DHANANJAYA

Unit-2
Open-hole Logging
Open-hole logging refers to logging operations that are performed on a well before the wellbore has been
cased and cemented.
ELECTRO LOGGING:
Electro logging refers to logs that measure potential difference due to flow of electric current in and
adjacent to a borehole. This is also based on the electric theory of Ohm’s law , i.e., I V or V = IR.,
where V in Volts , I in Amperes and R in Ohms
Electrical logs can be divided into two main types:
 Measurement of natural electrical current in the rock (SP Log)
 Measurement of induced electrical current (Resistivity Log and Induction Log)

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL TOOL

The SP log is a measurement of the natural potential differences or self-potentials between an
electrode in the borehole and a reference electrode at the surface (no artificial currents are applied). This
potential varies from formation to formation, usually within the range of a few tens or hundreds of mill
volts (mV). The primary purpose of this log is to differentiate shale formation from non -shale formation.
The principal uses of the SP log are to calculate formation-water resistivity and to indicate permeability. It
can also be used to estimate shale volume, facies in some cases and for correlation.

Note: An SP curve cannot be recorded in holes filled with nonconductive muds because such muds do not
provide electrical continuity between the SP electrode and the formation. Furthermore, if the resistivities

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of the mud filtrate and formation water are about equal, the SP deflections will be small and the curve will
be

rather featureless.

Origin of SP:
The deflections on the SP curve result from electric currents flowing in the mud in the borehole. These SP
currents are caused by electromotive forces in the formations, which are of electrochemical (Ec) and
electrokinetic (Ek) origins
POTENTIALS RESPONSIBLE FOR SELF POTENTIAL:
• Electrode Potential
• Liquid Junction Potential
• Membrane Potential
• Oxidation-Reduction Potential
• Electro-filtration Potential
• Streaming Potential
Electrochemical potentials
SP currents are created, when two solutions of different salinity concentrations are in contact, by two
principal electrochemical effects;
 Diffusion or liquid junction potential (Ej).
 Shale or membrane potential (Em).
1 Diffusion potential
The diffusion potential arises when solutions of differing salinity are in contact through a porous
medium. Sodium chloride (Nacl) is the most common cause of oilfield salinity, so that it is effectively two
solutions of sodium chloride of different salinities that come into contact. In the porous medium mixing of

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the two solutions takes place by ionic diffusion. The Cl ion is small and more mobile, than Na ion which is
larger &slower. Therefore, the ions mix at unequal rates, creating a charge separation. A potential is
created between the negatively charged dilute Solutions with excess Cl and positively charged
concentrated solution with excess Na.

2 Shale potential
The shale potential arises when the same two solutions are in contact across a semi-permeable
membrane. In the borehole, this is name as shale. Clay minerals of shale layers consists large number of
negative surface charge. Because of charge similarity, the negative chloride ions effectively cannot pass
through the negatively charged shale layers, while the positive sodium ions pass easily. The shale acts as
selective barrier. Therefore Na ions diffuse across a shale membrane, an overbalance of Na ions of positive
charge is created in the dilute solution. A corresponding negative charge is produced in the concentrated
solution.

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the magnitude of the liquid-junction potential is only about one-fifth the membrane potential. If the
permeable formation is not shaly, the total electrochemical emf, EC corresponding to these two
phenomena, is equal to

Where aw and amf are the chemical activities of two solutions (formation water and mud filtrate) at
formation temperature, Tf and K [K = 60 + (0.133 x Tf)] is a coefficient proportional to the absolute
temperature, and, for NaCl formation water and mud filtrate, is equal to 71 at 25°C (77°F). The chemical
activity of a solution is roughly proportional to its salt content (i.e., to its conductivity). If the solutions
contain substantial amounts of salts other than NaCl, the value of K at 77°F may differ from 71.

Electrokinetic Component (Ek) of the SP

An electrokinetic potential (Ek) potential, also known as streaming potential or electrofiltration
potential is produced when an electrolyte flows through a permeable, nonmetallic, porous medium. The
magnitude of the electrokinetic potential is determined by several factors, among which are the
differential pressure producing the flow and the resistivity of the electrolyte.
In the borehole, an electrokinetic emf, Ekmc, is produced by the flow of mud filtrate through the
mudcake deposited on the borehole wall opposite permeable formations. Mud cake is formed across
permeable layer contains clay particles that have an electric double layer Difference in ionic concentration
between bound clay water and the free water a potential difference exists. The difference between the
free water and the boundary of the bound layer is known as the Zeta-Potential. If pressure is applied to
the solution, the solution will flow past the solid surface carrying with it charges that have a potential Zeta.

Ek is electrokinetic potential, p is differential pressure and x and y, the constant related to mud
composition and resistivity. Greater the mud resistivity and the pressure differential are, greater the Ek.

In practice, little or no electrokinetic emf is actually generated

across the permeable formation itself. This is because
practically all the differential pressure between the borehole
and undisturbed virgin formation is expended across the less
permeable mudcake. Any remaining differential pressure
across the formation is normally not great enough to produce
any appreciable electrokinetic emf. An electrokinetic emf,
Eksh may, however, be produced across the shale, since it
may have sufficient permeability to permit a tiny amount of
filtration flow from the mud.

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SP Tool Configuration:

The tool is extremely simple, it contains only two electrodes, one electrode placed in a mud pit on the
surface via a galvanometer for the measurement of DC potential and another electrode lower down the
bore hole. The SP tool recording the variation in the electrical potential between the ground reference on
surface and electrode in hole. The simplicity of the log means that it is extremely cheap.

The SP tool arrangement. Typical responses of the SP log

The potential measured down hole is plotted as the SP curve. The information recorded is the relative
measurement of the voltage. The SP curve is a relative curve with no absolute zero and the amplitude of
curve is recorded in millivolts with base reference being shale baseline.

 When mud filtrate salinity is lower than connate water salinity (Rw< Rmf), the SP deflects to the
left (negatne SP potential). This is called a normal SP.
 When the salinities are reversed (salty mud higher than fresh formation waters, (Rw > Rmf). the
SP deflects to the right, and this is called a reverse SP.
 There will normally be no SP deflection at all when Rmf = Rw
Opposite the shales, the readings of the SP curve are usually fairly constant and tend to follow a straight
line on the log, called the shale base line. Opposite the permeable formations, the SP curve shows
excursions from the shale base line; in thick enough beds they often tend to reach an essentially constant
deflection defining a sand base line. Presence of hydrocarbons and shaliness result in reduction of SP
magnitude (in case of presenting hydrocarbon). The deflection may be either to the left (negative) or to the
right (positive), depending on whether formation fluid salinity is greater or less than mud filtrate salinity
respectively.

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Calculation of water resistivity from SP log:
The greater the SP deflection, the greater the salinity contrast between the mud filtrate and the formation
water. A rapid look at the SP over a certain series of beds in sand -shale sequences will show water salinity
changes. Generally negative deflection indicates the formation water being more saline than the mud
filtrate. Deflection to positive values however, occurs with fresh formations water or at least those fresher
than the mud.
The SP is used to calculate formation water resistivity using the relationship between resistivity and
ionic activity. Ionic activity is the major contributing factor to the electrochemical SP. This is a direct
relationship between ionic activity and the resistivity of a solution, at least for the most frequently-
encountered values in logging. The relationship allows a mathematical expression of the amplitude of the
SP deflection to be expressed in terms of formation water resistivity in the following way.

Shale volume from SP (pseudo-static SP)

It is considered the volume of shale Vsh in a water wet, shaly sandstone can be simply calculated
using the SP as follows:

Factors Influences the SP-Measurements

The slope of the SP curve at any level is proportional to the intensity of the SP currents in the borehole
mud at currents in the mud is maximum at that level. The intensity of the currents in the mud is maximum
at the boundaries of the permeable formation, and, accordingly, the slope of the curve is maximum (and
there is an inflection point) at these boundaries.
The shape of the SP Curve and the amplitude of the deflection opposite a permeable bed depend on
several factors. The factors, which affect the distribution of the SP current lines and the potential drops
taking place in each of the media through which the SP current flows, are the following:
 Thickness, h, and true resistivity, Rt, of the permeable bed
 Resistivity, Rxo, and diameter, di, of the zone contaminated by mud filtrate invasion

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  Resistivity, Rs, of the adjacent shale formation
 Resistivity, Rm, of the mud and diameter, dh, of the borehole.
 Borehole Invasion
 Oil Base Muds & Air-Filled Boreholes
 Shaly Formations
 Hydrocarbons
 Unbalanced Muds
 KCl Muds
 SP Anomalies-Noise

The main factors influence of SP:

 Borehole Invasion
 Oil Base Muds & Air-Filled Boreholes
 Borehole mud must be conductive and The SP is reduced by an increase in hole size.
 Formation water must be water bearing and conductive.
 A sequence of permeable and non-permeable zones must exist.
 Small deflection occurs if Rmf=Rw
 Not fully developed in front of thin beds

Applications of SP Logs
The principle uses of SP logs are presented in Table-5.5A and in following sections the uses are discussed.

Permeability recognition
All deflections on the SP indicate a permeable bed. The amount of deflection does not indicate the amount
of permeability a very slightly permeable bed will give the same value as a permeable bed.

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Facies
The SP is one of the first logs to permit correlation in sand-shale sequences because of its typical log
shapes. This shape is related to shale abundance. As shaliness is related to grain size, the SP is a good facies
indicator.
Correlation
The SP log is useful for correlation in areas of varied salinities. If wells are quit close correlation should
made between sand with similar salinity values.
Shale Volume Calculation
The shale volume is sometimes calculated from the SP log (Figure 5.5.2A) using the relationship:
Vsh = 1-(PSP/SSP)
PSP = SP log read in a thick homogeneous shaly sand zone,
SSP = SP log read in the thick clean sand zone.

A shale content index can be calculated from SP deflection,

by comparing SP deflection in the shaly sand to that of
clean sand. This assumes similar salinity & shale zone and a
linear mixing relationship between the SP log and shale
volume, and has no theoretical basis. It probably
overestimates the shale volume.

Identification of Hydrocarbon Bearing Zones

Investigation of Ground Water

Mineral Identification
Though not as good as some other logs, the SP log does
react unusually to a few minerals and formations (Figure
5.5.8A), and is therefore sometimes useful in mineral
recognition. The most common occurrences are as follows,
but are not reliable:
 Coals Large
negative kick (or
none at all!)
 Pyrite Very large
negative kick
 Rhyolite Large
negative kick
 Black shale
Positive kick

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Uses of self-potential log:

The self-potential logs main application is identify the permeable sand and impermeable shale formation.

 To delineate porous and permeable reservoir rocks

 To determine bed boundaries and bed thickness

 To evaluate the formation water resistivity

 To estimate the fraction of clay

 Correlation of permeable beds

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 Resistivity Logging
A resistivity log is a measurement of a formation resistance to the passage of electric current through it
(Archie, 1942).

The resistivity of a formation is a key parameter in the determination of hydrocarbon saturation. Electric
current can only pass through a formation because of the conductive water it contains.

Resistivity logs are primarily used to differentiate between hydrocarbon and water-bearing zones.
Hydrocarbons, like the rock matrix, are nonconductive; therefore, as hydrocarbon saturation increases, the
rock's resistivity increases.Resistivity logging is the measurement of resistivity of the formations with
respect to the depth in a bore hole.

Fundamentals of electrical resistivity:

An electrical generator (Fig) delivers an electrical current, I, to a metallic wire of cross sectional area, A, and
length, L. The potential difference, V, that exist between the two extremities of the wire varies
proportionally with I. this is mathematically expressed by Ohm’s Law as

V=rXI

“r” is constant for the wire. This equation applies regardless of

the nature and geometry of the wire. If V and I are in volts &
amperes, respectively, then r will be expressed in ohm.

This constant (r) is a measurement of the opposition offered by the wire to the flow of electricity and is
called the resistance of the wire. Different values for r should be used for each conductor.

Change in potential difference is cause by change in wire resistance: longer the

wire, L, the greater and larger its cross section, A, the smaller its resistance.

Resistance is extensive and for linear, 1-D electrical flow,

r=RXL/A
Where,
r = Electrical resistance, Ω
R = [r X A / L] = Electrical resistivity, Ω-m
L = length of electrical flow path, m
A= Cross-sectional area perpendicular to electrical flow
path, m2
R is the specific resistance or resistivity of the material and is a constant characteristic of the material at a
given temperature.

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The electrical resistivity of a substance is its ability to impede the flow of electrical current through the
substance. It is determined by measuring the voltage required to pass a measured amount of electrical
current through the rock. The unit used in logging is ohm-meter2/meter, usually written as Ω-m (ohm-m).

The reciprocal of resistance (1/r) is called conductance, c, given in mho or siemens. Conductance may be
found by taking the reciprocal of its resistance or more directly by the ratio of current to potential
difference:
c=I/V
Conductivity, C, is the reciprocal of resistivity. The unit for conductivity of suitable magnitude for electrical
logging measurement is the milimho/meter. Considering these practical units, relationship between
resistivity and conductivity Unit Electrical conductivity is R = 1000 / C

Resistivity (r) of a substance is the resistance measured between opposite faces of a unit cube of that
substance at specified temperature. Units: ohm-m
Resistance (R) is the opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electrical current through it. Units:
ohm.
There are two basic types of resistivity logs used in the oilfield, electrode logs and
induction logs.
1.Resistivity tool
The basic principle of a conventional electric log is that a current is passed through a formation via
some electrodes and the voltage between other electrodes is measured. From this reading, resistivity is
determined. The conventional electric log can only be run in a conductive mud (i.e. not in oil or air-filled
holes). But usually resistivity is not directly measured; voltage is measured with the current held constant.
From measured voltage and constant current, resistance is computed by ohms law. Then that resistance is
converted into resistivity of the formation using following equations.
Ohm‟s law: It states that ―At constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference between the edges of the conductor‖.

2. An induction tool consists of one or more transmitting coils that emits a high frequency, alternating
current of constant intensity. The alternating magnetic field which is created induces secondary currents in
the formation, and these create magnetic fields that induce signals to receiver coils. The received signals
are essentially proportional to conductivity, which is the reciprocal of resistivity (conductivity =
1000/resistivity).

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 I. Single-Point Resistance (SPR) Log

Single-point resistance loggers are the simplest electrical measuring devices. A current can flow between a
single electrode placed in a borehole and another electrode at the ground surface (Fig 2.1A). The earth
between the electrodes completes the circuit.

Single point resistance is based on the electrical

resistance of the earth. The concept follows the rules
of Ohm’s law. Ohms law states that the rate of current
flow, I, through a conductor is proportional to the
potential difference, V, causing the flow. Another
parameter, resistance, r, determines the rate of flow.
Ohms law is expressed as the formula:

V=Ixr

If current is constant, resistance is directly proportional

to voltage.

Resistance of the conductor (the earth) is a convenient

and useful property determined by pore fluid content,
pore fluid composition, lithology, and continuity of strata. The resistivity of the measured section of earth
is determined from R = Kr, where K is a geometric factor which differs for different electrode
configurations.

A single point resistance log measures an apparent resistance

of a section made up of borehole fluid and the various
individual strata between the borehole and the ground surface
electrode. The multiple electrode arrays are designed to
narrow and better define the measured sections so that
individual strata are represented more accurately by the logs.

Measuring Principle

In Fig. 2.2A, a single point electrode, A, sends current in an

infinite, homogeneous medium, to a remote return B. The
current will radiate uniformly in all directions, and the
equipotential surfaces will be concentric spheres centered on
A. If the potential at distance r from A is V(r), then the
difference dV between two equipotentials dr apart is:

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Where I is the total current flowing and R is the resistivity of the medium. Integrating dV between t and
infinity (zero potential):

Advantages of Single-Electrode Resistivity Curve

1. Single-electrode resistivity curves give considerable detail. Under usual conditions beds having a
thickness of one foot or more can be located and their boundaries can be accurately picked.
2. Its response is dependable. For every increase (or decrease) in formation resistivity there is an increase
(or decrease) on the resistivity curve. Conversely, every increase shown by the curve corresponds to an
increase in the formation resistivity. On the other hand, the response of multiple-electrode logging systems
is not always consistent.
3. The single-electrode resistivity log result in curves that sharply delineate lithology changes. With this log
supplemented by the SP curve, it is generally possible to identify the type of formation traversed by the
well and, in the case of water bearing beds, to estimate changes in the groundwater salinity.
4. The qualitative interpretation of the data is easy and does not require charts.
5. Single-electrode equipment gives curves from the bottom of the hole up to the casing shoe or to the
mud level, whichever is deeper.
6. Single-electrode equipment is small (and generally highly portable), rugged, simple, relatively
inexpensive, and can be operated by a member of the drilling crew after a few hours' instruction.

Shortcomings of Single-Electrode Resistivity Measurements

There are two cases when single-electrode resistivity measurements may not be as efficient as multiple-
electrode ones
1. When the hole diameter is larger and the mud is salty. In this case, the curves lose some of their detail.
Thin beds cannot be seen and the boundaries of thick beds cannot accurately be picked.
2. The other case is when true resistivities are needed, for example, when it is necessary to estimate the oil
saturation in petroleum reservoirs.
Apparent resistivities obtained from single-electrode measurements are greatly affected by changes in
hole diameter. Therefore, it is illusory to try to determine the true resistivity of a formation unless a caliper
log is available or unless it is known that the formations of interest do not appreciably cave.

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II. Conventional Resistivity logs
During the first quarter-century of well logging, the only resistivity logs available were the conventional
electrical surveys. The conventional electrical survey (ES) usually consisted of an SP, 16" short normal, 64"
medium normal, and 18'8" lateral devices. Generally, the longer the spacing, the deeper the device
investigates into the formation. Thus, of the ES resistivity logs, the 18'8" lateral has the deepest
investigation and the 16" normal the shallowest. In practice, however, the apparent resistivity, Ra recorded
by each device is affected by the resistivities and geometrical dimensions of all media around the device
(borehole, invaded and uncontaminated zones, and adjacent beds).

Principle of Conventional tools

Currents were passed through the formation by means of current electrodes, and voltages were measured
between measure electrodes. These measured voltages provided the resistivity determinations for each
device. In a homogeneous, isotropic formation of infinite extent, the equipotential surfaces surrounding a
single current-emitting electrode (A) are spheres. The voltage between an electrode (M) situated on one of
these spheres and one at infinity is proportional to the resistivity of the homogeneous formation, and the
measured voltage can be scaled in resistivity units.

The Normal Device

In the normal device (Fig ), a current of constant intensity is passed between two electrodes, A and B. The
resultant potential difference is measured between two other electrodes, M and N. Electrodes A and M are
on the sonde. B and N are, theoretically, located an infinite distance away. In practice, B is the cable armor,
and N is an electrode on the bridle (the insolation-covered lower end of the cable) far removed from A and
M. The distance AM is called the spacing, and the point of inscription for the measurement is at O, mid-way
between A and M.

The measuring electrode M is situated close to the

current electrode A. A constant current I flows from
A to the remote return B. The potential V of M is
measured with respect to a reference electrode N (at
zero potential) by means of a volt-meter. Although,
theoretically, N should be on surface (at “infinity”),
inductive phenomena necessitate placing it
downhole, but at a distance from M considerably
greater than A. Assuming an infinite homogeneous
medium & neglecting the borehole effects:

Since I is held constant, VM is proportional to R. is

the coefficient K N of the normal device:

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Thus a continuous recording of V M on an appropriate scale is a log of the resistivity.
There are two conventional AM spacing for the normal:
AM=16 inch, the short normal
AM=64 inch, the medium normal

The Lateral Device

In the basic lateral device (Fig ), a constant current is passed between A and B, and the potential difference
between M and N, located on two concentric spherical equipotential suent is passed between A and B, and
the potential difference between M and N, located on two concentric spherical equipotential surfaces
centered on A, is measured. Thus, the voltage measured is proportional to the potential gradient between
M-and N. The point of inscription is at O, midway between M and N. The spacing A0 is 18'8". Also, all
electrodes are in the borehole, with N located 50'10" above M.

The measuring electrodes M & N are situated close

together below the current electrode A. The difference
between the spherical equipotential surfaces on which
M & N is lie, is derived as follows:

The formation resistivity is proportional to if the

current is constant.

For the lateral, M and N are very close relative to their distances from A. If O is the mid-point of MN, then
since MN<<AM and AN:

dV/dl is the intensity of the electric field at O, and R is proportional to this intensity. For the inverse, AO is
replaced by MO. The spacing AO or MO (for the inverse array) is usually 18’8”.

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There are several factors affecting conventional log measurements:

The responses of conventional electrical logging systems can be greatly affected by the borehole and
adjacent formations.

 There is a sensitivity of the measurement to the mud resistivity and hole size, as indicated in Fig. In
a borehole filled with very conductive mud, the current tends to flow in the mud rather than the
formation.

 the conductive borehole fluid provides an easy current path for the measure current into adjacent
shoulder beds of much lower resistivity (Rs) than the formation (Rt) directly opposite the current
electrode.

It’s difficult to delineate bed boundaries with any precision especially in a sedimentary series containing a
sequence of closely spaced resistive and conductive strata.

Other factors which is affect the log reading are:

1. Hole diameter-d
2. Mud resistivity-Rm
3. Bed thickness
4. Resistivity of surrounding bed-Rs
5. Resistivity of invaded zone-Ri
6. True resistivity of zone-Rt
7. Diameter of invaded zone-di

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Response of Potential and Gradient Logs over Thin and Thick Conductive and
Resistive Formations
The shapes of the normal & lateral curves are described for a few typical cases. All cases correspond to un
invaded formations of moderate resistivities.
Case 1: The response of the normal device in beds more resistive than
the surrounding formations (Fig ).
The upper part shows the response in a thick bed (h = 10 AM). The
curve is symmetrical and a maximum is observed at the center of
the bed, where the reading is almost equal to Rt, (no invasion). The
apparent bed thickness on the normal curve is less than actual bed
thickness by an amount equal to the spacing.

The lower part shows the response in a bed with a thickness less
than the spacing. The curve is still symmetrical but is reversed. A
minimum apparent resistivity, actually less than surrounding
formation resistivity, is observed opposite the bed even though bed
resistivity is greater than surrounding bed resistivity. Two spurious
peaks appear one above and one below the bed; the distance
between the two peaks is equal to bed thickness plus the spacing of
the normal.

Case 2: The response of the normal device in beds less resistive than
the surrounding formations (Fig ).
The curves are symmetrical and the apparent bed thickness is
greater than actual bed thickness by an amount equal to the AM
spacing.

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Case 3: The response of the lateral device in beds more resistive
than the surrounding formations (Fig ).

The lateral spacing 18 ft 8 in, the cases represented correspond to

bed thicknesses of about 190, 28 and 8 ft. All curves are
dissymmetrical. In the cases of the 190- and 28-ft beds, note the
comparatively low readings in the upper 19 ft of the resistive bed
and the high resistivity readings near the lower boundary. For the
190-ft bed, the curve presents a fairly long plateau with readings
about equal to Rt; a minimum bed thickness of about 50 ft is needed
to obtain these plateau readings uninfluenced by surrounding
formations. In the case of the thin bed, there is a fairly sharp
resistivity peak opposite the bed, followed by low readings over the
“blind zone” below the bed, then a spurious “reflection” peak equal
to the AO spacing below the bed. The relationship shown on the
figure (Ramax / Ramin <= Rt/ Rs) is of interest, even if accuracy of
bed Rt,cannot be expected.

Case 4: The response of the lateral device in beds less resistive

than the surrounding formations (Fig).
The curves are dissymmetrical. The anomaly extends below the bed
for a distance slightly greater than the AO spacing. In highly
resistive formations, the normal curves are no longer symmetrical.
Fig, illustrates a thick bed of infinite resistivity. A two-electrode
normal device would still give a symmetrical curve (dash- dot trace),
but a three-electrode normal device, as was actually employed,
gives a triangular-shaped curve (solid trace) with the peak of the
triangle located at a distance AN below the upper boundary. The
lateral curve also has a triangular shape, with the peak opposite the
lower boundary. It is also observed that the lateral curve reads very
low in the upper 19 ft of the bed.
Limitations of Conventional Resitivity Tools

1.The responses of conventional electrical logging systems can be

greatly affected by the borehole and adjacent formations. To
obtaine Rt it is necessary to correct the measured Ra (apparent resistivity) for the effects describing the
environment. This can be done with the available correction charts e.g. “Borehole Correction”, Invasion
Correction”, “Bed Thickness” etc.

2. It’s difficult to delineate bed boundaries with any precision especially in a sedimentary series containing
a sequence of closely spaced resistive and conductive strata.

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III. Focused Resistivity log
The responses of conventional electrical logging systems can be greatly affected by the borehole and
adjacent formations. These influences are minimized by a family of resistivity tools that uses focusing
currents to control the path taken by the measure current.

These currents are emitted from special electrodes on the sondes. The focusing electrode tools include the
laterolog (LL) and spherically focused log (SFL) devices. Focusing electrode systems are available with deep,
medium, and shallow depths of investigation. Fig shows focused current or guard resistivity array.

Devices using this principle have as quantitative

applications the determination of Rt & R xo.

The deep-reading devices include the Laterolog 7

(LL7), the Laterolog 3 (LL3), and the deep
laterolog of the dual laterolog (DLL) tool.

The medium- to shallow-reading devices are the

Laterolog 8, SFL and DIL-SFL combinations.(dual
induction-laterolog)

Laterolog: The laterolog configuration uses a current electrode A0, Two symmetrical guard electrodes, A1,
and A2, emit focussing currents which constrain the A0, current beam i0 to flow perpendicularly out into the
formation (the guard electrodes in fact establish equipotential surfaces coaxial with the tool, forcing the A0,
current to radiate perpendicularly to the axis). As a result, the borehole and adjacent bed signals are
considerably less than those of the normals and laterals. There are several types of laterolog: Laterolog 7,
Laterolog 3, Laterolog 8 and The Dual Laterolog.
Latero log3 (LL3) AND latero log7 (LL7)
In the laterolog7, thickness of the io current sheet is approximately 32 in. and In the laterolog3, thickness io
of the current sheet is usually about 12 in., much thinner than for the LL7 device. As a result, the LL3 tool
had a better vertical resolution and shows more detail than did the LL7 tool. the influences of the borehole
and of the invaded zone were slightly less. In the laterolog8, thickness of the io current sheet is 14 in and
the readings are more influenced by the borehole and the invaded zone than are those of the LL7 and LL3
tools.

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Laterolog 8(LL8)
The shallow-investigation LL8 measurement is recorded with small electrodes on the dual induction
laterolog sonde. The device is similar in principle to the LL7 tool except for its shorter spacing. The
thickness of the io, current sheet is 14", and the distance between the two bucking electrodes is somewhat
less than 40"
The current-return electrode is located a relatively short distance from A0. The LL8 device gives sharp
vertical detail, and the readings are more influenced by the borehole and the invaded zone than are those
of the LL7 and LL3 tools.
Dual Laterolog
The objective of any deep-reading resistivity device
is to measure the true formation resistivity, R t.
Deep-reading resistivity tools were designed so
that, as much as possible, their response is
determined by the resistivity of the virgin formation
beyond the invaded zone. Unfortunately, no single
measurement has yet succeeded in entirely
eliminating the effects of the invaded zone. A
solution is to measure the resistivity with several
arrays having different depths of investigation.
Measurements responding to three appropriately
chosen depths of investigation usually approximate
the invasion profile well enough to determine, R t.

For best interpretation accuracy such a

combination system should have certain
desirable features:

 Borehole effects should be small and/or

correctable
 Vertical resolutions of the devices should be
similar
 Radial investigations should be well distributed; i.e., one reading as deep as practical, one reading
very shallow, and the third reading in between

20
This need resulted in the development of the DLL dual laterolog-MicroSFL tool with simultaneous
recordings. Fig. 6.4A is a sketch of the tool showing the electrode array used for the two laterolog devices.
Both use the same electrodes and have the same current-beam thickness, but have different focusing to
provide their different depth of investigation characteristics. Fig. , illustrates the focusing used by the deep
laterolog device (left) and by the shallow laterolog device (right). The DLL tool has a response range of 0.2
to 40,000 ohm-m, which is a much wider range than covered by previous laterolog devices.
To achieve accuracy at both high and low resistiyities, a “constant-power” measuring system is employed.
In this system, both measure current (I0) and measure voltage (V0) are-varied and measured, but the
product of the two (i.e., power), I0V0 is held constant.

The deep laterolog measurement (LLD) of the DLL tool has a

deeper depth of investigation than previous laterolog tools and
extends the range of formation conditions in which reliable
determinations of Rt are possible. To achieve this, very long
guard electrodes are needed; the distance between the extreme
ends of the guard electrodes of the DLL- R XO, tool is
approximately 28 ft. The nominal beam thickness of 2 ft,
however, insures good vertical resolution.

The shallow laterolog measurement (LLS) has the same vertical

resolution as the deep laterolog device (2 ft), but it responds
more strongly to that region around the borehole normally
affected by invasion. It uses a type of focusing called
“pseudolaterolog,” wherein the focusing current is returned to
nearby electrodes instead of to a remote electrode. This causes
the measure current to diverge more quickly once it has entered
the formations, thus producing a relatively shallow depth of
investigation.

Spherically Focused Log (SFL)

The spherically focused log has an electrode arrangement that
ensure the current focused quasi-spherical. It is useful as it
sensitive only to the resistivity of invaded zone.

The SFL device measures the conductivity of the

formation near the borehole and provides the relatively
shallow investigation required to evaluate the effects of
invasion on deeper resistivity measurements. It is the
short-spacing device now used on the DIL-SFL tool
developed to replace the 16" normal and LL8 devices.
The SFL system differs from previous focused electrode
devices. Whereas the LL7 and LL8 systems attempt to
focus the current into planar discs, the SFL system
establishes essentially constant potential shells around
the current electrode. The SFL device is able to preserve
the spherical potential distribution in the formation over
a wide range of wellbore variables, even when a
conductive borehole is present. To accomplish this, the
SFL device is composed of two separate, and more or less

21
independent, current systems. The bucking current system serves to “plug” the borehole and establish the
equipotential spheres. The I0, survey current system causes an independent survey current to flow through
the “volume of investigation”; the intensity of this current is proportional to formation conductivity.

The SFL device consists of current-emitting electrodes, current-return electrodes, and measure electrodes.
Two equipotential spheres about the tool’s current source are established. The first sphere is about 9"
away from the survey current electrode; the other is about 50" away. A constant potential of 2.5 mV is
maintained between these two spherical surfaces. Since the volume of formation between these two
surfaces is constant (electrode spacing is fixed) and the voltage drop is constant (2.5 mV), the conductivity
of this volume of formation can be determined by measuring the current flow.
Influence of wellbore variables on SFL logs are:

 Borehole effect
 Adjacent bed effect
 Borehole invasion
 Pseudogeometrical factors [Geometrical Factor: The fraction of the total signal that would originate
from a volume having a specific geometrical orientation with the sonde in an infinite homogeneous
medium]
The corrections for the said effects can be mitigated by using various correction
charts.

Advantages of Focused Resitivity tools over Conventional Resitivity tools

Focused resistivity tools overcome, to a greater or lesser extent, the following short-comings of the ES-
Type tools:
1. Focused resistivity tools are much superior to the ES devices for large Rt /Rm values (salt muds
and/or highly resistive formations) and for large resistivity contrasts with adjacent beds (Rt / Rs or
Rs/ Rt).
2. Focused tools are also better for resolution of thin to moderately thick beds.
3. In thin beds (h of the same order as the spacing) the apparent resistivity is a poor estimate of the
true value, because of the influence of the adjacent beds.
4. The borehole (mud-column) and invaded zone signals are often appreciable
5. The available correction charts go some way towards correction for these environmental effects,
but are rarely 100% effective
6. Bed boundaries are difficult to define precisely
7. The primary advantages of Focusing electrode logs over conventional electrical logs in the
Delineation of thin and resistive beds,bSharper discrimination between different beds, bA better
definition of bed boundaries, and A better calculation of true resistivity for thin beds.
8. The focused electrical logs or surveys provide dependable logs for correlation purposes. They are
especially useful in hard rock formations and highly resistive formations.

IV.Micro Resitivity Log

Microresistivity devices are used to measure the resistivity of the flushed zone, Rxo and to delineate
permeable beds by detecting the presence of mudcake. Measurements of R xo are important for several
reasons. When invasion is moderate to deep, a knowledge of R xo allows the deep resistivity measurement
to be corrected to true formation resistivity. Also, some methods for computing saturation require the

22
Rxo/ Rt ratio. In clean formations, a value of F can be computed from Rxo and Rmf if Sw is known or can be
estimated. To measure Rxo, the tool must have a very shallow depth of investigation because the flushed
zone may extend only a few inches beyond the borehole wall. Since the reading should not be affected by
the borehole, a sidewall-pad tool is used. The pad, carrying short-spaced electrode devices, is pressed
against the formation and reduces the short-circuiting effect of the mud. Currents from the electrodes on
the pad must pass through the mudcake to reach the flushed zone. Microresistivity readings are affected
by mudcake; the effect depends on mudcake resistivity, R mc, and thickness, h. Moreover, mudcakes can
be anisotropic, with mudcake resistivity parallel to the borehole wall less than that across the mudcake.
Mudcake anisotropy increases the mudcake effect on microresistivity readings so that the effective, or
electrical, mudcake thickness is greater than that indicated by the caliper.

Older microresistivity equipment included a tool with two pads mounted on opposite sides. One was the
microlog pad, and the other was either the microlaterolog or Proximity pad, as required by mud and
mudcake conditions. The measurements were recorded simultaneously. Newer microresistivity equipment
includes a microlog tool and a MicroSFL tool. Mounted on the powered caliper device, the microlog can be
run simultaneously with any combination of Litho-Density, CNL, DIL, NGS, or EPT logging services.

The MicroSFL tool can also be run in combination with other services. It is most commonly combined with
the DLL or DIL equipment.
Microresistivity logs are scaled in resistivity units.
1.When recorded by itself, the microlog is usually recorded over Tracks 2 and 3 on a linear scale. The
microcaliper is shown in Track 1.
2.The microlaterolog and Proximity logs are recorded on a four decade logarithimic scale to the right of the
depth track. The caliper is recorded in Track 1. When the microlog is also recorded, it is presented in Track
1 on a linear scale.
3.The MicroSFL measurement is also recorded on the logarithmic grid. When run with the DLL or DIL log, it
is presented on the same film and on the same resistivity scale.

Microlog(ML)

With the microlog tool, two short-spaced devices with different depths of investigation provide resistivity
measurements of a very small volume of mudcake and formation immediately adjoining the borehole.
Comparison of the two awes readily identifies mudcake, which
indicates invaded and, therefore, permeable formations.

Three electrode buttons are mounted in line on the face of an

oil-filled rubber pad (Fig.). The rubber microlog pad is pressed
against the borehole wall by arms and springs. The face of the
pad has three small in- line electrodes spaced 1" apart. With
these electrodes, a 1" X 1" microinverse (R) and a
2"micronormal (R2") measurement are recorded simultaneously

As drilling fluid filters into the permeable formations, mud solids

accumulate on the hole wall and form a mudcake. Usually, the
resistivity of the mudcake is slightly greater than the resistivity
of the mud and considerably lower than the resistivity of the
invaded zone near the borehole. The 2" micrononnal device
has a greater depth of investigation than the microinverse. It is,
therefore, less influenced by the mudcake and reads a higher resistivity, which produces “positive” curve

23
separation. In the presence of low resistivity mudcake, both devices measure moderate resistivities, usually
ranging from 2 to 10 times Rm.

In impervious formations, the two curves read similarly or exhibit some “negative” separation, and the
resistivities are usually much greater than in permeable formations.

Microlaterolog

The microlaterolog tool was designed to determine R xo

accurately for higher values of R xo/ Rmc , where the microlog
interpretation lacks resolution.

The microlaterolog pad is shown in Fig. A small electrode, A, and

three concentric circular electrodes are embedded in a rubber
pad applied against the hole wall. A constant current, Io, is
emitted through Ao. Through the outer electrode ring, A1, a
varying current is emitted and automatically adjusted so that the
potential difference between the two monitoring electrode rings,
M1, and M2, is maintained essentially equal to zero. The Io,
current is forced to flow in a beam into the formation. The
resulting current lines are shown on the figure. The Io, current near the pad forms a narrow beam, which
opens up rapidly a few inches from the face of the pad. The microlaterolog resistivity reading is influenced
mainly by the formation within this narrow beam.

The greater the value of Rxo/ R mc, the greater the tendency for the microlog Io current to escape through
the mudcake to the mud in the borehole.

Proximitylog
The Proximity tool is similar in principle to the microlaterolog device. The electrodes are mounted on a
wider pad, which is applied to the wall of the borehole; the system is automatically focused by monitoring
electrodes. Pad and electrode design are such that isotropic mudcake up to ¾" have very little effect on
the measurements. The Proximity tool has a significantly deeper depth of investigation than does the
microlog or microlaterolog tools. Thus, if the invasion is very shallow, the Proximity measurement may be
influenced by Rt The vertical resolution of PL is ~6"tions. Corrections for the effect of adjacent beds are
unnecessary for bed thicknesses greater than 1feet.

MicroSFL (MSFL)

This is a small-scale SFL array, mounted on a flexible rubber

pad. It has two
advantages over the MLL and PL:
(a) It is less sensitive to the mud-cake than the MLL, and
reads shallower than the PL. The main limitation of the
microlaterolog measurement is its sensitivity to mudcakes.
When mudcake thickness exceeds about 3/8", the log
readings are severely influenced at high Rxo / Rmc
contrasts. The Proximity log, on the other hand, is relatively
insensitive to mudcakes, but it requires an invaded zone

24
with a di of about 40". in order to provide direct approximations of Rxo.
(b) It can be combined with other tools, such as the DLL and DIL, while the MLL or PL require a separate run
(and therefore more rig-time, and risk of sticking)

The surveying current flows outward from a central electrode, Ao. Bucking currents, passing between the
electrodes, A0 & A1, flow in the mudcake and, to some extent, in the formation. The measuring current, Io,
is thereby confined to a path directly into the formation, where it quickly “bells” out and returns to a
remote electrode, B. To achieve this, the bucking current is adjusted to make the monitor voltage equal to
zero. By forcing the measure current to flow directly into the formation, the effect of mudcake resistivity
on tool response is minimized; yet, the tool still has a very shallow depth of investigation.

Conventional and Focused Micro Resitivity Logs and Their Application

1. Micro-resistivity devices are used to determine or delineate permeable beds by detecting the
presence of mudcake and to measure the resistivity of flushed zone (Rxo).

2. The measurement of the resistivity of flushed zone is useful for calculating fluid saturations.

3. The microlaterolog measurement is sensitivity to mudcakes. When mudcake thickness exceeds

about 3/8", the log readings are severely influenced at high Rxo/ Rmc contrasts.

4. The Proximity log, is relatively insensitive to mudcakes, but it requires an invaded zone with a d i of
about 40". in order to provide direct approximations of Rxo.

5. MSFL is a pad-mounted spherically focused logging device that has replaced the microlaterolog and
Proximity tools.

6. MSFL is less sensitive to the mud-cake than the MLL, and reads shallower than the PL.

7. By careful selection of electrode spacing and bucking-current controls, the MSFL measurement can
be used for minimum mud- cake effect without an undue increase in the depth of investigation.

8. R xo can be determined from the microlaterolog or MSFL logs and can sometimes be derived from
the Microlog or the Proximity log:

Where Ø can be estimated from porosity log, S or is the estimated value of residual oil saturation.

In water-bearing formations, this estimate may be good since So, can be fairly safely assumed to be zero. In
hydrocarbon-bearing formations, any uncertainty in Sor, will, of course, be reflected in the Rxo estimation.

V. Induction Log
Induction logging was originally developed to measure formation resistivities in boreholes containing oil-
based muds and in air-drilled boreholes because electrode devices could not work in these nonconductive
boreholes. However, because the tools were easy to run and required much less in the way of chart

25
corrections than laterals or normals, induction tools were used in a wide range of borehole salinity soon
after their introduction.

The induction tool has been the basic resistivity tool used in logging
low- to medium-resistivity formations drilled with fresh water, oil, or
air for over 25 years.

Principle of Induction Tool

The induction sonde consists of 2 wire coils, a transmitter (Tx) and a

receiver (Rx). High frequency alternating current (20 kHz) of constant
amplitude is applied to the transmitter coil (Transmitter Oscillator).

This gives rise to an Alternating (primary) magnetic field around the

sonde (Michael Faraday law), which induced eddy currents into the
surrounding rocks, these eddy currents create a secondary magnetic
field in the formation.

Because of alternating current in the transmitter coil is of constant

frequency and amplitude, the ground loop currents are directly proportional to the formation conductivity.

The primary and secondary magnetic fields induce the emf (Electromotive force) in the receiver coil.

The voltage induced in the receiver coil is proportional to the ground loop currents and, therefore, to the
conductivity of the formation. The measuring point is the mid-point of the emitter-receiver spacing.

 The more secondary magnetic field generate in the formation, then high voltage receiver in the
receiver. It means more conductive formation (low resistivity).
 The less secondary magnetic field generate in the formation, then low voltage receiver in the
receiver. It means less conductive formation (high resistivity).

The conductivity is measured in milli-mhos per

meter and presented on a linear scale.

The available induction logging tools are:

• 6FF40 induction-electrical survey (IES) Tool
• The 6FF28 IES Tool
• The DIL-LL8 Tool
• The Induction-SFL (ISF) Tool
• DIL-SFL Tool

26
Factors affecting the induction log responses & corrections are usually incorporated in the
various interpretation charts that involve induction logs:

• The response of the instrument is dependent upon 1) the depth of filtrate invasion, 2) the resistivity
ratio between the filtrate and formation water, and 3) hydrocarbon mobility
• Propagation of the signal in a thick formation with cylindrical boundaries of contrasting
conductivity.
• Coil Spacing - Each pair is affected differently by the conductive zones encountered. The longer the
coil spacing, the greater the loss of signal due to the propagation effects.

The induction log must be corrected before the measurements can be used. The Charts are available to
assist in making the corrections. The corrections for induction logs include:
 Borehole Correction
 Surrounding Bed Correction
 Invasion Correction
 High-Resistivity Formations
 Effects of Dipping Bed
 Annulas
 Salt Muds

Advantages of Induction Log

Nearly all resistivity measurements are now made with focused devices. These tools are designed to
minimize the influence of the borehole fluid and surrounding beds. Two types of tools exist: laterolog and
induction tools. They have unique characteristic that favour their use in specific, and often different,
situations and applications.

Logging systems used before the introduction of induction logging depended on the presence of an
electrically conductive fluid in the borehole to transmit electric current to the formation. In most rotary
drilled wells, the drilling fluid is a water-base mud that conducts electricity. However, some wells are drilled
with nonconductive fluids, such as oil-base muds, air, and gas. Under such conditions, it is impossible to
obtain a satisfactory electrical log using conventional electric logging tools.

Induction logging does not depend upon physical contact between the walls of the wellbore and the
logging tool. The induction logging tool acts like a transformer: the transmitter coil is energized with
alternating current, which induces in the formation a secondary current that is proportional to the
electrical conductivity of the formation and to the cross-sectional area affected by the energizing coil. The
higher the conductivity of the formation, the lower the resistivity, and the larger the formation current will
be. This current in turn induces a signal into a receiver coil, the intensity of which is proportional to the
formation current and conductivity. The signal detected by the receiver coil is amplified and recorded at
the surface.

Induction logging equipment provides a record of the formation conductivity over a wide range. The
accuracy is excellent for conductivity values higher than 20 mmho/m (resistivity values less than 50 ohm-m)
and is acceptable in lower conductivity ranges (down to 5 mmho/m). Beyond this limit, the induction log
continues to respond to formation conductivity variations, but with diminished accuracy. There is a small
uncertainty of about ±1 mmho/m on the zero of the present equipment.

27
The induction log had many advantages over the conventional ES log:

1. When used for logging wells drilled with water-base muds

2. Designed for deep investigation, induction logs can be focused in order to minimize the influences
of the borehole, the surrounding formations, and the invaded zone

3. The induction tool works best when the borehole fluid is an insulator-even air or gas.

4. The tool also works well when the borehole contains conductive mud unless the mud is too salty,
the formations are too resistive, or the borehole diameter is too large.

Criteria for Selection of Induction and Lateral Logging Tool

Nearly all resistivity measurements are now made with focused devices. These tools are designed to
minimize the influence of the borehole fluid and surrounding beds. Two types of tools exist: laterolog and
induction tools. They have unique characteristic that favour their use in specific, and often different,
situations and applications.

The laterolog is generally recommended in holes drilled with very conductive drilling mud (i.e., salt mud).
The induction log is generally recommended in holes drilled with nonconductive fluids, such as oil-base
muds, air, and gas.

The induction tool, being a conductivity-sensitive device, is most accurate in low- to medium resistivity
formations. The laterolog tool, being a resistivity device, is most accurate in medium- to high-resistivity
formations.

The nature of the two tools can be described simply by saying that laterolog devices “see” the more
resistive zones; induction tools “see” the more conductive zones.

Thus R, is greater than Rt, the induction tool is preferred for Rt determination, and the laterolog tool is
preferred where R, is less than Rt Since the induction tool is a conductivity-seeking device it responds
strongly to high conductivity in the borehole.

Recent modelling efforts have led to codes that compute the borehole signal with arbitrary formation and
borehole conductivities, and in any borehole size and at any standoff. A caliper, recorded with the
induction tool, is required for the borehole correction

Both laterolog and induction measurements are influenced by the borehole and by surrounding beds. Even
relatively thick beds may have sane effect on their measurements. The measurements of both devices
should be corrected for borehole and surrounding bed effects. Although these corrections are usually
small, it is good practice to make them to insure that they are not overlooked in those few cakes where
they are significant. To correct either the LLD or the ID measurements for invasion effects, at least three
resistivity measurements of differing depths of investigation are required. It is, therefore, strongly
recommended that the resistivity log include at least three resistivity measurements.

28
Determination of True Resitivity (Rt) of the Formation

If the drilling fluid is very conductive, the laterolog should be used. These device can successfully log beds
that are even less than 1 ft thick. Correction for presence of the invaded zone and get the deep depth of
investigation (Rt).

Induction logging was originally developed to measure formation resistivities in boreholes containing oil-
based muds and in air-drilled boreholes because electrode devices could not work in these nonconductive
boreholes.They are generally used for determination of formation conductivity{(reciprocal of resistivity
(Rt)}

Determination of Archie’s Equation

1.Formation Factor and Porosity

The resistive of water bearing formation (Ro) is proportional to the resistivity of the brine with fully
saturated (Rw), the constant of proportionality is called the formation resistivity factor.

Ro ∝ Rw
Ro = F .RW
F = Ro/ RW

29
 Where
The proportionality constant F is termed the formation factor.
Rw=Resistivity of formation water (brain resistivity)
Ro=Resistivity of water bearing formation (Formation having resistivity at 100% brain water)

For a given porosity, the ratio R0/Rw, remains nearly constant for all values of R w, below about 1 ohm-m.
For fresher, more resistive waters, the value of F may decrease as R w , increases. This phenomenon is
attributed to a greater proportionate influence of surface conductance of the rock matrix.

For a given saturating brine water, the greater the porosity of a formation, the lower the resistivity R0 of
the formation, and the lower the formation factor F.
Therefore, the formation factor is inversely related to porosity. It is also a function of pore structure and
pore-size distribution.

Archie proposed, based on observations, a formula relating porosity Ø, and formation factor, F; the
relationship is
F = 1/ φm [F = a/ φm]
Where
Φ=porosity, a = tortuosity and m= cementation factor

F is dependent on lithology or pore structure. The generalized relationship between F & Ø has been given
in
For sands: a = 0.62, m= 2.15, and n=2
F= 0.62/ Ø2.15
The relationship is popularly referred to as the Humble Formula.

To eliminate the fractional cementation exponent, the Humble formula is sometimes simplified to a = 0.81,
m= 2, and n=2
F= 0.81/ Ø2
For carbonate:
a=1, m=2 and n=2
F= 1/ Ø2
The relationship is popularly referred to as the Archie Formation Factor Relationship.

30
2.Calculation of Rw by Archie’s equation:
Resistivity of water - Rw
Rw = φem Rt /a
Where
Φe = average porosity from neutron and density log at clean water sand.
Φe = (Φn+ Φd)/2, Φn value direct form log and Φd value from bulk density converted to porosity.
Rt = true resistivity at clean water sand.
a, m and n are tortuosity constant, cementation exponent and saturation exponent.
These values are depending on the texture of the rock and current flow through the rock pore.

Clastic reservoir rock : a = 0.62 & 0.81, m = 2 & 2.15, n = 2

Carbonate reservoir rock : a = 1, m = 2, n = 2

3. Calculation of the Sw from Archies Equation: (clean sand formation)

The fraction or percentage of pore space containing water is termed water saturation, denoted S w. The
remaining fraction containing oil or gas is termed hydro-carbon saturation, Sh, which of course; equals (1 —
Sw).

Archie determined experimentally that the water saturation of a clean formation

can be expressed in terms of its true resistivity (Rw) as

where:
Sw = water saturation
Φ= porosity.
a = tortuosity factor.
m = cementation exponent.
n = saturation exponent
Rt = formation resistivity
Rw = formation water resistivity
Hydrocarbon saturation (Sh):
Sh-Sw=1
Sh=1-Sw
Where
Sh= hydrocarbon Saturation in fractions
Sw= water saturation in fractions

31
4. Calculation of Mud filtrate Saturation (Sxo)
The flushed zone can also be expressed by the Archies formula

Where
Rmf= Resistivity of mud filtrate
Rxo=Resistivity of flushed zone
Hydrocarbon Saturation in flushed zone:
Shr+Sxo=1
Shr=1-Sxo
Where
Shr= Residual hydrocarbon saturation in flushed zone
Sxo= Water saturation in flushed zone.

 The comparison of the water saturation obtained in the flushed zone and in the uninvaded zone
determines the bulk volume fractions of oil displaced by invasion process
Sh=1-Sw & Shr=-Sxo
The bulk volume of move oil is φ (Sxo-Sw)

 Sw&Sxo can combined to yield the ratio of the saturation in the virgin zone to the saturation in the
flushed zone.

Empirical observation suggest that Sxo ̴ Sw1/5

This method determining water saturation is known as Ratio method.

Resistivity Index(RI)

Since crude oil & natural gas are non-conductors of electricity, their presence in the reservoir rock
increases resistivity. Resistivity index is used to characterize reservoir rock that are partially saturated with
water and also contain oil or gas or both.
The ratio of the resistivity of a formation bearing hydrocarbon to Resistivity of water bearing formation.
RI=Rt/Ro
Rt= True Resistivity of the formation.(hydrocarbon Bearing formation)
Ro=Resistivity of water bearing formation (Formation having resistivity at 100% brain water)

32
Applications of Resistivity Logs

Importance of Electrical Resistivity Measurement / Principle Uses in Hydrocarbon E&P

It is the one measurement for which tools having a deep depth of investigation (up to several feet beyond
the borehole) exist.

Resistivity measurements are essential for saturation determinations - particularly saturation

determinations in the virgin, un-invaded portion of the reservoir.

Resistivity measurements are employed, singly and in combination, to determine formation resistivity in
the un-invaded formation (true resistivity, Rt)
Resistivity measurements are also used to determine the resistivity close to the borehole (flushed-zone
resistivity, Rxo), where mud filtrate has largely replaced the original pore fluids.

Resistivity measurements, along with porosity and water resistivity, are used to obtain values of water
saturation.

Saturation values from both shallow and deep resistivity measurements can be compared to evaluate the
producibility of the formation.

The degree of compaction with depth in sand-shale series has been studied with resistivity, density and
acoustic logs. As already mentioned, both deep and micro-tools can serve as fracture indicators, though
confirmation is needed from other logs.

The micro-tools give fine definition of thin boundaries, down to a fewinches thickness. (This resolution is
surpassed by the HDT.) Large depthscales are often used with micro-tools (1/40), to bring out the fine
detailing. Of the deep-reading tools, the laterologs have the best verticaldefinition.

Recognition of hydrocarbon zones by observing a difference in the shallow, medium and deep resistivity
tool responses.

If all three curves are low resistivity, and overlie each other, the formation is impermeable shale, or, rarely,
the formation is permeable and water-bearing but the mud filtrate has the same resistivity as the
formation water.

If all three curves are higher resistivity than the surrounding shales, and overlie each other, the formation is
an impermeable cleaner formation (sandstone, limestone).

If the shallow curve has low resistivity, but the medium and deep penetrating tools have a higher resistivity
that is the same (they overlie each other), the formation is permeable and contains only formation water.

If the shallow curve has low resistivity, the medium as a higher resistivity, and the deep one has an even
higher resistivity (i.e., there is separation of the medium and deep tool responses), the formation is
permeable and contains hydrocarbons.

33
Mineral Exploration Mineral deposits are normally located in regions that meet certain criterion as defined
in certain geologic models. When exploration begins, one of the most important exploration methods used
is the resistivity survey. A resistivity survey can be used to define conductive mineral deposits that exist
below the surface of the earth. Many mineral deposits have been located that were completely covered by
alluvial deposits. Resistivity can be used to measure depth to bedrock in placer gold mining. Paleo-channels
can be located using resistivity methods.

Mineral Borehole Logging Follow-up exploration activities usually include core drilling to sample the
mineral deposit. Core sampling provides a direct method of collecting data that gives preliminary economic
value to a mineral deposit. Borehole Resistivity logging provides additional data about potential ore bodies
that can be helpful in further determination of economic value.

Water Exploration Resistivity surveys are conducted in exploration for water. Water saturated sands and
gravels offer a resistivity contrast to near surface unsaturated sands and gravels. Vertical Electrical
sounding (VES) can be used in this application.

Water Well Logging Water quantity and quality may be determined using resistivity logging methods.
Water quality in terms of total dissolved solids (TDS) is determined by interpretation of relative high
resistivity compared to low resistivity water bearing zones.

34