MODULE 7

SPECIAL SENSES External and Accessory Structures

- means by which the brain recieves information Eyebrows
about the environment and the body Eyelids
 seeing  Protects the eyes through blinking
 hearing  Helps keep the eyes lubricated
 touch Lacrimal Apparatus
 tasting  Lacrimal glands
Sensation  L. Glands continually produce tears
- is the process initiated by stimulating the sensory  Is innervated by parasympathetic fibers from
receptors the facial nerve (VII)
Perception  Lacrimal ducts
- concious awareness of those stimuli  Located above the Lateral end of each eye
a. General Senses  Lacrimal secretions contain antibodies and an
b. Special Senses antibacterila enzyme called lysozyme
- Inititally there are 5 senses
 Smell
Pathway of Tears
 Taste
1. Tears are produced in the lacrimal gland and
 Sight
exit the gland through several lacrimal ducts
 Hearing
2. Tears pass over the surface of the eyes
 Touch : the original sense of touch (tactile has
3. Tears enter the lacrimal canliculi
been categorized into general senses because
4. Tears are carried through the lacrimal sac to
of the receptors distributed over a large part of
the nasolacrimal duct.
the body
5. Tears enter the nasal cavity from the
Sensory Receptors
nasolacrimal duct
- Specialized cells capable of responding to a stimuli
by developing Aps (action potential) Conjunctiva
Types of Sensory receptors  Thin, transparent mucosa that lines the inner
surface of the eyelids (palpebral) anterior surfacee
Mechanoreceptors of the eye (bulbar)
- Mechanical stimuli, such as compression, bending  Secretes mucus to lubricate the ye
or stretching of cells  When inflamed: conjuctivitis
 Hearing Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Chemorecptors - Muscles attach to the outer surface of the eye
- Chemicals - Produces eye movement
 Smell Name Action Controlling Cranial
 Taste nerve
Thermorecpetors Lateral rectus Moves eye VI (abducens)
- Temperature changes laterally
Photoreceptors Medial rectus Moves eye III (oculomotor)
- Light medially
 Sight Superior rectus Elevates eye III (oculomotor)
Nociceptors and turns it
- Pain recpetors medially
Special Senses Inferior rectus Depresses eye III (oculomotor)
- More specialized in structure and have specialized and turns it
nerve endings. medially
Special senses receptors are either: Inferior oblique Elevates eye III (oculomotor)
 Specific large, complex sensory organs (eyes and and turns it
ears) laterally
 Localized and cluster of recptors (taste buds) and Superior oblique Depresses eye IV (trochlear)
olfactory epithelium) and turns it
Sense of Sight
 laterally - parasympathetic: CONSTRICTS pupil size
NMEMONICS: SOT LA - sympathetic: DILATES pupil size
EYE and VISION Retina
Adult Eye - Sensory Layer
- Spherical - covers the inner surface of the eyeball posterior to
- 1 inch (2.5cm) in diameter. the ciliary body *
- Only the anterior 1/6" of the eye is visible - Signals leave the retina toward the brain through
- enclosed and protected by a cushion of fat and the the optic nerve
walls of the bony orbit.  Outer Pigmented layer
Palpebral Fissure - composed of pigmented simple cuboidal
- space between the two eyelids epithelium
Canthus plural Canthi - Pigmented cells: absorb light and prevent it from
- angles where the eyelids join at the medial and scattering
lateral margins of the eye - Inner Sensory Retina : Responds to light
Fibrous tunic -Contains Photoreceptors Cells
 Sclera Rods Cones
: Firm, white connective tissue layer, white of the (120 million rods) (6 or 7 million cones)
eye
 Cornea - 20 times more - Require much more
: Transparent, central anterior portion common light
— Allows for light to pass through - require lower - Allow for detailed
— Repairs itself easily levels of light to color vison
— The only human tissue that can be transplanted be stimulated - Densest in the center
without fear of rejection (More sensitive) of the retina
—As light passes through the cornea, the light - do not provide - Fovea centralis – area
bends, or refracts. color vision of the retina with only
— Extensive injury to the cornea may cause - Most are found cones
connective tissue deposition, thereby making the towards the - Responds best in
cornea opaque. edges of the bright light
Vascular tunic retina - Problem: Color
- Blood-rich, nutritive tunic - Allow low light Blindness
- Contains most of the blood vessels of the eyeball vision and
 Iris peripheral vision
- eye color - Perception is all
- attached to the anterior margin of the ciliary body, in gray tones
anterior to the lens  Nervous layer
- Contracts to adjust the size of the pupil which - Posterior region of the retina:
regulates entry of light into the eye - Macula is a small, yellow spot near the center of
- Innervated by (CN Ill under the influence of the the posterior retina
ANS - Fovea Centralis
 Cilliary body - small pit at the center of the macula
- continuous with the choroid: iris is attached at its - where light is most focused when the eye is
lateral margins looking directly at an object
- contains smooth muscles called ciliary muscles, - contains only cone cells, and the cells are more
which attach to the perimeter of the lens by tightly packed there than anywhere else in the
suspensory ligaments retina.
- function as a sphincter: contracts to adjust the - High number of photoreceptors = greatest visual
shape of the lens acuity (the ability to see fine images).
 Choroid
- Large number of melanin-containing pigment cells
which prevents light from scattering
 Pupil Optic Disc
: rounded opening in the iris where light enters
 - white spot medial to the macula through which the Outer (external) ear
central retinal artery enters and the central retinal - Involved in hearing only
vein exits the eyeball External Auditory canal
- where nerve processes from the neural layer of the
- It is the narrow chamber in the temporal bone —
retina meet, pass through the two outer tunics,
through the external auditory meatus
and exit the eye as the optic nerve.
- Lined with skin and hair
- contains no photoreceptor cells and does not
- Ceruminous (wax) glands are present
respond to light.
Cerumen = earwax
- Most commonly called: BLIND SPOT
 The hairs and cerumen help prevent foreign
Aqueous Humor
objects from reaching the delicate tympanic
- Thin and watery; fills the anterior and posterior membrane.
chambers  overproduction of cerumen may block the canal.
- Helps maintain intraocular pressure, 
- Maintains the eyeballs shape c Refracts light and
Middle ear
provides nutrition to the anterior chamber
- Involveled in hearing only
structures (e.g. cornea)
- The middle ear is a small, air-filled, mucosa lined
Vitreous Humor
cavity within the temporal bone.
- Gelatinous
Ossicles
- between Lens and Retina
- Three bones span the cavity
- Also helps maintain / intraocular pressure and
- The auditory ossicles transmit vibrations from the
shape of the eyeball
tympanic membrane to the inner ear through the
- holds the lens and retina in place
oval window
- does not circulate
Malleus
Lens
Incus
- Held in place by a suspensory ligament attached to
Stapes
the ciliary body between the posterior chamber
- Two tubes are associated with the middle ear
and the vitreous chamber
- Refracts light greatly 1. The opening from the auditory canal is covered
by the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
- Transparent (crystal-like) and biconvex
2. The auditory tube connecting the middle ear
Visual Pathways
with the throat
1. Conjunctiva
(Eustachian tube / Pharyngotympanic tube)
2. Cornea
 Allows for equalizing pressure during yawning
3. Iris and Pupil
or swallowing * Unequal pressure between the
4. Lens
middle ear and the outside environment can
5. Retina
distort the tympanic membrane, dampen its
6. Photoreceptors of the retina
vibrations, and make hearing difficult and as
7. Optic nerve II
well as stimulate pain fibers
8. Optic tracts
Inner ear
9. Thalamus
10. Optic radiations - Functions in both hearing and balance
- Also known as bony labyrinth- twisted bony tubes
11. Visual cortex of the occipital lobe
- Includes sense organs for hearing and balance
- within the temporal bone
HEARING and BALANCE
- Vibrations of the bush and pull on the
membranous, moving the perilymph through the
The Ear
cochlea.
- Houses two senses
 The round window is a membrane at the
- Hearing
opposite end relieves pressure.
 (interpreted in the auditory cortex of the temporal
Bony Labyrinths
lobe)
- interconnecting tunnels and chambers within the
- Equlibrium
temporal bone
 (balance and interpreted in the cerebellum)
Membranous Labyrinth
- Receptors are mechanoreceptors
- Inside the bony labyrinth, smaller set
The Ear is divided into three areas
 - Filled with a clear fluid called endolymph
- Space between the membranous labyrinth and
bony labyrinth is filled with a fluid called perilymph
Organ of Hearing
Spiral Organ or Organ of Corti
- Located within the COCHLEA
- Sensory cells for hearing: HAIR CELLS (receptors)
- embedded within the TECTORIAL MEMBRANE
- Endolymph in the membranous labyrinth of the
cochlear duct flows over it and pushes on the
membrane.
Cochlear Nerve
- is attached to hair cells Anatomy of the maculae
- transmits nerve impulses
- joining with the Vestibular nerve to become the
vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII), which traverses the
internal auditory canal and enters the cranial
cavity. Function
Hearing Deficits
Deafness
- hearing loss of any degree
Conductive hearing loss
- Mechanical deficiency in transmission of
soundwaves from external ear to the spiral organ.
- Can still hear through bone conduction even if
ability to hear air conducted sounds is decreased
or lost Ampulla
- Can be corrected through HEARING AIDS
Sensorineural hearing loss
- Deficiencies of spiral organ or nerve pathways;
often results from extended listening to excessively Cupula
loud sounds
- Cannot hear better by EITHER conduction route
Presbycusis / Presbyacusis
- sensorineural hearing loss due to decrease number
of hair cells in the cochlea associated with aging
BALANCE
Static Equilibrium
- involved in evaluating the position of the head
relative to pravity
- associated with the vestibule: utricle & saccule
Dynamic Equilibrium
- involved in evaluating changes in the direction and
rate of head movements
- associated with the semicircular canals
Organs of Equilibrium
1. Receptor Cells
a. Vestibule
- Static Equilibrium
- Static Labyrinth
 a state of balance relative to the force of
gravity
- Utricle
: oriented parallel to the base of the skull
- Saccule
: perpendicular to the base of the skull.
- Macula
: receptors found in the vestibule
: Report on the position of the head at rest (static)
: Send information via the vestibular nerve (CN VII)
- Hair cells are embedded in the otolithic membrane
- Otoliths
: tiny stones made of calcium salts float in a gel
around the hair cells
- Movements cause otoliths to bend the hair cells
- Gravity moves the “rocks” over and pulls the hairs
- Involves the maintenance of balance during
sudden movements
b. Semicircular canals
- Dynamic equilibrium
- Respond to angular and rotary movements rather
than straight-line movements
- Crista ampullaris
: receptors at the bases pf the semicircular canals
: Tuft of hair cells covered in cupula
: stimulates the hair cells
- Movement of endolymph pushes the cupula over
and pulls the hairs
- An impulse is sent via the vestibular nerve to the
cerebellum
Mechanism of balance
1. Neurons on the HAIR CELLS in the maculae (SE) and
Membranes of vestibule crista ampullaris (DE)
2. Converge into the vestibular ganglion
3. Join with cochlear ganglion to form the
vestibulocochlear nerve (VII)
4. Axons run to numerous areas of the CNS, such as
the
 Spinal cord
 Cerebellum
 Cerebral Cortex
TASTE AND SMELL
- Both senses use chemoreceptors
- Stimulated by chemicals in solution
 Taste has five types of receptors
 Smell can differentiate a large range of
 chemicals  Epiglottis
- Both senses complement each other and respond  Pharynx
to many of the same stimuli  Cheeks
Mucus - Can detect all 5 taste
- keeps nasal epithelium moist  sweet
- Traps, dissolves odorants  salty
- Facilitates removal of molecules and particles from  sour
the nasal epithelium  bitter
Olfaction  umami
- Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus for Other factors that influence taste
detection - Texture of food
Olfactory receptors - Food Temperature
- are in the roof of the nasal cavity Adaptation
- Binds with multiple types of odorants - May begin 1 or 2 seconds
- desensitizes once an odorant is bound and does - Complete adaptation may occur within 5 minutes
not respond to another odorant for some time Taste Sensation
Pathway Sweet receptors -sugars
1. Processes of the olfactory nerves, formed by -saccharine
the axons of the olfactory neuron, project Sour receptors -acids
through the foramina in the cribriform plate to Bitter receptors -alkaloids
the olfactory bulb Salty receptors -metal ions
2. Axons of neurons in the olfactory bulb project Umami -Glutamate
through the olfactory tract to the olfactory -aspartate (MSG,meats)
areas of the cerebrum
3. The central olfactory cortex areas, located in Pathways of taste
the temporal and frontal lobes, are involved in 1. Cranial nerves transmit taste impulses
the complex processing of olfactory stimuli  Facial nerve (VII) — anterior 2/3 of the tongue
perception.  Taste sensations transmitted through the
- Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory nerve chorda tympani, a branch of CN VII
(CN 1)  Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) — posterior 1/3
- Interpretation of smells is made in the cerebral  Vagus nerve (X) — root of the tongue,
cortex ((olfactory area of temporal & frontal lobe) epiglottis 2.
- The only major sense relayed directly to the 2. Brain Stem (Medulla Oblongata):
cerebral cortex without first passing through  Axons synapse in the taste portion of brain
THALAMUS. stem nuclei (Tractus solitarius)
- The olfactory cortex is involved in the conscious 3. Thalamus
perception of smell and the visceral and emotional 4. Impulses are carried to the gustatory complex in
reactions often linked to odors. the insula of the cerebrum
Adaptation  Between Temporal and Parietal Lobes
- Prolonged exposure
- (feedback loops between olfactory bulb and
complex)
Sense of Taste

Tongue
- covered with projections called ‘papillae
- Taste buds are found on the sides of papillae
- Strongly influenced by OLFACTION
Taste Buds
- house the taste receptors
- Location of taste buds:
 Most are on the tongue
 Soft palate
MODULE 8 into a synaptic cleft
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM by presynaptic
Course Learning Outcomes: nerve terminals;
1. Describe the four classes of chemical messengers travels short
2. Compare and contrast the nervous system with the distances;
endocrine system influences
3. Describe the common characteristics of all postsynaptic cells
hormones Endocrine Secreted into the Thyroid
4. Describe the major mechanisms that maintain bloodstream by hormones,
blood hormone levels specialized cells; growth
5. Describe the general properties of a receptor and travels some hormone,
how a target cell may decrease or increase its distance to target insulin,
sensitivity to a hormone tissues; results in epinephrine,
6. Describe the 10 regulatory functions of the coordinated estrogen,
endocrine system regulation of cell progesterone,
7. Define hormone and target tissue function testosterone,
8. Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine prostaglandins
glands Characteristic of the Endocrine System
9. Describe changes that occur in the senses with
aging
10. Enumerate nursing interventions in the care of the
endocrine system.

CHEMICAL MESSENGERS
- some produced by the nervous system and others
produced by the endocrine system
- allow cells to communicate with each other to
regulate body activities.
- Epithelial cells - specialize secretion
Chemical Definition Example
Messenger
Autocrine - Secreted by cells Eicosanoids
in a local area; (prostaglandins,
influences the thromboxanes,
activity of the same prostacyclins,
cell from which it leukotrienes)
was secreted
-stimulates the cell
that originally
secreted in
- The endocrine system is composed of endocrine
Paracrine -Produced by a -Somatostatin,
glands and specialized endocrine cells located
wide variety of histamine,
throughout the body
tissues and eicosanoids
- Secretes hormones
secreted into
- Endocrine glands secrete minute amounts of
extracellular fluid;
chemical messengers called hormone into the
has a localized
bloodstream, rather than into a duct.
effect on other
- Hormones then travel a distance from their source
tissues
through the bloodstream to specific sites called
-act locally on
target tissues, or effectors, where they produce a
nearby cells
coordinated response of the target tissues.
Neurotransmitter Produced by Acetylcholine,
- Endocrine glands are not to be confused with
neurons; secreted epinephrine
exocrine glands. Exocrine glands have ducts that
 carry their secretions to the outside of the body, or Hormonal Regulation
into a hollow organ, such as the stomach or  Prevent and control the over and under
intestines. Examples of exocrine secretions are production of hormones
saliva, sweat, breast milk, and digestive enzymes. Negative Feedback Positive Feedback
Main Regulatory Functions of the Endocrine System Hormones secretion is Self-propagating system
1. Regulation of Metabolism (TH, cortisol) inhibited by the whereby the stimulation of
 Controls the rate of nutrient and energy hormone itself once hormone secretion increases
production blood levels have reached over time
2. Control of food intake and digestion (insulin , Gl a certain point
hormones)  Most hormones
 Regulates the level of satiation (fullness) and follow this
the breakdown into individual nutrients mechanism
3. Modulation of tissue development (GH,TH) Hypothalamic-Pituitary Portal System
 Influences the development of tissues Pituitary Gland
4. Regulation of ion levels (aldosterone, ANP, PTH, - Known as hypophysis
calcitonin) - Pea sized gland inferior to the hypothalamus
 Helps monitor blood pH, as well as sodium, - Synthesizes hormones that control the functions of
potassium, calcium ion concentrations in the other glands and under the control of
blood hypothalamus
5. Control of water balance (ADH, aldosterone, ANP) Posterior Pituitary Gland
 Regulate water balance by controlling the ADH Oxytocin
solute concentration of the blood (anti-diuretic hormone) - Uterus smooth muscle
6. Changes in heart rate and blood pressure (TH, - Kidney tubules - Mammary glands
cortisol, aldosterone) Anterior Pituitary Gland
 Regulates the heart rate and blood pressure Prolactin – Mammary Gland
and prepare the body for physical activity Melanocyte-stimulating hormone - Skin
7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients Gonadotropic hormone (FSH and LH) - ovary
(insulin, glucagon) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) – thyroid gland
 Regulates the levels of glucose and other
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) – adrenal cortex
nutrients in the blood
Growth hormone - bone
8. Control reproductive functions (androgen,
Hypothalamus
estrogen, testosterone)
- Endocrine control center of the brain located
 Controls the development and functions of the
inferior to the thalamus
reproductive system in males and females
9. Stimulation of uterine contractions and milk Releasing hormone
release (oxytocin, prolactin) - Stimulate the production and secretion of
 Regulates urine contraction during delivery hormones in the PG
and stimulates milk release from the breast in Inhibiting hormone
lactating females - Decreases the secretion of hormone in the PG
10. Modulation of immune system function (thymosin,
cortisol)
 Helps control the production of immune cells
Chemical Nature of Hormones
Lipid-Soluble Hormones Water-Soluble Hormones
Non-polar Polar molecules
Insoluble in water-based Can dissolve in blood
fluids, such as the plasma
Travel in the bloodstream Free hormones
attached to the binding
proteins
Degraded slowly and are Short half-lives because they
not rapidly eliminated are rapidly degraded by
from the circulation enzymes

Hypothalamic control of the Anterior Pituitary
1. Stimuli within the nervous system regulate the
secretion of releasing hormones (green circle) and
inhibiting hormones (red circle) from neurons of
the hypothalamus
2. Releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones pass
through the hypothalamohypophysial portal
system to the anterior pituitary.
3. Releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones
(green and red circles) leave capilliaries and
stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones
(yellow squares) from anterior pituitary cells.
4. In response to releasing hormones, anterioir
pituitary hormones (yellow square) travel in the
blood to their target tissue (green arrow), which in
some cases are other endocrine glands.
Anterior Pituitary Gland and Hormones
Growth Hormone
- Most Tissues (bones, muscles, ose)
- Increases gene expression, breakdown of lipids,
and release of fatty acids from cells; increases
blood glucose level
Increase GRH
 Giantism – exaggerated bone growth before
closure of epiphyseal plate
 Acromegaly- growth in bone diameter only
after closure pf epiphyseal plate
Gigantism Acromegaly
Decrease GRH
 Pituitary dwarfism- abnormally stunted growth
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Thyroid gland
- Increases thyroid hormone secretion (thyroxine
and triiodothyronine)
Increase in THRH
 The size of the thyroid gland becomes bigger
 The secretion becomes higher
Decrease in THRH
 The size of the thyroid gland becomes smaller
 The secretion becomes lower
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
- Adrenal cortex
- Increases secretion of glucocorticoid hormones,
such as cortisol; increases skin pigmentation at
high concentrations
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
- Melanocytes in skin
- Increases melanin production in melanocytes to
make kin darker in color
Luteinizing hormone (LH) or interstitial cell-stimulating
hormone (ICSH) - GONADOTROPINS
- Ovary in females, testis in males
- Promotes ovulation and progesterone production
in ovary; promotes testosterone synthesis and
support for sperm cell production in testis
Follicle-stimulating hormone – GONADOTROPINS
 - follicles in ovary in females, seminiferous tubules
in males
- Promotes follicle maturation and estrogen
secretion in ovary; promotes sperm cell production
in testis
Prolactin
- Ovary and mammary gland in females, testis in
moles
- Stimulates milk production and prolongs
progesterone secretion following ovulation and
during pregnancy in women; increases sensitivity
to LH in males
Secretion of Posterior Pituitary Hormone
1. Stimuli within the nervous system cause
hypothalamic neurons to either increase or
decrease their action potential frequency.
2. Action potentials are conducted by axons of the
hypothalamic neurons through the
hypothalamohypophysial tract to the posterior
pituitary. The axon endings of neurons store
neurohormones in the posterior pituitary
3. In the posterior pituitary gland, action potentials
cause the release of neurohormones (blue circles)
from axon terminals into the circulatory system
4. The neurohormones pass through the circulatory
system and influence the activity of their target
tissues.
POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
Antidiuretic Hormone / Vasopressin
- Kidney
- Conserves water; constricts blood vessels
Increase
 Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH (SIADH)
- Increase in water reabsorption in kidneys leads to
less urine volume, increases blood volume
Decrease
 Diabetes Insipidus
- Low water reabsorption leads to more urine
output that leads to the decrease of blood volume
Control of the ADH Secretion
1. Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect
changes in blood osmolality, and baroreceptors
detect changes in blood pressure and change the
firing rate of action potentials in axons of the vagus
nerve to the hypothalamus
2. An increase in osmolality and a decrease in blood
pressure increase action potentials in ADH-
secreting neurons.
3. Action potentials are carried by axons of ADH-
secreting neurons through the
hypothalamohypophysial tract to the posterior
pituitary
4. In the posterior pituitary, action potentials cause
the release of ADH from the axon terminals into
the circulatory system.
5. Increasing ADH acts on the kidney tubules to
increase water reabsorption, resulting in reduced
urine volume, increased urine osmolality, and
decreased blood osmolality. This helps maintain
blood osmolality and volume.
Oxytocin
- Uterus
- Mammary Gland
- Increases uterine contractions
- Increases milk letdown from mammary glands
Oxytocin Secretion
1. Stretch of the uterus and the uterine cervix or
stimulation of the breasts' nipples increases action
potentials in axons of oxytocin-secreting neurons.
2. Action potentials are conducted by sensory
neurons from the uterus and breast to the spinal
cord and up ascending tracts to the hypothalamus.
3. Action potentials are conducted by axons of
oxytocin-secreting neurons in the
hypothalamohypophysial tract to the posterior
pituitary, where they increase oxytocin secretion.
4. Oxytocin enters the circulation, increasing
contractions of the uterus and milk ejection from
the lactating breast
Thyroid gland
- Composed of two lobes connected by a narrow
band of thyroid tissue called isthmus
- located on each side of the trachea, inferior to the
larynx
- Highly vascular
- thyroid follicles
 filled with colloid
 produces thyroglobulin
 where TH are synthesized & stored
- parafollicular cells, or C cells = calcitonin
Thyroid hormones (thyroxine, triiodothyronine)
- Most Cells of the body
Increase metabolic rates, essential tor normal process of
growth and maturation
- Iodine used to synthesize the thyroid hormones:
 Triiodothyronine or TS
- Active form
 Tetraiodothyronine
- Precursor of T3
Calcitonin
- Primarily bone
- Decreases rate of bone breakdown; prevents large
increase in blood Ca* levels following a meal
- Secreted by the parafollicular or C cells
- Liwer blood Ca2+ levels to return to their normal
range
- Secreted if the blood concentration of Ca2+
becomes too high
TH Secretion and Regulation
1. Stress and decreased blood glucose levels increase
the release of growth hormone–releasing hormone
(GHRH), and decrease the release of growth
hormone–inhibiting hormone (GHIH), from the
hypothalamus.
2. GHRH and GHIH travel through the
hypothalamohypophysial portal system to the
anterior pituitary.
3. Increased GHRH and reduced GHIH act on the
anterior pituitary and result in increased GH
secretion.
4. GH acts on target tissues.
5. Increasing GH and somatomedins have a negative-
feedback effect on the hypothalamus, resulting in
decreased GHRH and increased GHIH release.
Hyperthyroidism
(goiter- enlargement due to excess TSH)
- increase metabolic rate, extreme nervousness,
chronic fatigue
Grave disease
 autoimmune disease wherein the immune
system produces abnormal proteins that mimic
 TSH, which overstimulates the thyroid gland;
exophthalmia

Parathyroid gland
- 4 glands embedded in the posterior part of the
thyroid gland
- Cell types:
 Chief cells - produce parathyroid hormone
(parathormone)
- Important in regulating calcium ion levels
 Oxyphils
Parathyroid Hormone
- Bone, Kidney
- Increases rate of bone breakdown by osteoclasts;
increases vitamin D synthesis, essential for
maintenance of normal blood calcium levels
Hyperparathyroidism
- Increase in resorption resulting in increase of blood
Ca2+ levels
- Bones can become soft, deformed and easily
fractured
- Nerve and muscle cells are less excitable
 Fatigue and muscle weakness
Hypothyroidism
- Decrease im resorption and the formation of
- extremely lethargic, decrease in metabolic rate
Vitamin D
Cretinism
- Blood Ca2+ levels decrease
 in infants; mental retardation, short stature,
- Nerves and muscles become excitable and produce
and abnormally formed skeletal structures
spontaneous action potentials
Myxedema
 Accumulation of fluid and other molecules in
the subcutaneous tissue
 Adrenal Glands tissues)
- Increase Lipids and protein breakdowns; increase
glucose synthesis from amino acids; increase blood
nutrient levels; inhibit inflammation and immune
response
Increase:
- Increase breakdown of proteins and lipids
- Increase conversion of proteins & lipids to forms of
energy the body can use
Decrease:
- Decrease breakdown of proteins and lipids
- Decrease conversion of proteins & lipids to forms
of energy the body can use
Cortisol Secretion and Regulation

- Medulla (inner)
 Arises from neural crest cells
 Sympathetic division of the ANS secrete the
fight-or-flight hormones
 Epinephrine/ Adrenaline & norepinephrine
- Cortex (outer)
 Zona glomerulosa (aldosterone)
 Zona fasciculata (cortisol)
 Zona reticularis (androgens)
Adrenal Medulla Hormones
- Epinephrine mostly and some neroppinephrine
- Heart blood vessels, liver and adipocytes
1. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is released
- Increase cardiac output, increase blood flow to
from hypothalamic neurons in response to stress
skeletal muscles and heart: increases the release of
or low blood glucose and passes, by way of the
glucose and fatty acids into blood; in general,
hypothalamohypophysial portal system, to the
prepare body for physical activity
anterior pituitary
Mineralocorticoids
2. In the anterior pituitary, CRH binds to and
- Kidneys to lesser degree, intestine and sweat
stimulates cells that secrete adrenocorticotropic
glands
hormone (ACTH).
- Increase rate of sodium transport into the body,
3. ACTH binds to membrane-bound receptors on cells
increase rate of potassium excretion, secondarily
of the adrenal cortex and stimulates the secretion
favor water retention
of glucocorticoids, primarily cortisol.
- Regulate blood volume and blood levels of K+ and
4. Cortisol acts on target tissues, resulting in
Na+
increased lipid and protein breakdown, increased
Increase: glucose levels, and anti-inflammatory effects.
- Increase Na+ and water retention
5. Cortisol has a negative-feedback effect because it
- Increase of K+ excretion
inhibits CRH release from the hypothalamus and
Decrease ACTH secretion from the anterior pituitary.
- Decrease in Na+ and water retention Adrenal androgens
- Decrease in K+ excretion
- Most tissues
Glucocorticoids (cortisol)
- Insignificant in males; increase female sexual drive,
- Most tissues (e. liver, fat, skeletal, muscle, immune growth of pubic and axillary hair
 - Stimulate male secondary sex characteristics
PANCREAS
Insulin
- Especially liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue
- Increases uptake and use of glucose and amino
acids
Glucagon
- Primarily liver
- Increases breakdown of glycogen and release of
glucose into the circulatory system
 Regulate the blood levels of nutrients, especially
glucose
 Maintain blood glucose levels within a normal
range
Pancreatic Hormone
Insulin Alpha cells Delta cells
Hypoglycemic Hyperglycemic
effect effect
released when released when inhibits the
blood glucose blood glucose secretion of
levels are high levels are low insulin and
glucagon
Diabetes mellitus
hyperglycemia; bod
inability to regulate
blood glucose
levels within the
normal range

Regulation of Insulin Secretion

 TESTES AND OVARIES
- Secrete reproductive hormones essential for the
development of sexual characteristics
Testes
Testosterone
- Most Tissues
- Aids in sperm cell production, maintenance of
functional reproductive organs, secondary sex
(characteristics, sexual behavior)
Ovaries
Estrogens, progesterone
- Most Tissues
Other Hormones
- Aid in uterine and mammary gland development
1. GI Hormones
and function, external genitalia structure,
 Cells in the lining of the stomach and small
secondary sex characteristics, sexual behavior,
intestine
menstrual cycle
 stimulate the production of digestive juices
Thymus
2. Prostaglandins
- upper part of the thoracic cavity  function as intercellular signals
- function of the immune system for maturation of
 play a role in inflammation
T-cells  contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle
- Will undergo involution as the person ages
3. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
Thymosin  Secreted by the right atrium of the heart in
- Immune tissues response to elevated blood pressure
- Promotes immune system development  inhibit Na+ reabsorption in the kidneys which leads
Pineal Gland to more urine output
- small, pinecone-shaped structure located superior 4. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
and posterior to the thalamus of the brain  Hormone that maintain pregnancy
Melatonin
- Among others, hypothalamus
- Inhibits of gonadotropin-releasing hormone, Comparison between Endocrine system
thereby inhibiting reproduction and Nervous system
Melatonin Secretion - Together, the nervous system and the endocrine
1. Light entering the eye stimulates neurons in the system regulate and coordinate the activities of
retina to fire action potentials. essentially all body structures to achieve and
2. Action potentials are transmitted to the maintain homeostasis.
hypothalamus. - The endocrine system sends information to the
3. Action potentials from the hypothalamus are cells it controls in the form of hormones, which are
transmitted through the sympathetic division to carried by the bloodstream to all parts of the body
the pineal gland. - Cells with receptors for those hormones respond
4. A decrease in light (darkness) results in increased to them, whereas cells lacking receptors do not.
sympathetic stimulation of the pineal gland and
increased melatonin secretion. An increase in light
results in decreased sympathetic stimulation of the
pineal gland and decreased melatonin secretion
5. Melatonin inhibits GnRH secretion from the
hypothalamus and may help regulate sleep cycles.
 Endocrine Both Nervous
-hypothalamus -associated -hypothalamus
send hormones in with the brain regulates
the pituitary gland temperature
-uses certain -use the same -may use the same
molecules as molecules molecules as
neurotransmitters hormones
-The two
systems work
together to
regulate
critical body
processes

-some neurons
secrete
hormones