Reservoir Engineering 1 | A.

Y 2021 – 2022

FUNDAMENTALS OF RESERVOIR FLUID BEHAVIOR

CONTENTS:

a. Brief History of Reservoir Engineering

b. Fundamentals of Reservoir Fluid Behavior
• Properties of Crude Oils
• Characterizations of Fluid
• Phase Behavior of Hydrocarbon System
➢ Pure Fluids

HISTORY OF RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

Reference:

Terry, R., & Rogers, B. (2014). Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, 3rd Edition. Introduction to
Petroleum Reservoirs and Reservoir Engineering (p.2). Pearson.
https://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=2241145&seqNum=2

Crude oil, natural gas, and water are the substances that are of chief concern to petroleum
engineers. Although these substances can occur as solids or semisolids such as paraffin,
asphaltene, or gas-hydrate, usually at lower temperatures and pressures, in the reservoir and in
the wells, they occur mainly as fluids, either in the vapor (gaseous) or in the liquid phase or,
quite commonly, both. Even where solid materials are used, as in drilling, cementing, and
fracturing, they are handled as fluids or slurries. The separation of well or reservoir fluid into
liquid and gas (vapor) phases depends mainly on temperature, pressure, and the fluid
composition. The state or phase of a fluid in the reservoir usually changes with decreasing
pressure as the reservoir fluid is being produced. The temperature in the reservoir stays
relatively constant during the production. In many cases, the state or phase in the reservoir is
quite unrelated to the state of the fluid when it is produced at the surface, due to changes in
both pressure and temperature as the fluid rises to the surface. The precise knowledge of the
behavior of crude oil, natural gas, and water, singly or in combination, under static conditions or
in motion in the reservoir rock and in pipes and under changing temperature and pressure, is
the main concern of reservoir engineers.
Reservoir Engineering 1 | A.Y 2021 – 2022

As early as 1928, reservoir engineers were giving serious consideration to gas-energy

relationships and recognized the need for more precise information concerning physical
conditions in wells and underground reservoirs. Early progress in oil recovery methods made it
obvious that computations made from wellhead or surface data were generally misleading.
Sclater and Stephenson described the first recording bottom-hole pressure gauge and a
mechanism for sampling fluids under pressure in wells. It is interesting that this reference
defines bottom-hole data as measurements of pressure, temperature, gas-oil ratio, and the
physical and chemical natures of the fluids. The need for accurate bottom-hole pressures was
further emphasized when Millikan and Sidwell described the first precision pressure gauge and
pointed out the fundamental importance of bottom-hole pressures to reservoir engineers in
determining the most efficient oil recovery methods and lifting procedures. With this
contribution, the engineer was able to measure the most important basic data for reservoir
performance calculations: reservoir pressure.

The study of the properties of rocks and their relationship to the fluids they contain in both the
static and flowing states is called petrophysics. Porosity, permeability, fluid saturations and
distributions, electrical conductivity of both the rock and the fluids, pore structure, and
radioactivity are some of the more important petrophysical properties of rocks. Fancher, Lewis,
and Barnes made one of the earliest petrophysical studies of reservoir rocks in 1933, and in
1934, Wycoff, Botset, Muskat, and Reed developed a method for measuring the permeability of
reservoir rock samples based on the fluid flow equation discovered by Darcy in 1856. Wycoff and
Botset made a significant advance in their studies of the simultaneous flow of oil and water and
of gas and water in unconsolidated sands. This work was later extended to consolidated sands
and other rocks, and in 1940 Leverett and Lewis reported research on the three-phase flow of
oil, gas, and water.

It was recognized by the pioneers in reservoir engineering that before reservoir volumes of oil
and gas in place could be calculated, the change in the physical properties of bottom-hole
samples of the reservoir fluids with pressure would be required. Accordingly, in 1935, Schilthuis
described a bottom-hole sampler and a method of measuring the physical properties of the
samples obtained. These measurements included the pressure-volume-temperature relations,
the saturation or
Reservoir Engineering 1 | A.Y 2021 – 2022

bubble-point pressure, the total quantity of gas dissolved in the oil, the quantities of gas
liberated under various conditions of temperature and pressure, and the shrinkage of the oil
resulting from the release of its dissolved gas from solution. These data enabled the
development of certain useful equations, and they also provided an essential correction to the
volumetric equation for calculating oil in place.

The next significant development was the recognition and measurement of connate water
saturation, which was considered indigenous to the formation and remained to occupy a part of
the pore space after oil or gas accumulation. This development further explained the poor oil
and gas recoveries in low permeability sands with high connate water saturation and introduced
the concept of water, oil, and gas saturations as percentages of the total pore space. The
measurement of water saturation provided another important correction to the volumetric
equation by considering the hydrocarbon pore space as a fraction of the total pore volume.

Although temperature and geothermal gradients had been of interest to geologists for many
years, engineers could not make use of these important data until a precision subsurface
recording thermometer was developed. Millikan pointed out the significance of temperature
data in applications to reservoir and well studies. From these basic data, Schilthuis was able to
derive a useful equation, commonly called the material balance equation. A modification of an
earlier equation presented by Coleman, Wilde, and Moore, the Schilthuis equation is one of the
most important tools of reservoir engineers. It is a statement of the conservation of matter and
is a method of accounting for the volumes and quantities of fluids initially present in, produced
from, injected into, and remaining in a reservoir at any stage of depletion. Odeh and Havlena
have shown how the material balance equation can be arranged into a form of a straight line
and solved.

When production of oil or gas underlain by a much larger aquifer volume causes the water in the
aquifer to rise or encroach into the hydrocarbon reservoir, the reservoir is said to be under
water drive. In reservoirs under water drive, the volume of water encroaching into the reservoir
is also included mathematically in the material balance on the fluids. Although Schilthuis
proposed a method of calculating water encroachment using the material-balance equation, it
remained for Hurst and, later, van Everdingen and Hurst to develop methods for calculating
water
Reservoir Engineering 1 | A.Y 2021 – 2022

encroachment independent of the material balance equation, which apply to aquifers of either
limited or infinite extent, in either steady-state or unsteady-state flow. The calculations of van
Everdingen and Hurst have been simplified by Fetkovich. Following these developments for
calculating the quantities of oil and gas initially in place or at any stage of depletion, Tarner and
Buckley and Leverett laid the basis for calculating the oil recovery to be expected for particular
rock and fluid characteristics. Tarner and, later, Muskat presented methods for calculating
recovery by the internal or solution gas drive mechanism, and Buckley and Leverett presented
methods for calculating the displacement of oil by external gas cap drive and water drive. These
methods not only provided means for estimating recoveries for economic studies; they also
explained the cause for disappointingly low recoveries in many fields. This discovery in turn
pointed the way to improved recoveries by taking advantage of the natural forces and energies,
by supplying supplemental energy by gas and water injection, and by unitizing reservoirs to
offset the losses that may be caused by competitive operations.

During the 1960s, the terms reservoir simulation and reservoir mathematical modeling became
popular. These terms are synonymous and refer to the ability to use mathematical formulas to
predict the performance of an oil or gas reservoir. Reservoir simulation was aided by the
development of large-scale, high-speed digital computers. Sophisticated numerical methods
were also developed to allow the solution of a large number of equations by finite-difference or
finite element techniques.

With the development of these techniques, concepts, and equations, reservoir engineering
became a powerful and well-defined branch of petroleum engineering. Reservoir engineering
may be defined as the application of scientific principles to the drainage problems arising during
the development and production of oil and gas reservoirs. It has also been defined as “the art of
developing and producing oil and gas fluids in such a manner as to obtain a high economic
recovery.” The working tools of the reservoir engineer are subsurface geology, applied
mathematics, and the basic laws of physics and chemistry governing the behavior of liquid and
vapor phases of crude oil, natural gas, and water in reservoir rocks. Because reservoir
engineering is the science of producing oil and gas, it includes a study of all the factors affecting
their recovery.
Reservoir Engineering 1 | A.Y 2021 – 2022

Clark and Wessely urged a joint application of geological and engineering data to arrive at sound
field development programs. Ultimately, reservoir engineering concerns all petroleum
engineers, from the drilling engineer who is planning the mud program, to the corrosion
engineer who must design the tubing string for the producing life of the well.

PROPERTIES OF CRUDE OIL

Reference: Robert Gordon University. (1997). Petroleum Technology. [Handout]

The term ‘petroleum’ was originally applied to naturally-occurring mineral oils, and means ‘rock
oil’. It is now used in a wider sense to include natural gas, mineral wax and bitumen in addition
to oils, and therefore cover all naturally-occurring materials consisting principally of
hydrocarbons.

Oil and as are found in many parts of the world, always in, or closely associated with
sedimentary rocks. The geological age of these rocks can vary over a wide range.

The composition and characteristics of crude oil and gas can vary widely from one reservoir to
another. Within a single reservoir, the composition of the crude may vary somewhat with depth
and position.

Crude ranges from light mobile liquids containing a high proportion of volatile material which
readily distils off to very viscous semi-solid materials, little of which can be distilled off before
temperature s are reached at which decomposition begins. In spite of this enormous variation in
properties, it is found that ultimate chemical composition of crudes varies only within the fairly
narrow limits shown in the table below:

Ultimate Analysis of Crude Oils

Elements % By weight in crude

Carbon 83.9 - 86.8

Hydrogen 11.4 - 14.0

Sulphur 0.06 - 14.0

Nitrogen 0.11 - 1.70

Reservoir Engineering 1 | A.Y 2021 – 2022

Oxygen 0.5 typically

Metals (Fe, V, Ni etc.) 0.03 typically

The carbon: hydrogen ratio (by weight) usually lies in the range 6:1 to 8:1

The reason for this relatively slight variation in chemical composition is that crude oils consist
principally of hydrocarbons belonging to just few homologous series, with numerous members
of series being present in each case. Hence although differences in ultimate chemical
composition are small, physical properties of the crudes can vary widely depending on the
relative proportions of lower and higher members of each series present.

Hydrocarbons (i.e., compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen) are the major constituent
of crude oils. The other non-metallic elements present in significant amounts in crudes (Sulphur,
nitrogen and oxygen) are present in the form of various organic compounds, some of which may
be complexes containing a metal salt of organic acids may also be present.

Types of Hydrocarbons in Petroleum

The hydrocarbon occurring in crude oil and natural gas belong almost entirely to the five
homologous series below:
 1. N-paraffins (n-alkanes). These are straight chain saturated hydrocarbons. The first
member of the series is methane, CH4, which is the principal constituent of natural gas.
n-paraffins up to C42H86 have been identified in some crudes. The general formula
CnH2n+2.

Reservoir Engineering 1 | A.Y 2021 – 2022

2. Iso-paraffins (Iso-Alkanes). These are saturated hydrocarbons with the same general
formula as n-paraffins, but with a branched rather than straight-chain structure. The first
member of the series is iso-butane, i-C4H10. Compounds with low degree of branching
(only 1 side-chain) are usually present in the larger amounts than those with 2 or 3
side-chains, for example 2-methyl and 3-methyl compounds are particularly common.

3. Naphthene (cyclo-paraffins, cyclo-alkanes). These have molecules with one or more

saturated rings, with or without side-chains. The commonest types in crudes are
cyclopentanes and cyclohexane and their derivatives.
 The examples given above are monocyclic, i.e., the contain only one ring in the molecule.
Naphthene may also have 2(bicyclic) or more rings in the molecule, Linked together in
various ways. Bicyclic naphthene may be important constituents in some crudes and
heavier fractions distilled from them – kerosine and gas-oil. The general formula for
naphthene is CnH2n+2-2RN, where RN is the number of rings in the molecule. In older
literature, naphthene are referred to as methylene.
Reservoir Engineering 1 | A.Y 2021 – 2022

4. Aromatics (arenes). These are compounds containing one or more benzene rings in the
molecule, with or without alkyl side-chains. Benzene, toluene and xylene (sometimes
grouped together as BTX) are present in substantial amounts in the light fractions of
some crudes. Higher alkyl benzenes with longer side-chains will be present in kerosene
and heavier fractions. Polycyclic (polynuclear) aromatics are also present in crudes:
these contain 2 or more benzene rings in the molecule. Have been identified in some
lubricating oil fractions. The general formula for aromatics is CnH2n−6

5. Mixed naphtheno-aromatics. These compounds have molecules containing at least 1

naphthenic ring and 1 benzene ring with alkyl side-chains. These will be large molecules;
hence the compounds will have fairly high boiling points and will be present in the
heavier fractions of the crude and the products derived from it.
NOTE: It should be noted that hydrocarbons of the alkene and alkyne series (olefins and
acetylenes) are not significant constituents of crudes in general.
Reservoir Engineering 1 | A.Y 2021 – 2022

CHARACTERISATION OF CRUDES
Reference: Robert Gordon University. (1997). Petroleum Technology. [Handout]

The number of individual chemical constituents present in particular crude oil is typically very
large indeed, so complete analysis is impracticable. Various empirical methods of classifying
crude oil have been developed in the petroleum industry; since distillation is the primary
process in petroleum refining, it is not surprising that most schemes of crude characterization
are based to a major extent on the behavior of the crude in various distillation process. Some of
these schemes are quite complex and will not be considered here. However, two methods of
characterization will be briefly outlined.

The first method is a qualitative one, and classifies crudes according to their base. The base is
determined by observing the behavior of the liquid residue remaining after the lighter fractions
(of lower boiling-point) have been distilled off. If the solid separating as the residue is cooled is a
wax, the crude is d escribed as paraffinic base. If no wax separates but the cooled residue
consists of asphaltic material (bitumen) the crude is described as asphaltic base (or naphthenic
base). Crudes yielding cooled residues containing both wax and asphaltic material are described
as mixed base.

[Note: Bitumen is a complex colloidal material containing large complex hydrocarbon molecules,
soluble in carbon disulphide. It is familiar from its use in road surfacing and roofing materials].
The second method is quantitative one, and is based on the work of Watson, Nelson and
Murphy of Universal Oil Products (UOP). They defined a characterization factor (CF) on the basis
of the behavior of the crude in a standard IP/ASTM distillation. (IP = Institute of Petroleum,
ASTM = American Society for testing Materials). The characterization factor, denoted by the
symbol K or Kw is defined by:

K = ∛ TB / d
Where TB = average boiling point of crude at atmospheric pressure
d = specific gravity of crude (at 60°/60°F)
Reservoir Engineering 1 | A.Y 2021 – 2022

The average boiling point (TB) is obtained from the IP/ASTM distillation data by a prescribe
averaging procedure. This method may also be applied to pure compounds and to petroleum
fractions.

K is additive on a weight basis when fractions are mixed. It is found that:

• Paraffins have K values above 12.0, with higher values for the lower Paraffins (for
example, propane, K = 14.7)

• Naphthene have K values between 11.0 and 12.0

• Aromatics have K values between 9.0 and 12.0

The CF correlates with the base classification given above. For example, Paraffin based crudes
typically have K values that lies between 12.15 – 12.9, intermediate based crudes have K values
ranging from 11.5 -12.1, and Asphalt based crudes have K values ranging from 10.5 – 11.45. On
the other hand, crudes with high aromatics contents have low K values.

➢ K values proved useful in correlating properties of crudes and petroleum fractions.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND API GRAVITY

Reference: Robert Gordon University. (1997). Petroleum Technology. [Handout]

The specific gravity of crudes oils is normally defined using standard temperatures of 60°F and is

given the symbol ɣo.

ɣo = density of crude at 60°F (or 15.6°C)/ density of water at 60°F (or 15.6°C)

It is assumed that for both the crude and the water, the pressure is atmospheric, although the
value obtained will be relatively insensitive to pressure.
Reservoir Engineering 1 | A.Y 2021 – 2022

In the oil industry, it has been a long practice to use the API gravity (American Petroleum
Institute) to specify the densities of crude and of liquid petroleum fractions.

This is defined by:

o
API = (141.5 / ɣo) – 131.5

or

o
API = (141.5 / ɣo (15.6°C/15.6°C) – 131.5

Thus, there is an inverse relationship between oAPI and ɣo, which is essential to make clear which
gravity is being referred to. Crudes with low specific gravities have high API gravities (up to 60
o
API), these are called as light crudes and will normally contain high proportions of light
hydrocarbons with relatively low boiling points. Meanwhile, heavy crudes will have high specific
o
gravities and low API gravities (down to 10 API or less), and will consist of mostly
high-molecular weight compounds.

Classifications of Reservoirs and Reservoir Fluids

Reference:
 Ahmed, T. (2006). Reservoir Engineering Handbook, Third Edition. Fundamentals of Reservoir Fluid
Behavoir [excerpt]. Elsevier Inc. https://www.globalspec.com/reference/33706/203279/chapter-1-
fundamentals-of-reservoir-fluid-behavior

OVERVIEW

Naturally occurring hydrocarbon systems found in petroleum reservoirs are mixtures of organic
compounds that exhibit multiphase behavior over wide ranges of pressures and temperatures.
These hydrocarbon accumulations may occur in the gaseous state, the liquid state, the solid
state, or in various combinations of gas, liquid, and solid.
Reservoir Engineering 1 | A.Y 2021 – 2022

These differences in phase behavior, coupled with the physical properties of reservoir rock that
determine the relative ease with which gas and liquid are transmitted or retained, result in many
diverse types of hydrocarbon reservoirs with complex behaviors. Frequently, petroleum
engineers have the task to study the behavior and characteristics of a petroleum reservoir and
to determine the course of future development and production that would maximize the profit.

Classifications of Reservoirs and Reservoir Fluids

Petroleum reservoirs are broadly classified as oil or gas reservoirs. These broad classifications
are further subdivided depending on:

• The composition of the reservoir hydrocarbon mixture

• Initial reservoir pressure and temperature

• Pressure and temperature of the surface production

The conditions under which these phases exist are a matter of considerable practical
importance. The experimental or the mathematical determinations of these conditions are
conveniently expressed in different types of diagrams commonly called phase diagrams. One
such diagram is called the pressure-temperature diagram.
Reservoir Engineering 1 | A.Y 2021 – 2022
Pressure Temperature Diagram

Reference:

Wisconsin. (n.d). MII QI: Features of Phase Diagrams. Winsconsin.

https://wisc.pb.unizin.org/chem103and104/chapter/features-of-phase-diagrams-m11q1

/ Pressure Temperature DIAGRAM is from the book Chem 103/04 Resource Book

A phase diagram combines plots of pressure versus

temperature for the liquid-gas, solid-liquid, and
solid
gas phase transition equilibria of a substance.
These
diagrams indicate the physical states that exist
under
specific conditions of pressure and temperature,
and
also provide the pressure dependence of the phase
transition temperatures (melting points, sublimation
points, boiling points). A typical phase diagram for a pure substance is shown in the figure.

The pressure-temperature (P-T) diagram for a pure

substance like water or single hydrocarbon
compound as shown in the figure beside.
Considering the substance is water.

If C is the critical point and B is the triple point, then

AB represents solid-vapor equilibrium, these

temperature-pressure data pairs correspond to the
sublimation, or deposition, point for water.
BD represents solid liquid equilibrium,
melting/freezing points for water.

BC represents vapor-liquid equilibrium, separate the liquid and gaseous regions of

the phase diagram and provides the boiling point for water at any pressure.
Reservoir Engineering 1 | A.Y 2021 – 2022

References:

Terry, R., & Rogers, B. (2014). Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, 3rd Edition. Introduction to
Petroleum Reservoirs and Reservoir Engineering (p.2). Pearson.
https://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=2241145&seqNum=2

Wisconsin. (n.d). MII QI: Features of Phase Diagrams. Winsconsin.

https://wisc.pb.unizin.org/chem103and104/chapter/features-of-phase-diagrams-m11q1

/ Robert Gordon University. (1997). Petroleum Technology.

Ahmed, T. (2006). Reservoir Engineering Handbook, Third Edition. Fundamentals of Reservoir Fluid
Behavoir [excerpt]. Elsevier Inc.
https://www.globalspec.com/reference/33706/203279/chapter-1-fundamentals-of-reservoir
fluid-behavior

All the references used for this handout are all credited to its rightful owners. No copyright intended.