An adaptation is a trait that allows individuals to produce more offspring in a particular

environment than individuals without the trait. Adaptations are genetic changes that result from
natural selection exerted by the environment. Although the genetic characteristics of populations
change through time in response to natural selection, the genetic characteristics of individuals
do not. If the phenotype of an individual changes in response to environmental change, the
change in the individual is due to acclimation-not adaptation.

Homeostasis (pages 739-743)

Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of relatively constant physical and chemical conditions
inside the body. Animals have a set point or preferred value for blood pH, tissue oxygen
concentration, nutrient availability, and other parameters. For example, mammals have a set
point for body temperature of about 37*C. If an individual starts to overheat, it will pant or sweat
and seek a cool environment in response. If its body temperature begins to drop, it will respond
by shivering, basking in the sun, or fluffing its fur.

Tissues, Organs, and Systems: How Does Structure Correlate with

Function? (pages 733-735)
There is often a strong correlation between the structures found in animals and their function.
Not all structures have functions, however, and not all traits are adaptive. Some traits exist
because they are remnants of structures that were present in ancestors or that appeared in the
individual as an embryo. Further, all adaptations are constrained by genetic correlations with
other traits, lack of genetic variation, historical constraints, and trade-offs. In reproduction, for
example, females must make a trade-off between the number and quality (size) of eggs that
they produce. Because trade-offs are inevitable, all adaptations are compromises.

Plant Form and Function

At a Glance

The following is a brief summary of the textbook contents for this chapter:

Case Study: The Hunt for Medical Treasures

1) How Are Plant Bodies Organized?

Flowering Plants Consist of a Root System and a Shoot System
Flowering Plants Can Be Divided into Two Categories

2) How Do Plants Grow?

During Growth, Meristem Cells Give Rise to Differentiated Cells
Different Processes Are Responsible for Growth in Length and Width

3) What Are the Tissues and Cell Types of Plants?

Dermal Tissue Covers the Plant Body
Ground Tissue Makes Up Most of the Young Plant Body
Vascular Tissue Consists of Xylem and Phloem
4) How Do Roots Grow and What Do They Do?
Roots Elongate by Primary Growth
The Epidermis of the Root Is Very Permeable to Water
The Cortex Controls the Absorption of Water and Nutrients
The Vascular Cylinder Contains Xylem and Phloem and Meristem for Branch Roots

5) How Do Stems Grow and What Do They Do?

The Epidermis of the Stem Retards Water Loss While Allowing Carbon Dioxide to Enter
The Cortex and Pith Support the Stem, Store Food, and Photosynthesize
Vascular Tissues in Stems Transport Water, Dissolved Nutrients, and Hormones
Branches Form from Lateral Budds Consisting of Meristem Cells
Secondary Growth Produces Thicker, Stronger Stems
Some Specialized Stems Produce New Plants or Store Water or Food

6) What Is the Structure of Leaves and What Do They Do?

Leaves Have Two Major Parts
Specialized Leaves May Provide Support, Store Food, or Even Capture Insects

7) How Do Plants Acquire Nutrients?

Roots Take Up Minerals Dissolved in Water
Fungi and Bacteria Help Plants Acquire Nutrients

8) How Do Plants Acquire Water and Transport Water and Minerals?

Transpiration Provides the Force for Water Movement in Xylem
Water Enters Roots Mainly by Pressure Differences Created by Transpiration
Adjustable Stomata Control the Rate of Transpiration

Plant Form and Function

Types of plant cells and their function:

1. Parenchyma cells- in the leaves they are packed with chlorophyll and are the primary
photosynthetic area.  In the roots they store starch deposits as a food reserve.
2. Collenchyma cells- Cells that are specialized for support.  They have thickened Primary
walls and stiffen leaves and stems.
3. Sclerenchyma cells-thickened secondary cell walls that are strengthened with lignin
molecules.  Their function is also to strengthen and stiffen stems and other structures.
4. Tracheids and vessel elements-Cells that are dead at maturity and function in conducting
water.
5. Sieve tube members-Food conducting cells.  They have an opening between cells to
facilitate the flow of materials.

Plant Tissues- a group of cells that function as a unit.

1. Epidermis- A single layer of cells that cover the entire plant.  The epidermis is covered
by a non-living waxy cuticle that reduces water loss.
2. Ground tissue-Made up of cells below the epidermis and includes palisade cells,
parenchyma cells, collenchyma cells, and sclerenchyma cells.
3. Vascular tissue-Conducting tissue. Xylem conducts water, and Phloem conducts sugars. 
They are arranged in vascular bundles.
Plant Systems
Anatomy of the Root-Primarily for absorption and storage.

1. Root cap-Covers and protects the tip of the root.

2. Embryonic region-Region of most rapid growth where mitosis is occurring most rapidly.
3. Region of elongation-Region behind the embryonic region where dividing cells increase
in size.
4. Region of maturation- region where dividing cells reach maturity.  Region where root
hairs are found.
5. Stele – central arrangement of vascular tissue in the roots.
6. Root hairs- Increase the surface area for absorption of water and minerals.

Anatomy of the Shoot-Primarily for support an display of the leaves

1. Apical meristem-Cells at the apex that lengthen the stem.

2. Nodes- Point of leaf attachment.
3. Internodes-Portion of the stem between consecutive nodes.
4. Lateral buds- Contain cells capable of producing side branches.

Anatomy of the Leaf-Main Photosynthetic Region

1. Petiole-Stalk for attachment to the stalk.

2. Blade-Broad surface of the leaf.
3. Epidermis-Outer layer of cells covered by the waxy cuticle,
4. Guard cells-Change shape by gaining or losing water and open or close respiratory pores
called stomata
5. Stomata-Pores on the underside of the leaf where gas exchange takes place.

Mesophyll-Photosynthetic tissue.

6. Palisade layer- Column shaped parenchyma cells in layers below the epidermis.  They are
packed with chlorophyll and this is the main photosynthetic area of the leaf.
7. Spongy layer-Composed of loosely packed parenchyma cells with air spaces between. 
Function in photosynthesis and carbohydrate storage.