Torsion

In module 1 and 2, we discussed the behavior of the simplest type of structural member—
namely, a straight bar subjected to axial loads. Now we consider a slightly more complex type of
behavior known as torsion. Torsion refers to the twisting of a straight bar when it is loaded by
moments (or torques) that tend to produce rotation about the longitudinal axis of the bar. It is
normally applied in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member. For instance,
when you turn a screwdriver (figure a), your hand applies a torque T to the handle (figure b) and
twists the shank of the screwdriver. Other examples of bars in torsion are drive shafts in
automobiles, axles, propeller shafts, steering rods, and drill bits.

Moments that produce twisting of a bar, such as the moments T 1 and T2 in Fig. 3-2, are called
torques or twisting moments. Cylindrical members that are subjected to torques and transmit
power through rotation are called shafts; for instance, the drive shaft of an automobile or the
propeller shaft of a ship. Most shafts have circular cross sections, either solid or tubular.
Twisting moment T equivalent to P × d, which is applied perpendicular to the axis of the bar, as
shown in the figure.
 TORSIONAL SHEARING STRESS, τ ( STRESSES IN CIRCULAR SHAFTS)

For a solid or hollow circular shaft subject to a twisting moment T, the torsional shearing
stress τ at a distance ρ from the center of the shaft is
Tρ Tr
τ = and τ max =
J J
where :
J - is the polar moment of inertia of the section
T - torque; N-mm; N-m; kips-ft
r - radius of the shaft; m ; mm ; in
ρ - distance
τ - torsional shearing stress; MPa; Psi; Ksi

For solid cylindrical shaft:

π D4 16 T
J= τ max = D
32 π D3

For hollow cylindrical shaft:

Circular tubes are more efficient than solid bars in resisting torsional loads. As we know, the
shear stresses in a solid circular bar are maximum at the outer boundary of the cross section and
zero at the center. Therefore, most of the material in a solid shaft is stressed significantly below
the maximum shear stress.

π 4 4 16 TD
J = 32 [ D −d ] τ max =
π (D ¿ ¿ 4−d 4 )¿
 For hollow shaft, the inside diameter d, is generally expressed in terms of the outside
diameters D, such as d = 0.7D or d= 0.8D

ANGLE OF TWIST

The angle θ through which the bar length L will twist is

TL
θ=
JG

Where:
T - is the torque in N·mm,
L - is the length of shaft in mm,
G - is shear modulus in MPa,
J - is the polar moment of inertia in mm4 ,
D and d - are diameter in mm,
R - is the radius in mm.

POWER TRANSMITTED BY THE SHAFT

A shaft rotating with a constant angular velocity ω (in radians per second) is being acted
by a twisting moment T. The power transmitted by the shaft is

P = Tω = 2πTn

Where:
T - is the torque in N·m; kip-ft
n - is the number of revolutions per second,
P - is the power in watts;hp

N −mm Joule Ft −lb

Watts = = HP = 33,000 1HP = 0.746KW
sec sec min
lb
psi =
¿2

Illustrative Examples:

1. A steel shaft 3 ft long that has a diameter of 4” is subjected to a torque of 15 kip-ft.

Determine the maximum shearing stress and the angle of twist. Use G = 12x106 psi.
Given:
L = 3ft D = 4” T = 15kips-ft= 15,000lb-ft G = 12x106 psi

Solution:

1000 lb
16 T 16(15 kip−ft )( )(12 ¿ ) lb
τ max = 3 = k −lb ft = 14,324 2 = 14.324ksi
πD ¿
π¿¿¿

TL π D4
θ= ; and J=
JG 32

15,000 lb−ft ¿(12 ¿ )(3 ft x 12 ¿ ) ¿

θ= ft ft π
¿¿
32
 180°
θ = 0.0215 rad x rad
π
θ =1.23◦

2. What is the minimum diameter of a solid steel shaft that will not twist through more than
30 in a 6-m length when subjected to a torque of 12KN-m? What maximum shearing
stress is developed? Use Use G = 83GPa.

Given:

θ =3◦ L = 3m T = 12KN-m G = 83GPa

Solution:
16 T
τ max = ; but D = ?
π D3

TL π D4
a. θ = JG ; and J=
32
12,000 N−m ¿(3 m) ¿
π π
3◦( 180° ¿ = ¿¿
32
d = 113.98 mm

16 T 16(12,000 N−m)
b. τ max = 3 =
πD π (0.11398 m)3

N
τ max = 41272939.24 = 41.27 MPa
m2

3. A steel marine propeller shaft 14” diameter and 18 ft long is used to transmit 5000 HP at
189 rpm. If G = 12x106 psi, determine the maximum shearing stress.

Given:

D = 14” L= 18 ft HP=5000 n = 189rpm G = 12x106 psi

Solution:

16 T P
τ max = ; and P = 2 π Tn ; Therefore :T = 2 πn
π D3

33,000 ft −lb
T = 5000 HP x HP−min ¿ ¿ = 1,667,337.5 in-lb.

16(1,667,337.5∈−lb)
τ max =
π ¿¿¿

lb
τ max = 3094.6 = 3.0946ksi
¿2
 4. A steel propeller shaft is to transmit 4.5MW at 3Hz without exceeding a shearing stress
of 50MPa or twisting through more than 1◦ in a length of 26 diameters. Compute
the proper diameter if G = 83GPa.

Given:

cycles
P = 4.5MW f = 3Hz = 3 τ max = 50MPa
sec
L=26d θ =1◦ G = 83GPa

Solution:

Based on maximum allowable shearing stress:

16 T P
τ max = ; and P = 2 π Tn Therefore :T = 2 πn
π D3

N −m
4.5 x 106
sec
T= cycle
=238,732.41 N-m
2 π (3 )
sec
N
50 = 16 ¿ ¿
mm2

d = 289.71mm

Based on maximum allowable angle of twist:

TL π D4
θ= ; and J=
JG 32

1000 mm
(238,732.41 N −m)( )(26 d)
π m
1◦( 180° ¿ = π
¿¿
32

d = 352.08 mm

Therefore, use the bigger diameter: d = 352.08 mm

5. Determine the maximum torque that can be applied to a hollow circular steel
shaft of 100-mm outside diameter and 80-mm inside diameter without
deg
exceeding a shearing stress of 60MPa or a twist of 0.5 m . Use G = 83GPa

Given:

deg
Do =100-mm Di = 80-mm θ = 0.5
m
L = 1000mm
τ max = 60MPa G = 83GPa
Solution:

Based on maximum allowable shearing stress:

16 TD
τ max = 4 hollow shaft
π (D ¿ ¿ 4−d )¿

N 16 T (1000 mm)
60 2= 4
mm π (100 ¿ ¿ 4−80 )¿

T = 6,955,486.14 N-mm
T = 6,955.48 N-m

Based on maximum allowable angle of twist:

TL π 4 4
θ=
JG
; and J = 32 [ D −d ]

T (1000 mm)
π rad
0.5◦( 180° ¿ = π (100 ¿ ¿ 4−80 4 )(83 x 103 N )¿ ¿ ¿
32 m2

T = 4,198,282.97 N-mm
T = 4,198.282 N-mm

Therefore, use the smaller torque: T = 4,198.282 N-mm

6. A compound shaft consisting of a steel segment and aluminum segment is

acted upon by two torques as shown. Determine the maximum permissible
value of T subject to following conditions:
τst = 83 MPa τal = 55 MPa θ =6°.
For steel, G = 83 GPa for aluminum, G = 28 GPa

Solution:

Procedure:
1. Start at the right side going to the left
2. The same direction, add.
3. Opposite direction, minus.
 16 T
Based on maximum allowable shearing stress: τ max =
π D3
16 T
τ st =
π D3

N 16(3 T )
83 2 =
mm π (50)3

T =679,042.16 N-mm
T = 679.042 N-m
16 T
τ al =
π D3

N 16(T )
55 2 =
mm π (40)3

T = 691,150.38 N-mm
T = 691.150 N-m
TL
Based on maximum allowable angle of twist: θ=
JG

TL TL
θ=( )st + ( )
JG JG al

( 3 T ) 900 ( T ) 600
π rad
6◦( 180° ¿ = π (50¿¿ 4 )(83 x 103 N )¿ + π (40¿ ¿ 4)(83 x 10 3 N )¿
32 mm 2 32 mm2

T = 757,316.22 N-mm
T = 757.316 N-m

Therefore Use: T = 679.042 N-m

7. An aluminum shaft with a constant diameter of 50 mm is loaded by torques applied to

gears attached to it as shown. Using G = 28 GPa, determine the relative angle of twist of
gear D relative to gear A.
Solution:

800 = (-300+1100)
-300 = (600-900)

1
1000 mm 2
θ D/A = π N [800(2) – 300(3) +600(2)][ ¿¿
(504 )(28 x 103 ) 1m
32 mm2

180°
θ = 0.1106 rad x rad
π
θ =6.34◦
 HELICAL SPRINGS
When closed-coiled spring, composed of a wire of round rod of diameter d wound into a
helix of mean radius r within n number of turns, is subjected to an axial load P produces the
following stress and elongation:

P
The maximum shearing stress is the sum of the direct shearing stress τ 1 = and the
A
Tr
torsional shearing stress τ 2 = , with T = PR.
J
 P
16 PR
τ = τ 1+ τ 2 = π 2 +
d π d3
4

16 PR d
τ = 3 (1 +
¿eqn. 1
πd 4R

This formula neglects the curvature of the spring. This is used for light spring where the ratio
d/4R is small.

For heavy springs and considering the curvature of the spring, a more precise formula is given
by: (A.M.Wahl Formula)

16 PR 4 m−1 0.615
τ= ( + ¿ eqn. 2
π d 3 4 m−4 m

Where:
2R
m - spring index =
d
4 m−1
- wahl factor
4 m−4

The elongation of the bar is

64 P R 3 n
δ=
G d4
Where:
n - # of turns
d - wire dia
P - load
R - mean radius
Notice that the deformation d is directly proportional to the applied load P. The ratio of P
to d is called the spring constant k and is equal to

P G d4
k= δ = ; N/mm
64 R3 n

SPRINGS IN SERIES
For two or more springs with spring laid in series, the resulting spring constant k is given
by

1 1 1 1
k
= k 1 k 2 k 3 +…..
+ +

Where: k, k1, k2, ….. - are the spring constants for different springs
 F1 F2 F3
δ= + + where; F3=F2=F1
k1 k2 k3

SPRINGS IN PARALLEL

k = k1 +k2 +k3 +……..

δ1 = δ2 = δ3

Illustrative Examples:

1. Determine the maximum shearing stress and elongation in a helical steel spring
composed of 20 turns of 20-mm diameter wire on a mean radius of 90mm when the
spring is supporting a load of 1.5KN. G = 83GPa. Use wahl formula.

Given:
n=20 turns d= 20mm P = 1,500N
2R 2(90)
m=
d
= =9 . G = 83GPa R = 90 mm
20
Solution:

16 PR 4 m−1 0.615
τ= ( + ¿
π d 3 4 m−4 m
16(1500 N)( 90 mm) 4(9)−1 0.615
τ= [ + ¿
π (20 mm)3 4 (9)−4 9

τ = 99.87MPa

64(1500 N )(90 mm3 )(20)

64 P R 3 n
δ= = N
G d4 83 x 103 2
(20 mm)4
mm

δ = 105.4 mm

2. A helical spring is fabricated by wrapping wire ¾ in. in diameter around a forming

cylinder 8 in. in diameter. Compute the number of turns required to permit an elongation
of 4 in. without exceeding a shearing stress of 18 ksi. Use Eq. 1 and G = 12 × 106 psi.

Given:

dspring = ¾” n=? τ =¿ 18ksi

dcylinder = 8” R = 4” δ =4” G = 12 × 106 psi

Solution:

16 PR d
τ = 3 (1 +
¿
πd 4R

16 P (4) 3
lb
18,000 2 = 3 3
(1 + 4 ¿
¿ π( )
4 4 (4)

P = 356.07 lb

64 P R 3 n
δ=
G d4

64(356.07 lb)(4 ∈¿ 3)(n)

4 in = 6 lb 3
4
12 x 10 2 ( )
¿ 4
n = 10.41 say 11 turns

3. Two steel springs arranged in series as shown in the figure supports a load P. The upper
spring has 12 turns of 25-mm-diameter wire on a mean radius of 100 mm. The lower
spring consists of 10 turns of 20-mmdiameter wire on a mean radius of 75 mm. If the
maximum shearing stress in either spring must not exceed 200 MPa, compute the
a. maximum value of P and
b. the total elongation of the assembly. Use wahl formula and G = 83 GPa.
c. Compute the equivalent spring constant by dividing the load by the total elongation.
 For spring 1 & 2:
τ = 200MPa
G = 83GPa

Solution:

16 PR 4 m−1 0.615
a. τ = ( + ¿
π d 3 4 m−4 m

For spring 1:

N 16 P (100) 4( 8)−1 0.615

200 2 = [ + 8 ¿
mm π ¿¿ 4 (8)−4

P = 5182.29N

For spring 2:

N 16 P (75) 4(7.5)−1 0.615

200 2 = [ + 7.5 ¿
mm π ¿¿ 4 (7.5)−4

P = 3,498.28 N

Therefore : Use P = 3,498.28 N

b. Total Elongation: δt = δ1 + δ2

64 P R 3 n 64 P R 3 n
δ =[ ]1 + [ ]2
G d4 G d4

δ = [ 64 (3498.28)¿ ¿]1 + [ 64 (3,498.28)¿ ¿]2

δ = 153.99 mm

c. Equivalent spring constant: kequivalent

P 3,498.28
k= =
δ 153.99

N
k = 22.72
mm
 4. A rigid bar, hinged at one end, is supported by two identical springs as shown in the
figure. Each spring consists of 20 turns of 10-mm wire having a mean diameter of 150
mm. Compute the maximum shearing stress in the springs, using Eqn 1. Neglect the
mass of the rigid bar.

Solution:

By similar triangle:

δ1 δ2 δ2 64 P R 3 n
= ; δ1 = and δ=
2 6 3 G d4

64 P1 R3 n 64 P2 R3 n
=
G d4 G d4

P2
P1 = 3
eqn. 1

∑ M support= 0
−P1(2) + 9.81(4) - P2(6) = 0
P2
(2) + P2(6) = 9.81(4)
3

P2 = 58.86 N
58.86 N
P1 = = 19.62N
3

For springs at left:

16 P 1 R d
τ = 3 (1 + 4 R ¿
πd
 16(19.62)(75) 10
τ = 3 [1 + 4 (75) ¿
π (10)
N
τ = 7.744 mm2

For springs at right:

16 P 2 R d
τ = 3 (1 + 4 R ¿
πd
16(58.86)(75) 10
τ = 3 [1 + 4 (75) ¿
π (10)
N
τ = 23.232 mm2
5. Three coil spring are hooked in series and support a weight of 70kg. One spring has a
spring constant 0f 0.209 kg/mm and the other two have spring constant 0f 0.643 kg/mm.
Find the deflection.
Solution:
F1 F2 F3
δ= + + where; F3=F2=F1 = 70kg
k1 k2 k3

70 kg 70 kg 70 kg
δ= + +
0.209 0.643 0.643

δ = 552.65 kg

6. Four compression coil spring in parallel support a load of 360kg. Each spring has a
spring constant 0f .717 kg/mm. Find the deflection.
Solution:
δ 1 = δ 2 = δ 3 == δ 4
360
F3=F2=F1 = F4 = 4 = 90kg

F 90
δ= = = 125.52 mm
k 0.717
δ 1 = δ 2 = δ 3 = δ 4 = 125.52mm
 TORSION OF THIN-WALLED TUBES

The torque applied to thin-walled tubes is expressed as

/ median line / midline

T = 2Aq
Where:
T = torque; N-mm
A = Area enclosed by the center line of the tube ( as shown in the striped filled
portion) ; mm2
q = shear flow; N/mm2
The average shearing stress across any thickness t is

q T
τ = = 2 At
t

Thus, torque T can also be expressed as

T = 2Atτ

Angle of Twist

The angle of twist f for a thin-walled tube of arbitrary cross-sectional shape (Fig. 3-44) may be
determined by equating the work W done by the applied torque T to the strain energy U of the
tube. Thus,

from which we get the equation for the angle of twist:

 TL
∅= The quantity GJ is called the torsional rigidity of the tube.
GJ

2b 2 h 2 t
J= for rectangular tube having uniform thickness ( b-base and h= height)
b+ h

Illustrative Examples:

1. A torque of 600 N.m is applied to the rectangular section shown in the figure. Determine
the wall thickness t so as not to exceed a shear stress of 60 MPa. Neglect stress
concentration at the corners.

Given:

T = 600 N.m t=? τ = 60MPa

Solution:

T = 2Atτ
1000 mm N
600N.m( ) = 2(30mm)(60mm)(t)(60 ¿
m mm2
t = 2.78mm
2. A tube 3mm. thick has an elliptical shape shown in the figure. Find the shearing stress
caused by a torque of 700N.m if dimension a = 75mm

Solution:

T = 2Atτ but A = Arectangle + Acircle

A = 75(20) +π (10)2
 A = 1814.2 mm2

1000 mm
700N.m( m
) = 2(1814.2mm2)(3mm)τ

τ = 64.3 MPa

3. Find the dimension a in prob #2, if the torque of 600N.m causes a shearing stress of
70MN/m2.

T = 2Atτ but A = Arectangle + Asemi-circle

A = 0.02a +π (0.01)2

9 N
600N.m = 2[0.02a +π (0.01)2mm2](0.003m) (70x10 )
m2

a=0.055 m∨55.7 mm

3.10-3 A thin-walled aluminum tube of rectangular cross section (see the figure on the next page)
has a centerline dimensions b = 6.0 in. and h = 4.0 in. The wall thickness t is constant and equal
to 0.25 in. (a) Determine the shear stress in the tube due to a torque T 15 k-in. (b) Determine the
angle of twist (in degrees) if the length L of the tube is 50 in. and the shear modulus G is 4.0 X
106 psi.

Solution:

a) Shear stress in the tube

T = 2Atτ but A = Arectangle = 4 in x 6 in = 24 in2

15,000 lb-in = 2(24in2)(0.25 in)τ

τ = 1250 psi

TL
b) ∅= GJ where: J = torsion constant
2b 2 h 2 t
J= for rectangular tube having uniform thickness
b+ h
J = 2 ¿ ¿ ¿ = 28.8 in4
TL
∅= ¿ ( 15000∈−lb ) ¿ ¿
GJ
 180°
∅=¿6.5104x10-3 x = 0.373°
π rad

Flanged Bolt Couplings

- A commonly used connection between two shafts. It consists of flanges rigidly attached
to the ends of the shafts and bolted together.

In shaft connection called flanged bolt couplings (see figure above), the torque is
transmitted by the shearing force P created in the bolts that is assumed to be uniformly
distributed. For any number of bolts n, the torque capacity of the coupling is

π
T = PRn = AτRn=¿ 4 D2 τ R n
Where:
PR - the torque resistance of 1 bolt
R - radius of bolt circle
n - # of bolts

If a coupling has two concentric rows of bolts, the torque capacity is

T = P1R1n1 +P2R2n2

Where: the subscript 1 refer to bolts on the outer circle an subscript 2 refer to bolts on the inner
circle. (See figure above).

For rigid flanges, the shear deformations in the bolts are proportional to their radial distances
from the shaft axis. The shearing strains are related by

e1 e
= 2 e = strains
R1 R2

τ
Using Hooke’s Law for shear, G = , we have
e
 P1 P2
τ1 τ2
=
G 1 R1 G 2 R2
OR A 1 = A 2
G 1 R1 G 2 R2

If the bolts on two circles have the same area, A 1 = A2, and if the bolts are made of the
same material, G1=G2, the relation between P1 and P2 reduces to

P1 P
= 2 where: P=τ A
R1 R2

Illustrative Examples:

1. A flanged bolt coupling consists of ten 20-mmdiameter bolts spaced evenly around a bolt
circle 400 mm in diameter. Determine the torque capacity of the coupling if the allowable
shearing stress in the bolts is 40 MPa.

Given:

n = 10 Db = 20mm Dbc = 400mm τ = 40 MPa

Solution:

π
T = 4 D2 τ R n
π
T = 4 (20mm)2 40 MPa (200mm)(10)
T – 25,132,741 N-mm = 25,132.741 N-m

2. A flanged bolt coupling consists of six 10-mmdiameter steel bolts on a bolt circle 300
mm in diameter, and four 10-mmdiameter steel bolts on a concentric bolt circle 200 mm
in diameter, as shown. What torque can be applied without exceeding a shearing stress of
60 MPa in the bolts?

Solution:

T = P1R1n1 +P2R2n2 eqn. 1

For one bolt in the outer circle

N π
P1 = τ A = 60 2( )(10mm)2
mm 4

P1 = 4712.3 N

For one bolt in the inner circle:

P1 P P 1 R2 ( 4712.3 N ) (100 mm)

= 2 ; P2 = = = 3141.6N
R1 R2 R1 150 mm

From eqn 1:

T = (4712.3N)(150mm)(6) + (3141.6 N)(100mm)(4)

T = 5,497,710 N-mm

T = 5,497.719 N-m

3. A plate is fastened to a fixed member by four 20-mm diameter rivets arranged as shown
Tρ
in Fig. Compute the maximum and minimum shearing stress developed. Use τ =
J
2 2
and J = ∑ A ρ = AR n

The maximum shearing stress ( = 120mm) **from center to load

Tρ
τ = eqn. 1
J
where: T = PR since ρ=R
T = (14,000N)(120mm)
T = 1,680,000 N-mm

J = ∑ A ρ 2 = AR2n
π
J = ( 4 )(20mm)2 [2(40)2 + 2 (120)2)]
J = 3,200,000 π mm2
From eqn. 1:

Tρ (1,680,000 N−mm)(120 mm)

τ = =
J 3,200,000 π mm 2
τ = 20.05MPa

The minimum shearing stress ( = 40mm) :

From eqn. 1:

Tρ (1,680,000 N−mm)(40 mm)

τ = =
J 3,200,000 π mm2

τ = 6.68MPa