time – the number of bits that can be transmitted within a timeframe is
called the bit rate (measured in units called baud).
The number of bauds that can be transmitted per second is called the baud rate.
Low and high bit rates are of importance and are both preferable in different
situations.
For example, the transmission of a video from one device to another...
Page 19 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
IMMEDIATE THOUGHTS...
Video files are very large.
Must require high bit rate for transmission.
Echoing back: if a set of data is transmitted from one device to another, one
checking mechanism is to send it back to the sending device. When data gets back to
the sending device it is compared to what was sent, and if the two sets of data
match, we can assume that it go there OK. However, if it is different, an error as
occurred somewhere, so the original data is sent again. This process is then repeated
until the ‘echo’ matches the original.
Check sums: data that is sent is made up of binary numbers. Numbers can be added
together. When a set of data is sent the original bytes are added together and the
answer is then sent with the data. When the data bytes get to the destination they
are added together and their checksum is worked out. If the calculated checksum is
the same as the one that has been sent, it is assumed that the data has not been
corrupted. If it is different, then data needs to be resent.
Parity check: data is sent in fixed byte sizes (normally 8 bits). The data being sent
would be in the first 7 bits of the byte, the eighth bit being reserved as the parity bit.
Page 20 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
Imagining that the data is 0110110, and there is one bit left over which is used as the
check, the parity check works by making the number of 1s in a byte either always
odd or always even. This is something that has to be sorted out during the first
contact between the devices, whether they will agree to use odd or even parity
checking. In our example, there are four 1s in the data at the moment – four is an
even number, so if the devices are using even parity the last bit will be set to 0. On
the other hand, if odd parity is being used then we have to have an odd number of
1s in the byte. The 7 bits we already have cannot be changed because that would
change the data! But the eighth bit can be set to 1, giving five 1s, which is odd. So
the data above would be sent as 01101100 in a system with even parity and
01101101 in an odd parity system. Whichever parity, the data stays the same and it
is the final bit that changes (called the parity bit).
Page 21 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
A protocol is the language used by computers while talking with each other.
In its simplest form, a protocol sets the rules used in communication between
computers in the transmission of data.
There is no point in one device transmitting at a different rate than the other can
receive, because the data pulses will get confused.
Part of the protocol must be an agreement over bit rates.
Another part will be parity – if the data is sent as having even parity and the
receiving device is expecting odd parity, messages will never be accepted.
The same goes for echoing back – if one device is set to send back data and the other
is not, then the data will never be checked.
Other important aspects to the protocol would be what character set is used.
Rules that go to make up the protocol are divided into two:
o Those parts that are logically based and physically based.
THIS SECTION IS FAIRLY OBVIOUS (AS IT IS OPINIONATED), AND KNOWLEDGE CAN BE SUMMARISED...
ICT has changed national patterns of employment (economic).
ICT services have changed how businesses work.
Social issues have been created (affecting the way society is organised).
Page 22 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F
Large organisations that store people’s personal data are controlled in what they can
and cannot store by a law called the Data Protection Act.
This lays down rules about what data can be stored and for how long.
It also states that organisations must declare who within the organisation can be
allowed to see personal data.
The main problem with legislation is that policing it is almost impossible!
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