DHANANJAYA

UNIT-5
Advances in Well logging
DIP METER TOOL
Dip log is measure the magnitude and direction of the slope of the sedimentary features, which includes
both bedding planes and other paleo facies, characteristics measurement of borehole geometry, hole
inclination and hole direction are also provided. Dipmeters work in conductive muds in open hole and
specialized scratcher-pad tools are available for air or oil based mud systems. They do not work in cased
holes. The aim of dipmeter log is to determine the angle to the horizontal and the azimuth referenced to
magnetic north and geographical north of the dip of the planes cut by the well. The planes can be planar,
or can correspond to a convex or concave surface intersecting the well. These planes can be
 bed boundaries
 an open or closed fracture
 an erosional surface

Principle
The 4 – arm dip log which measures formation resistivity at four points spaced 90 degrees apart around the
borehole. The four micro-resistivity pad readings are digitally sampled 64 times per foot over as many feet
of uncased hole as desired. Additionally measurements of hole size, instrument tilt from vertical and
azimuth with respect to magnetic north are sampled at a slower sampling rate. The mechanical linkages for
the 4 – arm pad assembly ensure that the four pads remain parallel to another, 90 degrees from one
another laterally & perpendicular to the instrument axis.

The following tools can be used to produce dipmeter logs based on the objective of formation
measurement:
A. Discontinuous Dip-Meters
 Anisotropy Dip-Meter
 SP Dip-Meter
B. Continuous Dip-Meters
 Continuous Dip-Meter (CDM)
 High Resolution Dip Meter Tool (HDT)
 Three-Pad Dip-Meter Tool (PDT)
 Stratigraphic High Resolution Dip-Meter
Tool (SHDT)

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Schlumberger original dipmeter tool was the High Resolution Dipmeter (HDT) tool and nowadays it has
been replaced by the Dual Dipmeter or the Stratigraphic High Resolution Dipmeter (SHDT) tool. The HDT
works on the principles described previously in the introduction of this section. The SHDT works on the
same microresistivity principle, and was designed and enhanced to overcome some of the limitations of the
HDT.

The generally accepted workflow for analysis of dipmeter data are as follows:
 Recognition of images
 Statistical analysis of the curvature
 Analysis of residual dips
 Analysis of the dip synthetic deviation
 Analysis of micro-resistivity maps of borehole walls
 Analysis from “the observer position
 Analysis of the oriented microresistivity curves
 Analysis of the oriented microcaliper logs
 Analysis of the non-oriented microresistivity curves
 Analysis of the oriented or non-oriented
microresistivity indications

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Dip meter log Applications
 Determine structural attitude of the traversed formation
 Help to identify faults and folds which the borehole has penetrated
 Identify unconformities
 Determine reservoir geometry: channel cut and fill, bars, direction of sediment transport,
depositional environment and cross bedding
 Locate reefs, salt domes and shale domes
 Determine borehole geometry
 Provide continuous directional survey
 Provide fracture identification and orientation
 In conjunction with borehole seismic survey and borehole gravimeter, it can help determine
distance from and outline of salt dome
 In conjunction with down hole magnetometer survey, it can help direct relief wells to the
subsurface location of a well which has blown out and caught fire
 Projecting dip along seismic shot lines(using synthetic seismograms with dip imposed) can provide
an improved seismic interpretation
 Can be used to solve some difficult well to well correlation problems
 The micro resistivity curves can be used for detailed study of grain size, thin beds, and laminated
sediments
 Azimuthally coverage 360° provides a complete borehole image, delivering critical information for
the well completion and reservoir characterization.
 Interchangeable heads cover a wide range of borehole diameters, optimizing the borehole image in
different well types.
 High-speed motor increases image resolution or logging speed, which reduces rig time.
 Advanced telemetry system enables operation on non-conductor cables, increasing conveyance
flexibility.

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Formation tester
Formation testing is a means of obtaining information concerning the liquid and pressure in an open-hole
formation. It gives information on the types and properties of fluids in the formation, indicates the
presence of hydrocarbons, and provides information on the pressures of the fluids within the formation.
Formation testing technique constitutes a fast, economical and sure method of testing the production
potential of a zone and without great risk.
The primary objectives of formation testing are to establish:
 Permeability thickness (Kh) and permeability (K)
 Stratification (by sequential testing of layer)
 Well productivity
 Investigate reservoir boundaries and size
 The amount of fluid produced will represent the fluid

Methods available for testing of formation are:

 Drillstem Testing
 Wireline Formation Testing
 Production Testing

Drillstem Testing (DST)

A drillstem test (DST) is a procedure for isolating and testing the surrounding geological formation through
the drill stem during drilling of the well. The test is a measurement of pressure behavior at the drillstem
and is a valuable way to obtain important sampling information on the formation fluid and to establish the
probability of commercial production.
A portion of perforated drill pipe and one or two devices for sealing the interval of the well of
interest off (packers) are lowered down the well to the required depth. The packer is then expanded to
make a seal between the borehole wall and the drill pipe. If the bottom of the well is being tested, only one
packer is needed. If an interval further up the well is being tested, two packers are needed, one above the
interval and one below. A valve is then opened to reduce the pressure within the drill stem and the packed-
off interval to surface pressures. Fluids will flow from the formation into the packed off interval and hence
to the surface through the perforations in the drill pipe and up the pipe. These fluids may be sampled and
analyzed. The amount of fluid produced will represent the fluid production can be expected from the well.
Wireline Formation Testing Wireline formation testing is carried out in an open hole during wireline logging
operations. It provides reservoir fluid samples, reservoir pressure, an indication of fluid mobility and
information on reservoir continuity. The tools is generally used for the purpose are Formation Tester (FT),
Formation Interval Tester (FIT), Repeat Formation Tester (RFT), Repeat Formation Sampler (RFS),
Formation Multi-Tester (FMT) etc.

Applications:
Some applications of wireline testing are as follows:
1. To predict or confirm the productivity of a formation by identification of formation fluids and by an
analysis of the pressure measurements.
2. To establish the main fluid characteristics such as

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a. oil density
b. gas/oil ratio (GOR)
c. water cut %
3. To evaluate bottom hole pressures
a. flowing pressures
b. virgin formation pressure, initial shut-in pressure
c. the pressure build-up and final shut-in pressure
d. hydrostatic pressure.
4. To determine reservoir parameters:
a. productivity index
b. permeabilities
5. To determine fluid contacts by use of depth versus pressure plots. Pressure measurement in, for
example, the oil and water sections allows the gradients in each section to be detected, and by identifying
the point in depth where the gradient changes, the actual fluid contact is found.
6. To correlate between wells. This is essentially a correlation of pressures where the same reservoir is
penetrated by both wells and there is communication through the reservoir

Formation Tester (FT)

The tool includes a rubber pad about 15 cm wide and 70 cm long in the centre of which is a block with a
shaped charge perforator. This pad is pushed strongly against the borehole wall using another pad on the
reverse side of the tool, with the expansion or distance between the pads achieved using hydraulic
pressure. After its positioning and the opening of the pads a flowline valve is opened in order to let
formation fluids flow into the sample chamber. If a flow is observed the shaped charge is not used. On the
other hand, if the test pressure or the flow is low and it is not possible to recover a sample the charge is
shot. After a sufficient time, the close valve is activated, shutting the sample chamber (of 4-, 10-, 20-liters).
If a formation pressure build up is required in a low permeability formation the tool has to be left in place
long enough to obtain a final shut-in pressure. This tool does not allow any measurement of the virgin
formation pressure. Finally the tool is released from the formation by equalizing internal and external
pressures, causing the pistons and arms to retract. The tool with its sealed sample chamber is then pulled
out of the well. The pressures measured with the help of the tool are:
(a) The pad hydraulic circuit pressure (this is an internal tool measurement)
(b) The isolation pressure
(c) The build-up and static pressure; and
(d) The mud column pressure.

Formation Interval Tester (FIT)

To mitigate stuck up possibilities of FT tool, FIT is used. The tool has smaller pad. Its functioning is
explained. The recording sequence is explained below
 A calibration signal is sent to the circuits measuring the flowline and hydraulic pressures
 Hydrostatic pressure measurement (i.e. mud column pressure)
 The opening of the mud valve. The pressure rises as the tool is opened at the chosen test depth
(positioning by GR or SP)

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  The opening of the flow valve allowing formation fluid to enter the sample chamber
 Firing of the shaped charge
 The sample chamber is full and the pressure begin to rise
 The static reservoir pressure is reached
 The sample chamber is closed
 Hydrostatic pressure measurement
 The rise of pressure above the static pressure is due to an over compression of the fluid in the flow
lines (pseudo-closing pressure)
 The hydraulic pressure is released and the pads retract

Repeat Formation Tester (RFT)

The FIT tools allow only one sample to be collected and one pressure test to be made on each descent in
the hole. Normally if additional tests are required the tool has to be brought out of the hole, cleaned, the
sample chamber emptied and some parts replaced (shaped charge for example) leading to a loss of rig
time. This is true even if the test is dry. The RFT is run into the hole and a continuous digital readout of
hydrostatic pressure is obtained. At any point in the hole the tool may be actuated to force a rubber pad
against the wall of the hole, and a tube in the centre of the pad is forced hard against the formation. The
formation fluid will flow to the chamber through the tube. The RFT tool & tool's sampling system is shown
The characteristics of RTF are as follows:
 In one trip in the hole it is possible to set the tool any number of times and take a formation
pressure measurement. The tool does not have to be brought to surface after each measurement
so saving a large amount of time
 It is possible to pretest a formation to choose the most permeable zones on which to take fluid
samples. If the pretest is satisfactory the sample valve is opened. If the test is not satisfactory, the
tool is closed, the
 pretest chambers emptied and the equalization valve opened.
 Since there are two sample chambers it is possible either to sample twice or to collect a larger
sample on one test
 The precision on measurement is higher (error less than 0.49% and even less than 0.29% with
special calibration procedures)
 An internal filter prevents sand flow and fluid Loss
 Anti-stick pads practically eliminate the chance of the tool sticking
 A direct digital measurement is made by the panel and the log recording is made both digitally and
in analog form.

Modular Dynamic Formation Tester (MDT)

Modular Dynamic Formation Tester (MDT) is the tool through which formation can be tested and it
measures the formation pressure, temperature and gets the pure reservoir fluid and water samples.
Main components of an MDT Tool:
 Formation Pressure Gauges
 Formation Resistivity Gauges
 Pump Out (MRPO)

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  Live Fluid Analyzer (LFA)
 Sample Chamber

The modular design of the MDT formation dynamics tester makes it easy to meet the exact needs and goals
of the data acquisition program. The MDT tool specifications have been given. Modularity also enables
evolving the MDT tester as new measurement techniques, technologies, and options are developed.
 Saturn 3D Radial Probe: Flow fluid with the self-sealing radial probe for sampling and pressure
measurement where it’s not been previously possible.
 InSitu Fluid Analyzer: Conduct real-time downhole fluid analysis using InSitu Fluid Analyzer
integration of InSitu Family measurements and sensors with the modular MDT system.
 Quicksilver Probe: Collect virtually contamination-free formation fluids—in a fraction of the time it
takes to collect conventional samples—with Quicksilver Probe focused extraction.
 CFA Composition Fluid Analyzer: Determine gas fraction concentrations and identify fluid types
with near-infrared optical absorption spectrometry and fluorescence emission measurements of
the single-phase fluid in the sample flowline of the MDT tester.
 LFA Live Fluid Analyzer: Analyze formation fluid as samples are flowed to the MDT tester to capture
single-phase samples and differentiate oil types (Figure 1.3.4D).
 MDT Low-Shock Sampling: Limit pressure drawdown during fluid extraction and sampling to obtain
critical data for optimized well tests and facility design.
 MDT Permeability: Increase the length scale by obtaining permeability and anisotropy away from
the wellbore to better understand reservoir heterogeneity.
 MDT Single Phase: Recover single-phase samples, representative of downhole formation conditions
for accurate compositional and PVT analysis.

MDT Data Interpretation

 MDT is used to determine formation pressure and to get the true formation fluid sample. A graph
between the formation pressure and depth is plotted which shows the density gradients of
different fluids (Gas - 0.55 g/cc, Oil - 0.88 g/cc & Water - 1.0 g/cc). Where the gradient changes,
the Gas-Oil contact, Gas-Water contact, Oil-Water contact can be marked (Figure 1.3.4C).
 Accurate real-time pressure measurements and permeability measurements from high-resolution
gauges and precise flowline control to ensure monophasic flow.
 High-purity and -quality reservoir fluid samples for downhole fluid analysis (DFA) or further PVT
laboratory analysis (Figure 1.3.4D).
 The deeper pressure points should have higher value of pressure. If this is not following then its
means the data is not correctly recorded.
 During plotting the data some points will fall away from normal behavior these points called “Super
Charge” points due to low permeable formations like Shale.

Production Testing
Production testing is carried out in a cased hole and completed hole with a packer that has been set in
place and a production pipe. The casingis perforated using a wireline perforation gun. As the pressure
inside the production pipe is held at a value that is lower than the formation pressure, the formation will

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produce fluids, which by this stage in the well completion, should be hydrocarbons. If the test produces
sufficient hydrocarbons, the production may be allowed to continue as a fully completed well.

Cased hole resistivity logs

Cased hole formation resistivity (CHFR) logs make direct, deep reading resistivity measurements through
casing and cement. The concept of measuring resistivity through casing is not new, but recent
breakthroughs in downhole electronics and electrode design have made these challenging measurements
possible. Now the same basic measurements can be compared for open- and cased holes.
The effects of invasion are usually dissipated by the time the log is run, so the measurement is
considered to be a good representation of true resistivity, as long as cement conditions are adequate.
Challenges in CHFR measurements are as follows:
 Low casing resistivity: ~ 2 * 10-7 ohm-m
 Measured/total current ratio: DI/I ~ 10-3 to 10-5
 Measured voltages are in the nano-Volt range
 Frequency of operation limited to around 1Hz
 Good electrical contact essential

Cased Hole Formation Resistivity Logging

Similar to an open hole log, the Cased Hole Formation Resistivity (CHFR) tool (Figure 4.2A) is like a
laterolog device where the resistivity is calculated by measuring voltage that is generated by injecting
current into the formation and the resistivity computed when the amount of the current and the voltage
drop is measured. However, in the cased hole, conductive casing restricts the current to penetrate into the
formation. Thus a low frequency current with high skin depth could leak into the formation and this
leakage current measurement helps to determine the resistivity of the formation. The tool injects current
into the casing with sidewall contact electrodes, where it flows both upward and downward before
returning to the surface along a path similar to that employed by open hole laterolog tools. Most of the
current remains in the casing, but a very small portion escape to the formation. Electrodes on the tool
measure the potential difference created by the leaked current, which is proportional to the formation
conductivity. The tool spefications are given in Figure 4.2B.
Typical formation resistivity values are about 109 times the resistivity value of the steel casing. The
measurement current escaping to the formation causes a voltage drop in the casing segment. Because the
resistance of casing is a few tens of micro-ohms and the leaked current is typically on the order of a few
milli-amperes, the potential difference measured by the CHFR-tool is in nanovolts. For better electrical
contact between the tool and the casing essential for the measurements, small electrodes are designed on
the body of the tool to make sure the scale and corrosion on the casing are cleaned. The tool can be used
to measure resistivity behind casing of sizes 5″ or 7″. This can be even used in wells upto 5000m, and it can
be used in casing environment without any fluids or wells without fluid. The CHFR measurement is deeper
than conventional saturation monitoring from nuclear tools and allows direct comparison with open hole
resistivity logs. Measurement is independent of fluid in the casing. Resistivity measurement can be
combined with PLT and Pulsed neutron tools.

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Applications of Cased Hole Formation Resistivity Logging
 Resistivity measurement behind casing in new or old wells
 Reservoir monitoring
 Location of bypassed hydrocarbons
 Determination of residual oil saturation
 Contingency logging in wells where openhole logs could not be run
 Primary evaluation where openhole logging is not possible Resistivity Logging
 Monitor Oil-Gas-Water contact
 Evaluation of reservoir saturation
 Identification of gas zone
 Monitor the water injection into the main zone
 Re-evaluation of old fields to find missed oil or gas zones

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Nuclear magnetic resonance log & Scanner logs (Sonic scanner, MR scanner Rt scanner)
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) or “nuclear induction” as it was initially called was developed in the
late 1940s. In 1984, Jackson designed a NMR tool which uses a permanent magnet many times stronger
than earth’s magnetic field to align the protons, and a pulse-echo measurement cycle with a
radiofrequency antenna similar to what was used in the laboratory.
NMR-Principles
The principle of NMR log is based on the response of nuclei to magnetic fields. Some nuclei, particularly
protons which form the nuclei of hydrogen atoms have a magnetic which can be visualized as a spinning
bar magnet. These magnetic moments can be detected with suitable measurement set-ups and an
estimation of the location and the amount of hydrogen in a sample can be obtained. NMR logging consists
of a rapid sequence of manipulations of the hydrogen nuclei contained in the pores of the rock. Before a
formation is logged by an NMR logging tool, the protons in the formation fluids are randomly oriented.
When the tool passes through the formation, the tool generates magnetic fields that activate those
protons. The net magnetization is determined by the number of protons aligned in this direction, a process
which occurs exponentially with time

First, the tool's permanent magnetic field aligns, or polarizes, the spin axes of the protons in a
particular direction. This process, called polarization, increases exponentially in time with a time constant,
designated as T1. Next, the tool's oscillating field is applied to tip these protons away from their new
equilibrium position in the
same way a child’s spinning
top precesses in the Earth’s
gravitational field.
Precession occurs as a body
rotating about one axis
slowly rotates around a
second axis. In the NMR
case, this second axis is the
static magnetic field. When
the oscillating field is subsequently removed, the protons begin tipping back toward the original direction
in which the static magnetic field aligned them. In NMR terminology, this tipping-back motion is called
relaxing, and measurement of the ‘relaxation time’ is the fundamental measurement of NMR logging tools.

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Applications of NMR Logging
NMR can provide very useful geological information as its measurement is sensitive to the “pore sizes” and
hence to textural properties of the rock.

Determination of Bound & Free Water

The quantification of these two types of fluids is one of the main applications of NMR logging. It is based on
the principle that fluids, generally water, in the smaller pores relax faster and thus have shorter T2 times.
The threshold below which fluids are bound by capillary forces and therefore cannot be produced has been
determined in laboratory and field experiments (Table 5.3.1A & Figure 5.3.1A).

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