Rolling as pure rotation

The pure rolling is a combination of pure rotation and translation. Obviously, it cannot be termed
as pure rotation as far as the actual motion is concerned. We can, however, exploit the fact that the disk
in rolling is actually rotating at any given instant - not over a period but for an instant. This enables us with
a very powerful alternative technique to analyze rolling motion.

The alternative consideration assumes rotation about an axis passing through the point of contact
and perpendicular to the plane of rotating disk. Each particle can be considered to rotate about the axis
instantaneously i.e. at a particular instant. Clearly, this is an equivalent analysis paradigm that gives the
same result as when rolling motion is considered as combination of rotation and translation.

Rolling motion as pure rotation

Each particle of the body can be considered to rotate about the axis through the contact point with same
angular velocity.

Under this alternative analysis framework, the angular velocities of all particles about this instantaneously
stationary axis are considered same. Importantly, this unique angular velocity is equal to angular velocity
of rolling (ω). Depending on the linear distance of the particles from the contact point, their linear velocity
varies. This alternative framework is consistent with the fact that linear velocities of the particles away
from the point of contact are indeed greater as worked out in previous module titled " Rolling motion ".

Rolling motion as pure rotation

The particles of the body away from the contact point moves with increasing speed.
Equivalence of pure rolling

The most important aspect of the equivalence of analysis frameworks, as described earlier, is that rolling
motion, which is a combination of pure translation and rotation in physical sense, is described in terms of
pure rotation only for the analysis of the motion. In this analysis, we do not need to consider translation
at all, as if the rolling body were stationary.

In the nutshell, the equivalent description of rolling in terms of pure rolling has following important
considerations :

1. The axis of rotation through contact point is parallel to central axis. This axis is instantaneously at rest
and is also referred as "Instantaneous axis of rotation (IAOR)"

2. Each particle of the body is rotating about IAOR with an angular velocity given by :

where "Vc" is the linear velocity of center of mass and "R" is the radius of the disk.

3. The linear velocity of any of the position within the rotating disk is obtained by using the relation,

The vector notation of the relation above is important. It emphasizes that the linear velocity is directed
such that it is perpendicular to both angular velocity vector (ω) and position vector (r). In the figure below,
the vector ω is into the plane of figure i.e. angular velocity vector is perpendicular to xy-plane. The velocity
vector being perpendicular to angular velocity vector, therefore, lies in xy-plane. Further, the velocity
vector is perpendicular to the positions vector drawn from the point of contact. Note that this is the
requirement of pure rotation. The linear velocity should be tangential to the circular path of the particle
about the axis in pure rotation.

Rolling motion

The linear velocity is tangential to the circular path of the particle about the instantaneous axis.

We must note that all velocity vectors are drawn perpendicular to position vectors, which are drawn
from the point of contact "A". The magnitude of the velocity is given by :
where "r" is the linear distance of the position from the point of contact and "ω" is the angular velocity
about the new axis through the point of contact or the axis through center of mass.

We can validate the assumption of rolling as pure rotation by calculating velocities of some of the positions
(A,B,C,D and E) on the rim of the rotating disk.

These results are same as obtained by considering pure rolling motion equivalent to the combination of
pure rotation and pure translation. As such, the equivalence of pure rolling as pure rotation about an axis
through the point of contact and perpendicular to the plane of rotating disk is indeed true. It is also evident
from the calculation details that this approach of analyzing rolling motion is simpler than the earlier
approach as far as calculation of linear velocities of different positions within the rotating disk is
concerned.

For calculating velocities of the positions on the rim of the rotating disk, there is a convenient
trigonometric relation that can be used with ease. We consider a position on the rim of the disk making
an angle θ with the vertical at the point of contact. The base of the triangle AB is the diameter of the circle.
As such the angle ADB is a right angle (angle subtended by diameter on the circumference is right angle).

The linear velocity of the particle at the rim of the rotating disk, therefore, is :
Problem: A ring rolls on a horizontal plane with a constant velocity, "v". Find the speed of a particle on
the ring, making an angle "θ" with the center as shown in the figure.

Solution : We can not apply the formula as derived earlier directly. Here, the given angle is at the center
of the ring and not at the point of contact as needed to use the formula directly. Now, the linear velocity
of the particle is given as :

In order to find "r" i.e. "AB", we drop a perpendicular from the center of the circle.

In the right angle ACD, we have :

Putting this expression for "r" in the equation :

But, we know that "ωR" equals speed of the center of mass.

As given in the question, the speed of the center of mass is "v". Hence,

Kinetic energy of rolling disk

We can determine kinetic energy of the rolling disk, considering it to be the pure rotation about an axis
passing through point of contact and plane of disk. Mathematically,

where " IA " is the moment of inertia of the disk about new axis. Now, using theorem of parallel axes, we
have :

where "I" is moment of inertia about an axis passing through center of mass and perpendicular to the
plane of rotating disk. Putting in the equation of kinetic energy, we have :

This result is same as that obtained by considering rolling as combined motion of pure rotation and pure
translation. It again emphasizes the correctness of the original assumption that rolling can be treated as
pure rotation about an axis through point of contact and perpendicular to the plane of disk.
Summary
1. Pure rolling is equivalent to pure rotation about an axis through point of contact and parallel to
central axis.
2. The axis of rotation passing through point of contact and parallel to axis of rotation is instantaneously
at rest and is known as “Instantaneous axis of rotation (IAOR)”.
3. The particles rotate about instantaneous axis of rotation with same angular velocity, which is given by
:

4. The linear velocity of any of the position within the rotating disk is obtained by using the relation,

where “r” is the position vector drawn from instantaneous axis of rotation.
5. The magnitude of linear velocity i.e. speed of the particle is :

where "r" is the linear distance of the particle from the point of contact. We must know that angular
velocity vector and position vector are perpendicular to each other. As such, the "sinθ" term in the
magnitude of a vector product always evaluates to "1".
6. The velocity is tangential to the circular path i.e. perpendicular to position vector.
7. The speed of a particle, which makes an angle "θ" with the vertical on the circumference (i.e circular
path) is given by :

8. The speed of a particle, which makes an angle "θ" with the vertical at the center of mass is given by :

9. The kinetic energy of the rolling is given by :

Rolling and Slipping Motion

When you slide an object over a surface (say, a book over a table), it will typically slow down
quickly, due to frictional forces. When you do the same with a round object, like a water bottle, it may
initially slide a little (especially if you push it hard), but will quickly start to rotate. You can easily check
that when rotating, the object loses much less kinetic energy to work than when sliding - take the same
water bottle, either on its bottom (sliding only) or on its side (a little sliding plus rolling), push it with the
same initial force, and let go: the rolling bottle gets much further. However, somewhat ironically, the
bottle can only roll thanks to friction. To start rolling, it needs to change its angular momentum, which
requires a torque, which is provided by the frictional force acting on the bottle.

When a bottle (or ball, or any round object) rolls, the instantaneous speed of the point touching
the surface over which it rolls is zero. Consequently, its rotational speed ω and the translational speed of
its center of rotation vr (where the r subscript is to indicate rolling) are related by vr=ωR, with R the
relevant radius of our object. If the object’s center of rotation moves faster than vrvr, the rotation can’t
‘keep up’, and the object slides over the surface. We call this type of motion slipping. Due to friction,
objects undergoing slipping motion typically quickly slow down to vr, at which point they roll without
slipping.

Figure: Five types of billiard shots. (a-c) The type of motion depends on where the cue hits the ball. (a) If
the cue hits the ball at exactly 7/5 R above the table, the ball will exhibit pure rolling motion, ω=Rω. (b) If
the cue hits the ball above the critical spot, it will rotate faster than translate ω>vR and exhibit a slipping
rotation. Friction will slow down the rotation until rolling motion is achieved. (c) If the cue hits the ball
below the critical spot, it will translate faster than rotate ω<vR and initially slide, until friction both slows
down the translational speed and accelerate the rotational speed to the point where rolling motion is
achieved. Note that the rotational motion may even be retrograde, i.e., backwards compared to the
translational motion. (d-e) Behavior of the incident billiard ball before and after collision with a stationary
ball of equal mass. Since the collision is elastic, all linear momentum is transferred to the other ball. If the
incident ball was initially rolling, immediately after the collision it will continue rotating with complete
slipping. Friction then causes the ball to pick up linear speed again, with a direction depending on the
direction of the rotational motion, resulting in a follow (d) or draw (e) shot.

Suppose we started our object with a velocity vo. If there is no rotation, the only force changing its velocity
is the constant frictional force

with m the mass of the object . The constant force results in a linear decrease in the translational speed
v(t)=vo −μkgt. However, if our object can roll, there is a second contribution to the motion, due to the
torque τfriction=FfrictionR of the frictional force. Using the rotational analog of Newton’s second law.(or
writing L=Iω and using Equation, we get an equation of motion for the rotational velocity:
Integrating with initial condition ω(t=0)=0ω(t=0)=0 we get ω(t)=μkmgRtIω(t)=μkmgRtI. While the object
undergoes slipping motion, the translational speed thus linearly decreases with time, whereas the
rotational speed linearly increases. To find the time and velocity at which the object enters a purely rolling
motion, we simply equate v(t)v(t) with ω(t)Rω(t)R, which gives

Note that the time tr until fully rolling motion is achieved scales inversely with the friction coefficient, but
the final rolling speed vr is independent of the frictional force. The rolling speed does depend on the
moment of inertia of your object - for a hollow cylinder it’s vr=12v0vr=12v0, whereas for a solid cylinder
it’s vr=23v0vr=23v0. Once the object is rolling, its surface no longer moves with respect to the surface
that it’s rolling on (as its instantaneous speed at the point of touching is zero). Consequently, the frictional
force is much reduced, and the object can roll a large distance before it stops; in fact, the main force
slowing it down once it is rolling is drag with the ambient air, which we could safely ignore when (kinetic)
friction was still in the picture.

Worked Example: A Cylinder Rolling Down a Slope

A massive cylinder with mass m and radius R rolls without slipping down a plane inclined at an angle θ.
The coefficient of (static) friction between the cylinder and the plane is μ. Find the linear acceleration of
the cylinder.

Free body of a cylinder rolling down a plane

Solution

There are at least three ways to tackle this problem. For all three, it helps (as always) to make a sketch,
indicating the relevant forces - see Figure 5.8.2.
• Method 1: Forces and torques.
Let the friction force Ff be positive in the direction up the plane. Then we have:
F = ma = mg sin θ – Ff = ma
τ = Iα = FtR = ½ mR2α
No slipping = α = αR
The last two equations give Ff = ½ ma. Plugging this into the first equation gives:
𝑔 sin 𝜃
α= 1 = 2/3 g sin θ
1+
2

• Method 2: Energy
The total energy of the system of the system is given by:
Etot = K + V = ½ mv2 + ½ Iω2 + mgh

If the cylinder rolls down the slope without slipping, its angular and linear velocities are related through v
= ωR. Also if it moves a distance Δx, its height decreases by Δx sin θ. Conservation of energy then gives:
dEtot d 1 1 v 2
O= dt
= dt [2 mv 2 + I( )
2 R
− mgx sin θ]
vv̇
= mvv̇ + I − mgv sin θ)
R2
1
= [a + 2
a − g sin θ] mv

where we used I = ½ mR2 for a massive cylinder in the last line. The linear acceleration a is thus given by
α = 2/3 g sin θ

• Method 2: Rotational Version of the Newton’s Second Law

At a given point in time, we can apply the rotational version of Newton’s second law to rotations about
the point where the cylinder touches the surface (as the cylinder is rolling without slipping, this is the only
motion at that point). Of the three forces in the system, two act at that point, so they have no lever arm.
Only gravity has a nonzero lever arm of length Rsinθ, leading to a torque given by τ z= mgRsinθ. By the
rotational version of Newton’s second law, we have τ=Iα, where I is the moment of inertia about the pivot.
Applying the parallel-axis theorem, we find I=Icm +md2 =3/2 mR2 in this case, so we get an angular
acceleration of
𝜏z mgRsin𝜃 2g
α= = 3 = 3R sin θ
I mR2
2

The linear acceleration of the cylinder due to the rotation about this pivot is given by α = Rα = 2/3 g sin θ.

Rolling
• Symbols used in this section
r = radius in the general sense (distance from the center or axis of rotation)
R = the outer radius of a round object (often just called the radius of the object)
vcm = translational speed of the center of mass
ω = rotational or angular speed
• Rolling is a combination of translational and rotational motion.
o When an object experiences pure translational motion, all of its points…
 ▪ move with the same velocity as the center of mass; that is…
▪ in the same direction
▪ with the same speed (v = vcm)
▪ move in a straight line in the absence of a net external force
o When an object experiences pure rotational motion about its center of mass, all of its points…
▪ move at right angles to the radius in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation, thus…
▪ points on opposite sides of the axis of rotation move in opposite directions
▪ move with a speed proportional to radius (v = rω), thus…
▪ the center of mass does not move (since r = 0 there)
▪ points on the outer radius move with speed v = Rω
▪ move in a circle centered on the axis of rotation
o When an object experiences rolling motion…
▪ the point of the object in contact with the surface…
▪ is instantaneously at rest
▪ is the instantaneous axis of rotation
▪ the center of mass of the object…
▪ moves with speed vcm = Rω
▪ moves in a straight line in the absence of a net external force
▪ the point fathest from the point of contact…
▪ moves with twice the speed of the center of mass v = 2vcm = 2Rω

• Rolling and Slipping

o rolling without slipping
▪ vcm = Rω
o slipping
▪ and rolling forward
▪ vcm < Rω
▪ accelerating on ice or mud
▪ "burnout" or "burn rubber" while driving
▪ "top spin" in billiards (a.k.a. "top" or "follow")
▪ vcm > Rω
▪ decelerating on ice or mud
▪ and rolling backward
▪ vcm > 0 and ω < 0
▪ "back spin" in billiards (a.k.a. "bottom" or "draw")
o pure translation
▪ vcm ≠ 0 and ω = 0
▪ "wheel lock" while driving
▪ "slide" in billiards
o pure rotation
▪ vcm = 0 and ω ≠ 0
▪ stuck in mud or snow while driving
• The path of a point on a rolling object is a cycloid (or a trochoid).

o The cycloid generated by a point on an object rolling over the +x axis is described by the following
parametric equations…
rolling = translation + rotation
x = vcmt + r cos (θ − ωt)
 y = r + r sin(θ − ωt)
o where…
r, θ = cylindrical coordinates of the point
R = outer radius
vcm = translational speed of the center of mass
ω = rotational or angular speed
t = time (the parameter of the parametric equation)
o Types
▪ A basic cycloid…
▪ is traced out by…
▪ points on the surface of a generating circle that is…
▪ rolling without slipping
▪ over a straight line
▪ has cusps (points with two tangents)

▪ A cycloid is curtate (or contracted) if…

▪ it is traced out by…
▪ points inside a generating circle (r < R) that is rolling without slipping or
▪ points on the surface of the generating circle that is slipping while rolling with vcm > Rω
▪ does not have cusps or loops

▪ A cycloid is prolate (or extended) if…

▪ it is traced out by…
▪ points outside a generating circle (r > R) that is rolling without slipping or
▪ points on the surface of the generating circle that is slipping while rolling with vcm < Rω
▪ it has loops

▪ A cycloid formed by rolling a generating circle on another circle is called…

▪ an epicycloid if the generating circle rolls on the outside of the other circle
▪ a hypocycloid if the generating circle rolls on the inside of the other circle

Discussion
• Rolling without slipping is a combination of translation and rotation where the point of contact
is instantaneously at rest.

• When an object experiences pure translational motion, all of its points move with the same
velocity as the center of mass; that is in the same direction and with the same speed
v(r) = vcenter of mass

• The object will also move in a straight line in the absence of a net external force.

• When an object experiences pure rotational motion about its center of mass, all of its points
move at right angles to the radius in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation with a speed
proportional to the distance from the axis of rotation…
v(r) = rω

• Thus points on opposite sides of the axis move in opposite directions, points on the axis do not
move at all since r = 0 there…
vcenter of mass = 0
 • and points on the outer edge move at the maximum speed…
vouter edge = Rω

• When an object experiences rolling motion the point of the object in contact with the surface is
instantaneously at rest…
vpoint of contact = 0

• and is the instantaneous axis of rotation. Thus, the center of mass of the object moves with speed…
vcenter of mass = Rω

• and the point fathest from the point of contact moves with twice that speed
vopposite the point of contact = 2vcm = 2Rω

• triskelion- The wheel is an extension of the foot.

• Cycloids
o cycloid
o prolate cycloid
o curtate cycloid

• Epicycloids
o epicycloid
o cardioid
o nephroid
o ranunculoid

• Hypocycloids
o hypocycloid
o astroid
o deltoid

Rolling Surfaces
In order to connect two shafts so that they shall have a definite angular velocity ratio, rolling surfaces are
often used; and in order to have no slipping between the surfaces they must fulfill the following two
conditions; the line of centers must pass through the point of contact, and the areas of contact must be
of equal length. The angular velocities , expressed usually in r/min, will be inversely proportional to the
radii. N/n = r/R. The two surfaces most commonly used in practice and the only ones having a constant
angular velocity ratio, are cylinders where the shafts are parallel and cones where the shafts (projected)
intersect at an angle. In either case there are possible directions of rotation, depending upon whether the
surfaces roll in opposite directions (external contacts) or in the same direction (internal contact).

In the given figure 1 , R = nc/(N + n) and r = Nc/(N + n). In figure 2, R = nc/(N – n) and r = Nc/(N –
n). In figure 3, tan B = sin A/(n/N + cos A) and tan C = sin A/(N/n + cos A). In figure 4, tan B = sin A/(N/n –
cos A) and tan C = sin A/(n/N – cos A). With the above values for the angles of B and C , and the length d
or e of one of the cones , R and r may be calculated.
 Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

The natural limitations of rolling without slip, with the use of pure rolling surfaces limited to the
transmission of very small amounts of torque, led historically to the alteration of the geometric surfaces
to include teeth and tooth spaces, tooth wheels or simply gears.
Fig. 4