The power to give or withhold rewards, such as
Chapter 11 salary increases, bonuses, promotions, praise,
Leadership and Influence Processes
Learning outcomes
--Describe the nature of leadership and relate
leadership to management.
--Discuss and evaluate the two generic
approaches to leadership.
--Identify and describe the major situational
approaches to leadership.
--Identify and describe three related approaches
to leadership.
--Describe three emerging approaches to
leadership.
--Discuss political behavior in organizations and
how it can be managed.
The Nature of Leadership
The Meaning of Leadership
Leadership
As a process, the use of noncoercive influence
to shape the group’s or organization’s goals,
motivate behavior toward the achievement of
those goals, and help define group or
organizational culture;
as a property, the set of characteristics
attributed to individuals who are perceived to be
leaders
Leaders
People who can influence the behaviors of
others without having to rely on force; those
accepted by others as leaders
Distinctions Between Management and
Leadership
Leadership and Power
Power
The ability to affect the behavior of others
In organizational settings, there are usually
five kinds of power:
 Legitimate power
Power granted through the organizational
hierarchy; the power defined by the organization
to be accorded to people occupying a particular
position
 Reward power
recognition, and interesting job assignments
 Coercive power
The power to force compliance by means of
psychological, emotional, or physical threat
 Referent power
The personal power that accrues to someone
based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or
charisma
 Expert power
The personal power that accrues to someone
based on the information or expertise that they
possess
Generic Approaches to Leadership
Traits Approach to Leadership
 Assumed that a basic set of personal traits
that differentiated leaders from non-leaders
could be used to identify leaders and
predict who would become leaders.
 The trait approach was unsuccessful in
establishing empirical relationships
between traits and persons regarded as
leaders
Leadership Behaviors
Michigan Studies (Rensis Likert)
– Identified two forms of leader behaviour
Job-centered behaviour
—managers who pay close attention to
subordinates’ work, explain work procedures,
and are keenly interested in performance.
Employee-centered behaviour
—managers who focus on the development of
cohesive work groups and employee
satisfaction. – The two forms of leader behaviors
were considered to be at opposite ends of the
same continuum.
Ohio State Studies
Did not interpret leader behavior as being one-
dimensional as did the Michigan State studies.
Identified two basic leadership styles that
can be exhibited simultaneously:
Initiating-structure behavior
The behavior of leaders who define the leader–
subordinate role so that everyone knows what is
expected, establish formal lines of communication,
and determine how tasks will be performed
Consideration behaviour
The behavior of leaders who show concern for
subordinates and attempt to establish a warm,
friendly, and supportive climate
Ohio State Studies (cont’d)
Initial assumption was that the most effective
leaders who exhibit high levels of both behaviors.
Subsequent research indicated that:
 Employees of supervisors ranked high on
initiating structure were high performers, yet
they expressed low levels of satisfaction and
higher absenteeism.
 Employees of supervisors ranked high on
consideration had low- performance ratings, yet
they had high levels of satisfaction and less
absenteeism.
 Other situational variables make consistent
leader behavior predictions difficult. There is no
universal or “one best way” model of leadership.
The Managerial Grid
provides a means for evaluating leadership
styles and then training managers to move
toward an ideal style of behavior.
Concern for production
The part of the Managerial Grid that deals with
the job and task aspects of leader behaviour
Concern for people
The part of the Managerial Grid that deals with
the human aspects of leader behavior
Situational Approaches to Leadership
Situational Models of Leader Behavior
Assume that:
 Appropriate leader behavior varies from
one situation to another.
 Key situational factors that are interacting
to determine appropriate leader behavior
can be identified.
Least-Preferred Co-worker (LPC) theory
A theory of leadership that suggests that the
appropriate style of leadership varies with situational
favorableness.
 LPC theory, developed by Fred Fiedler, was the
first truly situational theory of leadership.
 LPC measure The measuring scale that asks
leaders to describe the person with whom he or
she is able to work least well (the least-preferred
coworker, or LPC)
Least-Preferred Co-worker (LPC) Theory
(cont’d)
Contingency variables determining situational
favorableness:
Leader-member relations
the nature of the relationship between the leader and
the work group.
Task structure
the degree to which the group’s task is defined.
Position Power
the power vested in the leader’s position.
Path-Goal Theory
Associated most closely with Martin Evans and
Robert House—is a direct extension of the
expectancy theory of motivation
Theory of leadership
suggesting that the primary functions of a leader
are to make valued or desired rewards available
in the workplace and to clarify for the
subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead
to those rewards
Path-Goal Theory (cont’d)
Leader Behaviors:
 Directive leader behaviour
letting subordinates know what is expected of them,
giving guidance and direction, and scheduling work.
 Supportive leader behaviour
being friendly and approachable, having concern for
subordinate welfare, and treating subordinates as
equals.
 Participative leader behaviour
consulting with subordinates, soliciting suggestions,
and allowing participation in decision making.
 Achievement
oriented leader behaviour setting challenging goals,
expecting subordinates to perform at high levels,
encouraging and showing confidence in subordinates.
Vroom’s Decision Tree Approach
Predicts what kinds of situations call for different
degrees of group participation
Basic Premises
 The degree to which subordinates should
be encouraged to participate in decision
making depends on the characteristics of
the situation.
 No one decision-making process is best for
all situations.
Vroom’s Decision Tree Approach (cont’d)
After evaluating the different problem attributes,
a leader can choose a decision path on one of
two decision trees that determines the decision
style and specifies the amount of employee
participation.
Decision significance
The degree to which the decision will have an
impact on the organization. Subordinates are
involved when decision significance is high.
Decision Timeliness
The degree of time pressure for making a
decision in a timely basis; may preclude
involving subordinates.
Vroom’s Decision Tree Approach (cont’d)
Decision-Making Styles
Decide —manager makes decision alone and then
announces or “sells” it to the group.
Consult (individually) —manager presents program
to group members individually, obtains their
suggestions, then makes the decision.
Consult (group) —manager presents problem to
group at a meeting, gets their suggestions, then
makes the decision.
Facilitate —manager presents the problem to the
group, defines the problem and its boundaries, and
then facilitates group member discussion as they
make the decision.
Delegate —manager allows the group to define for
itself the exact nature and parameters of the problem
and then develop a solution.
The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)
Approach
conceived by George Graen and Fred
Dansereau, stresses the importance of variable
relationships between supervisors and each of
their subordinates.
Stresses that leaders have different kinds of
relationships with different subordinates
Related Approaches to Leadership
Substitutes for Leadership
A concept that identifies situations in which
leader behaviors are neutralized or replaced by
characteristics of the subordinate, the task, and
the organization
Charismatic Leadership
Assumes that charisma is an individual
characteristic of the leader
Charisma
A form of interpersonal attraction that
inspires support and acceptance
Transformational Leadership
Leadership that goes beyond ordinary
expectations by transmitting a sense of mission,
stimulating learning experiences, and inspiring
new ways of thinking
Emerging Approaches to Leadership
Strategic Leadership
The capability to understand the complexities of
both the organization and its environment and to
lead change in the organization to achieve and
maintain a superior alignment between the
organization and its environment
Ethical Leadership
Most people have long assumed that top
managers are ethical people. But in the wake of
recent corporate scandals, faith in top managers
has been shaken. Perhaps now more than ever,
high standards of ethical conduct are being held
up as a prerequisite for effective leadership.
 Political Behavior in Organizations
Political Behavior
The activities carried out for the specific purpose
of acquiring, developing, and using power and
other resources to obtain one’s preferred
outcomes

Common Political Behaviors

 Inducement
offering to give something to someone
else in return for that person’s support. PATH-GOAL FRAMEWORK
 Persuasion
persuading others to support a goal on
grounds that are objective and logical as
well as subjective and personal.

Political Behavior (cont’d)

Creation of an obligation
providing support for another person’s position
that obliges that person to return the favor at a
future date.
Coercion
using force to get one’s way.
Impression management
making a direct and intentional effort to enhance
one’s image in the eyes of others
Managing Political Behavior
 Be aware that even if actions are not politically
motivated, others may assume that they are.
 Reduce the likelihood of subordinates engaging The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Approach
in political behavior by providing them with
autonomy, responsibility, challenge, and SUBSTITUTES FOR LEADERSHIP
feedback.
 Avoid using power to avoid charges of political
motivation.
 Get disagreements and conflicts out in the open
so that subordinates have less opportunity to
engage in political behavior.
 Avoid covert behaviors that give the impression
of political intent even if none exists

LPC THEORY