energies

Article
Innovative Turbine Intake Air Cooling Systems and
Their Rational Designing
Andrii Radchenko 1 , Eugeniy Trushliakov 1 , Krzysztof Kosowski 2 , Dariusz Mikielewicz 2, * and
Mykola Radchenko 1
1 Department of Ship Electroenergetic Systems, Admiral Makarov National University of Shipbuilding,
Heroes of Ukraine Avenue 9, 54000 Mykolayiv, Ukraine; andrad1978@gmail.com (A.R.);
rektor@nuos.edu.ua (E.T.); nirad50@gmail.com (M.R.)
2 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Gdańsk University of Technology, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland;
krzysztof.kosowski@pg.edu.pl
* Correspondence: dariusz.mikielewicz@pg.edu.pl




Received: 15 September 2020; Accepted: 20 November 2020; Published: 25 November 2020


Abstract: The efficiency of cooling ambient air at the inlet of gas turbines in temperate climatic
conditions was analyzed and reserves for its enhancing through deep cooling were revealed. A method
of logical analysis of the actual operation efficiency of turbine intake air cooling systems in real
varying environment, supplemented by the simplest numerical simulation was used to synthesize
new solutions. As a result, a novel trend in engine intake air cooling to 7 or 10 ◦ C in temperate
climatic conditions by two-stage cooling in chillers of combined type, providing an annual fuel
saving of practically 50%, surpasses its value gained due to traditional air cooling to about 15 ◦ C
in absorption lithium-bromide chiller of a simple cycle, and is proposed. On analyzing the actual
efficiency of turbine intake air cooling system, the current changes in thermal loads on the system in
response to varying ambient air parameters were taken into account and annual fuel reduction was
considered to be a primary criterion, as an example. The improved methodology of the engine intake
air cooling system designing based on the annual effect due to cooling was developed. It involves
determining the optimal value of cooling capacity, providing the minimum system sizes at maximum
rate of annual effect increment, and its rational value, providing a close to maximum annual effect
without system oversizing at the second maximum rate of annual effect increment within the range
beyond the first maximum rate. The rational value of design cooling capacity provides practically the
maximum annual fuel saving but with the sizes of cooling systems reduced by 15 to 20% due to the
correspondingly reduced design cooling capacity of the systems as compared with their values defined
by traditional designing focused to cover current peaked short-term thermal loads. The optimal
value of cooling capacity providing the minimum sizes of cooling system is very reasonable for
applying the energy saving technologies, for instance, based on the thermal storage with accumulating
excessive (not consumed) cooling capacities at lowered current thermal loads to cover the peak loads.
The application of developed methodology enables revealing the thermal potential for enhancing the
efficiency of any combustion engine (gas turbines and engines, internal combustion engines, etc.).

Keywords: combustion engine; intake air; cooling capacity; chiller; current thermal load; annual
fuel reduction

1. Introduction
Fuel efficiency of combustion engines (gas turbines [1–3], diesel engines [4] and gas engines [5–7])
falls with raising an ambient air temperature at their intake. Gas turbines (GT) are especially sensitive
to intake conditions [8–10]: a specific fuel consumption increases by 0.4 to 1.0 g/(kWh) for every 1K rise

Energies 2020, 13, 6201; doi:10.3390/en13236201 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 6201 2 of 22

in intake air temperature. A lot of ambient air cooling technologies were developed to enhance engine
output [11–13]. The cheapest and most widespread in hot climatic conditions is a contact method by
evaporation of water sprayed into air stream at the intake of GT compressor [14] and a novel contact
cooling according to Maisotsenko cycle [15,16], but their efficiency is limited by the magnitudes of
ambient air wet bulb temperature and they are not so effective in temperate climatic conditions.
Meantime the GT efficiencies are typically of 30 to 35% and a major part of the fuel energy
consumed is dissipated to atmosphere as exhaust gases. Therefore, the use of exhaust heat from
GT is a very effective trend in enhancing their overall efficiency [17,18]. Issuing from this, turbine
intake air cooling (TIAC) in exhaust heat recovery chillers is a very perspective approach to improving
the fuel efficiency of GT at increased intake ambient air temperatures [19–21]. Thus, cooling intake
air by converting the heat of exhaust gas in chillers provides increasing the efficiency of GT with
corresponding fuel saving at raised ambient air temperatures [22–24].
The absorption lithium-bromide chillers (ACh) are the most widely used in a hot climate [25–27].
They are characterized by a high efficiency: their coefficients of performance COP is 0.7 to 0.8 (COP is
ratio of generated cooling capacity Q0 , kW, to the heat consumed Qh , kW), environmentally friendly,
and noise free [28–30]. The same advantages and ability to use a low potential heat with a bit less
COP are peculiar for adsorption chillers [31,32]. The refrigeration vapor compression chillers require
mechanical or electrical driving [33], while absorption and adsorption chillers use only waste heat.
Some authors have investigated the use of ACh to improve the efficiency of contact methods of
cooling, in particular by cooling the water injected into the air stream; however, the most common way
of cooling air at the inlet of the GT is the application of air coolers fed by ACh cooling capacity.
Many publications focused for improving ambient air processing by intensification of heat transfer
processes in air coolers-evaporators [34] and condensers [35–37] of refrigeration chillers, in particular,
through refrigerant recirculation to intensify heat transfer, increase heat flux and reduce temperature
difference in intake air coolers as result [38,39], waste heat recovery technics for combined cooling,
heating and power (CCHP), so-called trigeneration or integrated energy systems [40,41].
Some of principal technical innovations and methodological approaches in heat recovery:
jet technologies [42–44], deep exhaust heat use [45–47] for increasing the available waste heat potential
to be converted into refrigeration and others were developed for TIAC or might be successfully applied
in TIAC to match current cooling demands [48–50], in particular, two-stage air cooling [51].
The intake air temperature depression ∆t = tamb − ta2 , influencing the efficiency of TIAC, depends
on the ambient air temperature tamb and a temperature ta2 of air cooled in chiller at the inlet of GT,
which depends on the temperature of a coolant, i.e., on the type of chiller. In ACh of a simple cycle with
high coefficients of performance COP is 0.7 to 0.8 and a temperature of chilled water tw of about 7 ◦ C
an intake air can be cooled only to ta2 = 15 ◦ C. In the most simple in design and cheap refrigeration
ejector chillers (ECh) that use refrigerants as low boiling coolant, the intake air can be cooled to lower
temperatures ta2 is 7 to 10 ◦ C at the temperatures of boiling refrigerant t0 ranging from 1 to 5 ◦ C,
but with low COP from 0.2 to 0.3 that requires raised amounts of exhaust gas heat.
It is quite reasonable to apply a highly efficient ACh as a high-temperature stage of intake
air cooling from current ambient air temperatures tamb to ta2 = 15 ◦ C and a less efficient ECh as a
low-temperature stage for further subcooling air lower than 15 ◦ C. The application of such hybrid
intake air coolers is especially expedient for operation of GT in temperate climatic conditions. They are
able to provide deep intake air cooling with corresponding increase of TIAC operation duration and
much more annual effect as a result: fuel reduction or power output increase, compared to traditional
cooling in ACh.
Such innovative two-stage ambient air cooling systems consist of chillers that convert the heat of
exhaust gas into refrigeration in the form of coolant, feeding turbine intake air coolers, and could find
effective application in different types of combustion engines: gas turbines [52,53], gas engines for
combustion of biogas [54,55], stationary and marine power plants [56,57].
Energies 2020, 13, 6201 3 of 22

Many modern methods of analyses [58–60] are aimed to increase the effect gained due to ambient
air processing, in particular, to reduce energy and fuel consumption. Some of such methods include
calculation of cooling degree-hours (CDH) [14,61] and modified versions [62–64] to match current
cooling duties according to actual climatic conditions as well as thermal demand management
(TDM) [65,66] based on different criteria [67,68] to save energy in building conditioning, engine intake
air cooling and combined cooling, heat and power.
Cooling degree-hour (CDH) calculations are widely used for evaluating the efficiency of application
of ambient air cooling in site climatic conditions in power generation—combustion engine intake
air cooling [63,64], as well as in air conditioning [62]. So as the performance efficiency of TIAC
systems needs to be analyzed across the full range of operating conditions, the CDH number is used to
P
determine the total amount CDHs in a particular climate over a considered period.
The use of TIAC potential in terms of CDH provides easy calculation of fuel reduction and engine
power output augmentation for any considered period. For this purpose a climatic characteristic of GT
as dependence of specific fuel consumption be , g/(kWh), and GT power output Pe , kW, on intake air
temperature are used.
The ambient air temperature and relative humidity distribution during year or any cooling period
is very important input data for energy analyses and a design cooling load determination. The studies
on the input ambient data when evaluating gas turbine inlet cooling are presented in [62–64].
Although many researchers consider the cumulative CDH profile along with time elapsed [62],
only a few studies focus on analyzing the behavior of yearly cumulative cooling profiles in dependence
on loading to determine a design cooling load [63,65].
All the typical methods, based on summarizing the number of CDH, issue from the assumption
of a design cooling capacity as a sufficient to provide maximum cooling needs over the full range of
yearly operating conditions [63]. Such an approach may lead to considerable oversizing of the chillers
and the TIAC systems in the whole that requires to solve the problem of determining the correct design
cooling load excluding oversizing, as it was shown in [69–71].
A design cooling capacity Q0 of TIAC system, on the one hand, has to cover intake air cooling,
and needs to do so during as long a time of GT operation during a year as possible, which provides
the greatest annual fuel reduction. On the other hand, a design cooling capacity Q0 should not be
overestimated so that for the most part of the year a TIAC system would be able to operate at a
high load level close to a design value. Otherwise low efficiency of TIAC system operation takes
place, and on the contrary, when underestimating Q0 —insufficient turbine intake air cooling at high
ambient temperatures.
Thus, the fuel efficiency of GT in temperate climatic conditions firstly might be considerably
enhanced due to deep intake air cooling that needs the application of combined chillers and rational
designing of TIAC systems to guarantee a close to maximum annual fuel saving, but without system
overloading, as an alternative to their traditional designing to cover the maximum loading with
inevitable system oversizing.
The goal of this investigation is to increase the fuel efficiency of GT by deep intake air cooling
in combined absorption ejector TIAC systems with ACh as a high-temperature and ECh as a
low-temperature cooling stages and through rational designing of the proposed systems.

2. Materials and Methods

A method of logical analysis [72,73] of the actual operation efficiency of TIAC systems in real
varying environment, supplemented by the simplest numerical simulation that enables its easy
application in designing practice of any ambient air cooling system, is behind this research and
the design methodology proposed. The real input data on site actual climatic conditions (ambient
air temperature tamb and relative humidity ϕamb ) were taken by using the well-known programs,
for instance “meteomanz” [74].
Energies 2020, 13, 6201 4 of 22

To avoid errors caused by the approximation of the current changeable effect gained due to cooling
(fuel reduction, power output increase, etc.) at varying loading of TIAC systems in response to actual
climatic conditions, the fluctuations of the last are considered through summarizing the current values
of the effect and its evaluated by different rate of its annual value increment.
Thus, the novelty of the research methodological approach to analysis of the TIAC system
operation efficiency consists of summation of the current changeable effect (fuel reduction, etc.) due to
cooling air over the year as an annular effect (annual fuel saving). The rate of its increment according
to cooling capacity is used as an indicator to efficient realization of cooling capacity generated.
To realize the methodological approach mentioned above the improved methodology of TIAC
system designing based on the annual effect is developed. It involves additional stages to determine
an optimal value of cooling capacity, providing the minimum system sizes at maximum rate of annual
effect increment, and its rational value, providing a close to maximum annual effect without TIAC
system oversizing at the second maximum rate of annual effect increment within the range beyond the
first maximum rate.
The tradition methods of TIAC system designing is based on the approximation of varying current
values of the effect in the form of cumulative effect characteristic built by the samples of corresponding
current values of effect in dependence on loading. With this a design cooling load is selected about
20% higher than its value corresponding to the maximum of cumulative characteristic [65]. The most
widespread methods of TIAC system designing are intended to provide the maximum values of current
effect during a year or annual effect due to air cooling [63] and leads to overestimating design cooling
capacity and TIAC system oversizing as a result.
A proposed designing methodology based on the approach of two maximum rates of annual
effect increment is very quantitative and simple for realization in different types of energetic plants
including combustion engines and air conditioning systems.

2.1. General Assumptions and Hypothesis

The assumptions adopted for the analysis of the operation efficiency of TIAC systems and their
rational designing are as follows:

• The lowest temperature of air cooled in ACh of a simple cycle is assumed to be ta2 = 15 ◦ C and
limited by minimum temperature difference of 8 ◦ C between cooled air and chilled water leaving
ACh at tw = 7 ◦ C (water at the inlet of air cooler): ta2 = tw + 8 ◦ C.
• In the case of using a refrigerant as a coolant in the air cooler the temperature difference between
heat exchanging fluids is lower, 4 or 5 ◦ C, falling in dependence of the refrigerant boiling point
in air cooler within t0 of 2 to 5 ◦ C. This leads to lower values of minimum temperature ta2 of air
cooled in refrigerant chiller, for instance, 7 to 10 ◦ C in ECh: ta2 = t0 + (4 or 5) ◦ C.
• The last assumption regulates a joint operation of ACh and ECh in a two stage cooling air mode:
to 15 ◦ C in ACh and further subcooling to 10 ◦ C in ECh of a stage absorption-ejector chiller (SAECh)
and in cascade mode at lowered ambient air temperatures tamb when ambient air temperature
drops to tamb = 15 ◦ C the excessive (not consumed) cooling capacity of ACh is used for cooling the
condenser of ECh as a low cascade of cascade absorption-ejector chiller (CAECh).
• As well as proposed absorption-ejector TIAC systems are the advanced versions of typical basic
absorption TIAC system, the economic comparison with the last might be done taking into
account only the cost of extra heat exchangers of ECh (refrigerant evaporator-air cooler, refrigerant
condenser, and ejector) with unchanged maintenance cost, personal, etc. Because of fluctuations
in cost of heat exchangers of different manufacturers and a fuel especially the economic analysis
is to be conducted for the concrete case. Thus, the considered method of designing focuses to
provide just initial basic data as rational technical characteristics for further complicated detailed
economic analysis.
Energies 2020, 13, 6201 5 of 22

The hypothesis accepted to prove novel approaches to the principles of proposed innovative TIAC
system operation with account of actual climatic conditions are the following.
The fluctuations of current thermal loads on TIAC systems, caused by variable actual ambient air
parameters, should be covered by the chiller with high coefficients of performance COP, i.e., by ACh
with COP from 0.7 to 0.8 that provide cooling ambient air to 15 ◦ C. The further subcooling of air down
to 10 ◦ C and lower is conducted within a comparatively stable range of loading and can be covered by
less efficient ECh (COP is from 0.2 to 0.3) and more sensitive to load changes.
In temperate climatic conditions, when cooling load on ACh falls, the effect in reduced specific
fuel consumption might be still considerably enlarged due to deeper cooling ambient air at the intake
of GT to the temperatures from 7 to 10 ◦ C, compared with its traditional cooling to 15 ◦ C in ACh
of a simple cycle. According to this hypothesis a deep GT intake air cooling is considered to be a
perspective trend of enhancing turbine efficiency.
To provide deep cooling the absorption-ejector TIAC system operates as a stage system to conduct
two-stage cooling air consequently to the temperature of 15 ◦ C by chilled water from ACh and further
subcooling to about 10 ◦ C by boiling refrigerant from ECh.
At lowered ambient air temperatures, and thermal load on ACh accordingly, the excessive
(not consumed) cooling capacity of ACh is used for cooling the condenser of ECh as the low cascade of
cascade absorption-ejector chiller (CAECh) to provide deeper air cooling as compared with two-stage
cooling air.
The following hypothesis to prove the novel approaches to designing of TIAC systems by the
proposed method of determining a rational design cooling capacity are accepted.
P
The annual fuel reduction B is used as a primary criterion.
To avoid the errors caused by the approximation of the current changeable effect gained due to
cooling (fuel reduction, power output increase, etc.) at varying loading of TIAC systems in response to
actual climatic conditions, the fluctuations of the last are considered through summarizing the current
values of the effect and are evaluated by different rate of its annual value increment.
The summation of current values of changeable effect, gained due to air cooling at varying loading
of TIAC system, over the considered period (year), allows considering their changes by the rate of
its annual value increment (annual fuel reduction, power output increase, etc.) in response to design
TIAC system cooling capacities.
The optimal value of cooling capacity, providing the minimum TIAC system sizes, is associated
with the maximum rate of annual effect increment over the overall range of annual effect increment.
The rational value of TIAC system design cooling capacity, providing a close to maximum annual
effect without TIAC system oversizing, is associated with the second maximum rate of annual effect
increment within the range beyond the first maximum rate.

2.2. The Computation Algorithm

The cooling potential of GT intake air is estimated by cooling degree hours (CDH) calculated as
air temperature depression ∆t = ta − ta2 multiplied by the corresponding duration τ in hours: CDH =
∆t·τ, K·h. The summation of current numbers CDH = ∆t·τ, K·h for a year (month) gives an annual
(monthly) intake air cooling potential: ΣCDH = Σ(∆t·τ), K·h.
The real input data on site actual ambient air temperature tamb were taken by using the program
“meteomanz” [74].
The use of ambient air cooling potential in terms of CDH provides easy calculation of annual or
monthly fuel reduction B or other effect, for instance, annual power energy production or refrigeration
energy generation per estimated time period. In the present investigation the climatic characteristics
of GT as dependence of specific (or total) fuel consumption be on intake air temperature are used.
With this, the CDH numbers are multiplied by the value of decrease ∆be in specific fuel consumption
for every 1K drop in intake air temperature, ∆be /∆t, and by turbine power output Pe [61,71]:
Energies 2020, 13, 6201 6 of 22

• current values of total fuel reduction per an hour

B = CDH (∆be /∆t)·Pe

or specific fuel reduction (for 1 kW turbine power output)

b = CDH (∆be /∆t) (1)

• annual total fuel reduction

ΣB = ΣCDH (∆be /∆t)·Pe

or annual specific fuel reduction (for 1 kW turbine power output)

Σb = ΣCDH (∆be /∆t) (2)

A total cooling capacity Q0 , required for cooling air with flow rate Ga :

Q0 = ca ξ·∆ta ·Ga , (3)

where ∆ta = ta − ta2 —depression of ambient air temperature; ta2 —temperature of cooled air at the
air cooler outlet; ξ—specific heat ratio of the total heat (latent and sensible) rejected from air during
cooling to its sensible heat; ca —specific heat of humid (moist) air, kJ/(kg·K).
To simplify calculations and to apply their results for any total cooling capacity Q0 and GT
power output, it is convenient to carry out the calculations and present their results in relative
(specific) value per unit air mass flow rate (Ga = 1 kg/s)—in the form of specific cooling capacity: q0 =
Q0 /Ga , kW/(kg/s), or kJ/kg, as well as fuel reduction in specific (relative) values b for 1 kW power
P

output of GT. For simplifying the application of calculation results for GT with various values of
decrease ∆be in specific fuel consumption for every 1 ◦ C drop in intake air temperature the value of
∆be /∆t = 1.0 g/(kWh·K) was assumed. Therefore, if the real value for the concrete GT, for instance,
is ∆be /∆t = 0.35 g/(kWh·K), the annual specific fuel reduction Σb (2) should be multiplied by 0.35.
A specific cooling capacity q0 , required for cooling air of unit mass flow rate Ga = 1 kg/s:

q0 = Q0 /Ga = ca ξ·∆ta , (4)

P
An improved method of TIAC system rational designed based on the annular fuel reduction B
curve dependence on cooling capacity Q0 as B = f (Q0 ) or in specific (relative) values b = f (q0 ) for
P P

1 kW power output of GT is developed to avoid oversizing.

The well-known method of design cooling load calculation based on maximum value of annular
P
fuel reduction B proceeding from annual CDH number as a primary criterion is used as the first
stage of developed methodology. It has been supplemented by addition stages focused to determine a
precise value of rational design cooling capacity that enables avoiding TIAC system oversizing.
A design specific cooling capacity value q0.opt (corresponding to total cooling capacity value
P
Q0.opt ) that provides a maximum rate b/q0 of annual fuel reduction increment and corresponding
P P P
annual specific fuel reduction bopt (corresponding to total values B/Q0 and Bopt ), and assumed as
optimal value, is determined at the second stage of calculation procedure.
P
The third stage focuses to calculate the maximum rate of annual fuel reduction increment b/q0 but
P P P
in a remaining range beyond the optimal annual specific fuel reduction bopt : [ b − bopt ]/q0 , where
b > bopt or corresponding total values Bopt : [ B − Bopt ]/Q0 , where B > Bopt . A cooling
P P P P P P P
P
capacity q0.rat , corresponding to the second maximum rate of annual fuel reduction increment b/q0 ,
is considered to be a precise value of rational design specific cooling capacity q0.rat or rational design
total cooling capacity value Q0.opt .
Energies 2020, 13, 6201 7 of 22

P
The fourth stage of proposed methodology is aimed to calculate the annual fuel reduction brat
P
or Brat close to its maximum value at a precise value of rational design cooling capacity q0.rat or Q0.rat ,
excluding system oversizing. Details of the calculation procedure have been presented in Appendix A.

3. Results
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 23

The GT operation climatic conditions are characterized by large fluctuations of ambient air
parameters: temperature
Energies 2020, 13, tamb , relative ϕamb and absolute damb humidity (Figure 1).
x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 23

Figure 1. Ambient air temperatures tamb, relative 𝑎𝑚𝑏 and absolute damb humidity in 2017, Mykolayiv
region (southern Ukraine).

Figure1.1. Ambient
Ambient air relative ϕ𝑎𝑚𝑏 and
Figure
The fluctuation ofair temperaturesttamb,, relative
temperatures
ambient air parameters
amb causes andabsolute
amb large
absoluteddamb humidity
changes humidity in 2017,
2017, Mykolayiv
ambof specificincooling
Mykolayiv
capacities q0
region
region (southern
(southern Ukraine).
Ukraine).
required for cooling ambient air of unit air mass flow rate, Ga = 1 kg/s, at the intake of GT (changes in
current specific thermal loads on cooling system) accordingly (Figure 2).
Thefluctuation
The fluctuationof ofambient
ambientairairparameters
parameterscausescauseslarge
largechanges
changesof ofspecific
specificcooling
coolingcapacities
capacitiesqq0
The fluctuation of ambient air parameters causes large changes of specific cooling capacities q00
requiredfor
required forcooling
coolingambient
ambientairairofofunit
unitair
airmass
massflow rate,GGa a== 11 kg/s,
flowrate, kg/s, at
at the
the intake
intake of
of GT
GT (changes
(changesin
in
required for cooling ambient air of unit air mass flow rate, Ga = 1 kg/s, at the intake of GT (changes in
current specific thermal loads on cooling system) accordingly
current specific thermal loads on cooling system) accordingly (Figure 2). (Figure 2).
current specific thermal loads on cooling system) accordingly (Figure 2).
The fluctuation of ambient air parameters causes large changes of specific cooling capacities q0
required for cooling ambient air of unit air mass flow rate, Ga = 1 kg/s, at the intake of GT (changes in
current specific thermal loads on cooling system) accordingly (Figure 2).

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Changes
Changesofofspecific
specificcooling
coolingcapacities q0.7q, q0.10 and q0.15 required for cooling ambient air with
capacities 0.7 , q0.10 and q0.15 required for cooling ambient air
unit mass flow rate of 1 kg/s from its actual temperature
with unit mass flow rate of 1 kg/s from its actual temperature tamb tot t2 =to
7,t10=and
7, 1015and
°C. 15 ◦ C.
amb 2

Figure 2. Changes
Such of specific cooling capacities q0.7, qcapacities
0.10 and q0.15 required for cooling ambient air with
Such large
large yearly variations
yearly variations of specific
of specific cooling
cooling capacities qq0.7 0.7,, qq0.10 and q0.15, required for cooling
0.10 and q0.15 , required for cooling
unit
ambient mass
air fromflow rate
current of 1 kg/s
air from its
temperatures actual
t temperature
to target tamb to t2 = 7,of
temperatures 10cooled
and 15 °C. a2 =
airtta2 = 7,
ambient air from current air temperatures ta to target temperatures of cooled air
a 7, 10,
10, and
and 15
15 °C
◦C
reveal the actual problem to choose a design cooling capacity of
reveal the actual problem to choose a design cooling capacity of the chillers and rational chillerthe chillers and rational chiller
Such large yearly variations of specific cooling capacities q0.7, q0.10 and q0.15, required for cooling
compound
compound of of TIAC
TIAC system
system to to cover
cover actual
actual cooling
cooling duties
duties without
without its its oversizing
oversizing andand provide
provide close
close to
to
ambient air from current air temperatures ta to target temperatures of cooled air ta2 = 7, 10, and 15 °C
maximum annual fuel reduction.
maximum annual fuel reduction.
reveal the actual problem to choose a design cooling capacity of the chillers and rational chiller
Traditionally
Traditionally aa turbine
turbine intake
intake air
air is
is cooled
cooled to to the
the temperature
temperature tta2 a2 ==1515C◦ C
bybya chilled
a chilled water
waterwith
witha
compound of TIAC◦ system to cover actual cooling duties without its oversizing and provide close to
temperature
a temperature ofof7 7C from
C from absorption
absorption lithium-bromide
lithium-bromide chiller
chiller(ACh)
(ACh)ofofa asimplesimplecyclecyclewith
with aa high
high
maximum annual fuel reduction.
coefficient of performance COP from 0.7 to 0.8
coefficient of performance COP from 0.7 to 0.8 (Figure 3). (Figure 3).
Traditionally a turbine intake air is cooled to the temperature ta2 = 15 C by a chilled water with a
temperature of 7 C from absorption lithium-bromide chiller (ACh) of a simple cycle with a high
coefficient of performance COP from 0.7 to 0.8 (Figure 3).
Energies 2020, 13, 6201 8 of 22
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 23

75°C
Hot water
90°C
Cooling tower

25°C
Exhaust gas
Ach

75°C
20°C
AC
Air 15°C 150°C Exhaust 90°C
Boiler

30°C
GT Electrical 12°C
Generator Cooled water
7°C

12°C
7°C
Electricity

Figure
Figure 3.
3. A
A scheme
scheme of
of gas
gas turbine
turbine intake
intake air
air cooling
cooling system
system with
with absorption
absorption lithium-bromide
lithium-bromide chiller
chiller
(ACh)
(ACh) using
using the
the heat
heat of
of exhaust
exhaust gas:
gas: AC—air
AC—air cooler.
cooler.

As
As mentioned above, above, the
the lowest
lowesttemperature
temperatureofofair aircooled
cooledininAChACh ofof a simple
a simple cycle
cycle is about
is about 15 15◦C

°C
andand limited
limited by bythethe temperature
temperature of chilled
of chilled waterwater ◦
of 7of C 7 °C at the
at the inlet
inlet of air
of air cooler.
cooler.
To
To provide turbine intake air cooling to lower temperature temperature of about 10 °C ◦ C with corresponding
corresponding
increment
increment of of fuel
fuel saving
saving thethe refrigerant
refrigerant with
with lower
lower boiling
boiling point
point can
can be
be used
used as as aa coolant
coolant in in the
the inlet
inlet
air
air cooler
cooler and
and thethe ECh
ECh applied
applied as as the
the most
most simple
simple in in design
design andand cheap,
cheap, but but not
not soso high
high efficient
efficient as as
ACh: itsits COP
COP is is 0.2
0.2 to
to 0.3
0.3 versus
versus COPCOP of of 0.7
0.7 for
for ACh.
ACh.
So
So as
as the
the COP
COP of of ECh
ECh falls
falls with
with lowering
lowering the the boiling
boiling temperature
temperature of of refrigerant,
refrigerant, in in order
order to to keep
keep
the COP at the level of about 0.3 the refrigerant boiling temperature is to be about t ◦C
the COP at the level about boiling temperature is 00 from 4 to 5
from 4 to 5 °C
and
and aa thermal
thermal loadload on onECh
EChshould
shouldbe berestricted
restrictedby byits
itsrange,
range,referred
referredto tosubcooling
subcoolingthe theair,
air,previously
previously
precooled
precooled in high efficient ACh.
Issuing
Issuing fromfrom this
this approach,
approach, aa novelnovel two-stage
two-stage TIAC TIAC system
system has has been
been proposed
proposed (Figure(Figure 4). 4).
Apparently it is reasonable to cool intake air from current ambient air temperature tamb ambto ta2= =
tota2 1515C ◦inC
ACh
in ACh with high
with coefficient
high coefficientof performance
of performance COP from
COP from0.7 to
0.70.8, but further
to 0.8, but furtherdeepdeepcooling air from
cooling ta2 =
air from
15 = 15
ta2 °C ◦ C down
down a2 =
to ta2to= t10 °C10is◦ C
possible by boiling
is possible by boilingrefrigerant
refrigerant from
from ECh,
ECh,i.e.,
i.e.,inincombined
combined two-stage
two-stage
absorption-ejector
absorption-ejector chiller (AECh) (Figure 4). The The use
use of of ECh
ECh asas aa second
second stage
stage of of TIAC
TIAC with
with previous
previous
ambient
ambient air precooling is caused by its low coefficient of performance COP from 0.2 to 0.3 that 0.3
air precooling is caused by its low coefficient of performance COP from 0.2 to that
requires
requires
enlargedenlarged
values ofvalues of heat generated
heat generated in exhaust in boiler
exhaust in boiler
the formin the form
of hot of hot
water or water
steam.or steam.
Further enhancing the efficiency of TIAC systems and the effect, as turbine fuel saving for example,
gained due to their application, especially in the case of their running in temperate climatic conditions,
is still depended on lowering the intake air temperature, limited by temperature of coolant in the
air cooler. In the case of ECh, as low-temperature stage of two-stage AECH (SAECh), a decrease
in refrigerant boiling temperature to t0 of 2 to 3 ◦ C is accompanied by dropping its COP to 0.2 and
lower. To compensate for a negative effect of decreasing a refrigerant boiling temperature t0 in ejector
thermodynamic cycle, the refrigerant condensing temperature tc should be decreased too. This might
be realized through cooling the condenser of ECh by chilled water from ACh with temperature of
about 7 ◦ C or by returned chilled water leaving the intake air cooler (high-temperature stage ACHT of
hybrid intake air cooler) with temperature of about 10 to 12 ◦ C. The last variant is more efficient due to
the use of chilled water of enlarged flow rate in intake air cooler that is accompanied by decreasing
its temperature arise and leads to increasing a heat flux in air cooler and reducing its dimensions as
a result.
Energies 2020, 13, 6201 9 of 22

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 23

75°C
90°C
Hot water

Exhaust gas
Ach Cooling tower

75°C
ACHТ ACLТ 90°C
10°C 150°C
Air Exhaust
boiler Electrical Cooled water
7°C
Generator Ref rig.
30°C
GT Generator Ejector 12°C
85°C
40°C
Ech
Exp. valve 30°C Condenser
3°C
8°C
7°C

12°C
Electricity

4. A
Figure 4. Ascheme
schemeofoftwo-stage
two-stage
gasgas turbine
turbine intake
intake air cooling
air cooling system
system in absorption-ejector
in stage stage absorption-ejector
chiller
chiller (SAECh):
(SAECh): ACHT—high-temperature
ACHT —high-temperature stage
stage of of air cooler;
air cooler; ACLT—low-temperature
ACLT —low-temperature stage ofstage of air
air cooler;
cooler; Exp.Valve—expansion
Exp.Valve—expansion valve. valve.

The reserves
Further for thethe
enhancing useefficiency
of cooling of capacity
TIAC systemsof AChand for the
enhancing
effect, as theturbine
efficiency
fuelofsaving
ACh are for
proceeded from the variation of current thermal loads on TIAC system.
example, gained due to their application, especially in the case of their running in temperate climatic At lowered ambient air
temperatures,
conditions, is and still thermal
depended load
ononlowering
TIAC system accordingly,
the intake the excessive
air temperature, cooling
limited bycapacity
temperatureof ACh of
can be used
coolant in theforair
cooling
cooler.theIn condenser
the case ofof EChastolow-temperature
ECh, provide deeper air cooling
stage to 7 ◦ C and
of two-stage AECH lower due to
(SAECh),
lowered
a decrease refrigerant boiling
in refrigerant temperature
boiling temperaturet0 of to
2 tot0 3of◦2Cto as3compared with two-stage
°C is accompanied coolingits
by dropping airCOP
to the
to
temperature of To ◦ C (at t0 of 4 for
10 compensate ◦
to 5a negative
C) in a stage absorption-ejector chiller (SAECh).
0.2 and lower. effect of decreasing a refrigerant boiling temperature t0
In thisthermodynamic
in ejector case, the ECh operates
cycle, theas refrigerant
the low cascade of cascade
condensing absorption-ejector
temperature tc shouldchiller (CAECh)
be decreased to
too.
provide deeper cooling the intake cooling ◦
air (to 7 the C and lower) previously
This might be realized through condenser of ECh byprecooled
chilled water to thefrom
temperature
ACh with of
15 ◦ C in the first high-temperature stage of air cooler by ACh (Figure 5).
temperature of about 7 °C or
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW by returned chilled water leaving the intake air cooler (high-temperature
10 of 23
stage ACHT of hybrid intake air cooler) with temperature of about 10 to 12 °C. The last variant is more
efficient due to the use of chilled water of enlarged flow rate in intake air cooler that 75°C
is accompanied
Hot water
by decreasing its temperature arise and leads to increasing a heat flux in air cooler and reducing 90°C its

dimensions as a result. Cooling tower

The reserves for the use of cooling capacity of ACh for enhancing the efficiency of ACh are
proceeded from the variation of current Exhaust gasthermal loads on TIAC system. At lowered ambient air
temperatures, and thermal load on TIAC system accordingly, the excessive cooling capacity of ACh
can be used for cooling the condenser of ECh to provide deeper air cooling to 7 °C and lower due to
75°C
lowered refrigerant boiling temperature t0 of 2 to 3 °C as compared with two-stage cooling air to the
AC AC 90°C
temperature
Air HT
of 10 °C
LT
(at t0 of 4 to150°C
10°C 5 °C) in a stage absorption-ejector chiller (SAECh).
Exhaust
In this case, the ECh operates as the Boiler low cascade of
Electrical cascade absorption-ejector chiller
Cooled water (CAECh)
Generator 7°C
to 30°C
provide deeper cooling the intake air (to 7 °C and lower) previously precooled to the temperature
GT 12°C
of 15 °C in the first high-temperature stage of air cooler by ACh Ejector
(Figure
85°C 5).
40°C
Refrig. ECh Condenser
Generator 20°C
3°C
8°C
7°C
12°C
Electricity

Figure
Figure 5.5. A
A scheme
schemeofoftwo-stage
two-stage gas
gas turbine
turbine intake
intake air cooling
air cooling system
system in stage
in stage cascade
cascade absorption-
absorption-ejector
ejector chiller
chiller (SCAECh).(SCAECh).

Such functioning of ECh as the low-temperature stage in SAECh to provide intake air cooling to
10 °C at increased ambient air temperatures and as low cascade of CAECh to provide deeper intake
air cooling to 7 °C and lower at decreased ambient air temperature enables matching daily and
seasonal fluctuations in thermal loads and efficient operation of TIAC systems in actual site climatic
conditions.
 8°C
7°C
12°C
Electricity

Figure 5. A scheme of two-stage gas turbine intake air cooling system in stage cascade absorption-
Energies 2020, 13, 6201 10 of 22
ejector chiller (SCAECh).

Suchfunctioning
Such functioningof ofECh
EChas asthe
the low-temperature
low-temperaturestage stagein
inSAECh
SAEChto toprovide
provideintake
intakeair
aircooling
coolingto to
10◦°C
10 C atatincreased
increasedambient
ambientair airtemperatures
temperatures andandasas
low low cascade
cascade of CAECh
of CAECh to provide
to provide deeper
deeper intakeintake
air
cooling to 7 ◦to
air cooling 7 °Clower
C and and lower at decreased
at decreased ambientambient air temperature
air temperature enables matching
enables matching daily anddaily
seasonaland
seasonal fluctuations
fluctuations in thermalinloadsthermal
and loads
efficientand efficientof
operation operation of TIAC
TIAC systems systems
in actual inclimatic
site actual site climatic
conditions.
conditions.
In this case, we deal with universal combined stage-cascade absorption-ejector chiller (SCAECh),
In this case,
functioning we dealatwith
as SAECh universal
increased combined
ambient air stage-cascade
temperaturesabsorption-ejector
and as SCAECh chiller at its (SCAECh),
decreased
functioning as
temperatures SAECh
or even at increased
as CAECh ambient
at ambient air temperatures
air temperatures close and
to 15 as◦ C SCAECh
and lower.atSuchits decreased
SCAECh
temperatures or even as CAECh at ambient air temperatures close to
provides a maximum effect, gained due to deep TIAC and matching daily and seasonal fluctuations 15 °C and lower. Such SCAECh in
providesloads,
thermal a maximum
especially effect, gained due
in temperate to deep
climatic TIAC and matching daily and seasonal fluctuations
conditions.
in thermal loads, especially
To determine a rationalin temperate
design thermal climatic
load conditions.
on TIAC system that provides close to maximum
annual values of fuel reduction the characteristic on
To determine a rational design thermal load TIACofsystem
curves annualthat provides
values of CDH close to maximum
versus specific
annual capacity
values ofq0fuel
(perreduction the flow rate Ga = 1curves
characteristic of annual values of CDHBversus
versus specific
P
cooling unit air mass kg/s) and total fuel reduction overall
cooling capacity
cooling capacity Q q00(per
(perunit
totalairair
massmass flow
flowrate Ga G
rate = a1) kg/s) andtemperatures
to target total fuel reduction ∑B versus
of cooled air ta2 : overall
7 and
10 ◦
cooling
C—in capacity
AECh; Q ◦
150 (per
C—in total
ACh air for
mass flow rate
climatic Ga) to target
conditions temperatures
in Mykolayiv region of (southen
cooled airUkraine)
ta2: 7 andare 10
°C—in AECh;
calculated as the15first,
°C—in ACh for
traditional, climatic
stage of TIAC conditions in Mykolayiv
system designing (Figureregion
6). (southen Ukraine) are
calculated as the first, traditional, stage of TIAC system designing (Figure 6).
ΣCDH, °C·h ΣB, t
70,000
70000
∑CDH7 700 ∑B7
60,000
60000
600
50,000
50000 ∑B10
∑CDH10 500
40,000
40000 400
30,000
30000 ∑CDH15 300 ∑B15

20,000
20000 200
10,000
10000 100
00 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 q40 45 50 0 500 1000 1500 2000 Q2500
0, kW
0, kW/(kg/s)

(a) (b)
Figure6.6. The
The annual
annual values
valuesof
ofCDH
CDHversus
versusspecific
specificcooling
coolingcapacity
capacityqq0 0(a)
(a)and
andtotal
totalfuel
fuelreduction
reduction ∑B
P
Figure B
versusoverall
versus overallcooling
coolingcapacity (b) for
capacityQQ00 (b) for tta2
a2: 7
7 and
and 10 ◦ C—in AECh;
10 °C—in AECh; 15 ◦ C—in ACh.
15 °C—in ACh.

The calculations are carried out for GT of rated power output NeISO = 10 MW and with account
to assumption that a reduction of air temperature ∆ta by 1K leads to a decrease in specific fuel
consumption ∆be by 1.0 g/(kWh), as it was assumed for easy calculation of fuel reduction B and b
P P

for another value of ∆be /∆ta .

As it was mentioned above, in order to simplify calculations and to apply their results for any total
cooling capacity Q0 and GT power output, it is convenient to carry out the calculations and present
their results in relative (specific) value per unit air mass flow rate (Ga = 1 kg/s)—in the form of specific
cooling capacity: q0 = Q0 /Ga , kW/(kg/s), or kJ/kg, as well as annual fuel reduction in specific (relative)
P
values b for 1 kW power output of GT.
The annual values of GT specific fuel reduction ∆b (for 1 kW of GT power) due to intake air
P

cooling from ambient air temperatures tamb to ta2 = 7, 10 and 15 ◦ C by chillers with various specific
cooling capacities q0 (per unit air mass flow rate Ga = 1 kg/s) for climatic conditions in Mykolayiv
region (southen Ukraine) are presented in Figure 7.
Figures 6 and 7 show that intake air cooling in AECh to ta2 = 10 ◦ C provides more than 50% greater
annual reduction in fuel consumption compared to cooling air to ta2 = 15 ◦ C in ACh. As Figure 7
shows, a specific cooling capacity q0.10 is 33 to 35 kW/(kg/s), or kJ/kg, provide cooling ambient air from
the current temperatures ta to ta2 = 10 ◦ C with annual specific fuel reduction b10 of 47 to 48 kg/kW
P

(Figure 7) with corresponding overall cooling capacity Q0.10 of 1300 to 1400 kW providing a total fuel
P
reduction B10 of 470 to 480 t (Figure 6) that is close to their maximum value at noticeable high rate of
their annual increment. While beyond the values Q0.10 of 1300 to 1400 kW or q0.10 of 33 to 35 kW/(kg/s)
for another value of Δbe/Δta.
As it was mentioned above, in order to simplify calculations and to apply their results for any
total cooling capacity Q0 and GT power output, it is convenient to carry out the calculations and
present their results in relative (specific) value per unit air mass flow rate (Ga = 1 kg/s)—in the form
of specific
Energies 2020,cooling
13, 6201 capacity: q0 = Q0/Ga, kW/(kg/s), or kJ/kg, as well as annual fuel reduction in specific
11 of 22
(relative) values ∑b for 1 kW power output of GT.
The annual values of GT specific fuel Preduction
P ∑Δb (for 1 kW of GT power) due to intake air
a rate of annual fuel reduction increment B or b is negligible, the range of corresponding cooling
cooling from ambient air temperatures tamb to ta2 = 7, 10 and 15 °C by chillers with various specific
capacities Q0 or q0 needed is wide that approves a considerable chiller oversizing. Thus, the precise
cooling capacities q0 (per unit air mass flow rate Ga = 1 kg/s) for climatic conditions in Mykolayiv
values of design cooling capacities Q0 or q0 are to be determined for appropriately sized TIAC system.
region (southen Ukraine) are presented in Figure 7.

Σb, g/kW
70,000
70000
Σb7
60,000
60000
50,000 Σb10
50000
40,000
40000
30,000
30000 Σb15
20,000
20000
10,000
10000
0
0
0 q0, kW/(kg/s)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

Figure 7.
Figure 7. The annual values
The annual values of
of specific
specific fuel
fuel reduction
reduction P
∑Δb against specific
∆bee against specific cooling
cooling capacity
capacity qq0 at
at
0
different temperatures of cooled air t a2: 7 and 10 °C—in AECh; 15 °C—in
different temperatures of cooled air ta2 : 7 and 10 ◦ C—in AECh; 15 ◦ C—in ACh.ACh.

Figures 6 andwith
Furthermore, 7 show
arising thata target
intaketemperature
air cooling in AECh to
of cooled airtta2a2=to1015°C ◦ Cprovides
it is moremore than 50%
problematic to
greater annual reduction in fuel consumption compared to cooling air
select precise value of rational design cooling capacity Q0.15rat or q0.15rat so as behavior of the curve to t a2 = 15 °C in ACh. As Figure
7 shows,
P
B = f (Qa0 )specific
or b =cooling
P capacity moderate
f (q0 ) becomes q0.10 is 33 to 35 kW/(kg/s),
(Figures 6 and 7). or kJ/kg,
Therefore provide the cooling
originalambient
method air of
from the current
determining temperatures
a design cooling capacityta to ta2has = 10 °C with
been annual
modified specificthe
by adding fuelstages
reduction
aimed∑b for of 47 to 48
10 calculation

kg/kW
of optimal(Figure
design7) with corresponding
cooling capacity Q overall cooling
or q0.opt capacity Q0.10
corresponding to of 1300 to 1400
a maximum kW
rate of providing
annual fuela
total fuel reduction P 10 of 470Pto 4800.opt
∑B t (Figure 6) that is close to their maximum value at noticeable
reduction increment B/Q0 ·or b/q0 as intermediate stage (Figure 8) for determining the precise value
high
of rate ofdesign
rational their annual
specificincrement.
cooling capacity While qbeyond
0.rat
the
(Figures values
9–11). Q 0.10 of 1300 to 1400 kW or q0.10 of 33 to

35 kW/(kg/s)
The pointsaOrate of annual fuel reduction increment ∑B or ∑b is negligible, the range of
15 and O10 on the TIAC cumulative characteristics of dependence of annual specific
corresponding
fuel reduction cooling
P
b15 and capacities
P
b10 on theQ 0 or q0cooling
specific neededcapacities
is wide qthat approves a considerable chiller
0.15 and q0.10 are determined according
oversizing. Thus, the precise values of design cooling
to optimal values of design specific cooling capacities q0.15opt and q0.10opt capacities Q 0 or, q 0 are to be determined
corresponding to maximum for
appropriately sized
P TIACP system.
values of ratios B/Q0 ·or b/q0 , i.e., maximum rate of annual fuel reduction increment.
Furthermore,
As with arising
Figure 8 shows, a maximum a targetrate temperature
of annualofspecific
cooled fuel air ta2reduction
to 15 °C itincrement
is more problematic
P
b/q0.15 dueto
select precise value of rational design cooling capacity Q or q
to cooling air to ta2 = 15 C takes place at the optimal design specific cooling capacity q0.15opt =
◦ 0.15rat 0.15rat so as behavior of the curve ∑B
= f(Q
16 0) or ∑b =and
kW/(kg/s) f(q0)provides
becomesthe moderate
annual(Figures
specific 6fuelandreduction
7). Therefore P the original method of determining
b15opt = 22.5 kg/kW considerably less
a design cooling capacity P has been modified by adding the stages
than its maximum value b15max = 27 kg/kW. With cooling air targeting aimed ta2 =for10 ◦calculation
C the optimalof optimal
specific
design cooling capacity Q or q corresponding to a maximum
cooling capacity q0.10opt = 27 kW/(kg/s) provides b10opt = 42 kg/kW less versus b10max = 49
0.opt 0.opt
P rate of annual
P fuel reduction
kg/kW.
Energies
increment2020,∑B/Q
13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
0·or ∑b/q0 as intermediate stage (Figure 8) for determining the precise value of rational
12 of 23

design specific cooling capacity q0.rat (Figures 9–11).

Σb/q0, g/kW/(kg/s) 1, 2st Σb, g/kW Σb/q0, g/kW/(kg/s) 1, 2st Σb, g/kW
1400 30,000
30000 1800 60,000
60000
t2= 15°C ∑b15max t2=10°C
1200 25,000 1600 Σb/q0.10
Σb/q0.15 ∑b15opt 25000 ∑b10max 50,000
50000
1400 O10 ∑b15opt
1000 O15 20,000 40,000
20000 1200 40000
∑b10
800 1000
15,000
15000 30,000
30000
600 800
10,000
10000 600 20,000
20000
400
5,000 400
200 5000 10,000
10000
200
0 q15opt 00 0 q10opt 00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 q50
0, kW/(kg/s)
55 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 q50
0, kW/(kg/s)
55
(a) (b)
Figure 8.8. Annual
Annual specific
specificfuel
fuelreduction
reduction ∑b anditsitsrelative
relative increment b/q ∑b/q 0 due to cooling ambient
P P
Figure b and increment 0 due to cooling ambient air
a2 =
airtto = 15C°C
ta215
to ◦ (a)(a)
andand ◦
1010C°C
(b)(b) against
against specific
specific cooling
cooling capacity
capacity q0 :q0q:0.opt
q0.optand
and ∑b
P
opt—optimal
bopt —optimal values.
values.

The points O15 and O10 on the TIAC cumulative characteristics of dependence of annual specific
fuel reduction ∑b15 and ∑b10 on the specific cooling capacities q0.15 and q0.10 are determined according
to optimal values of design specific cooling capacities q0.15opt and q0.10opt, corresponding to maximum
values of ratios ∑B/Q0·or ∑b/q0, i.e., maximum rate of annual fuel reduction increment.
As Figure 8 shows, a maximum rate of annual specific fuel reduction increment ∑b/q0.15 due to
 capacity q0.10opt = 27 kW/(kg/s) provides ∑b10opt = 42 kg/kW less versus ∑b10max = 49 kg/kW.
To achieve close to maximum annual specific fuel reduction ∑b15opt at more precise value of
rational cooling capacity q0.rat without oversizing the chiller, it is proposed to determine the maximum
rate of annual specific fuel reduction increment as (∑b − ∑bopt)/q0.15 in the range of ∑b15 beyond its
value ∑b15opt = 22.5 kg/kW corresponding to optimal design capacity q0.15opt = 16 kW/(kg/s) for cooling
Energies 2020, 13, 6201 12 of 22
air to ta2 = 15 °C as well as beyond ∑b10opt = 42 kg/kW corresponding to q0.10opt = 27 kW/(kg/s) for ta2 =
10 °C (Figures 9 and 10).
Σb/q0,10(Σb-Σbopt)/q0, g/kW/(kg/s) 2, 3st Σb/q0,10(Σb-Σbopt)/q0, g/kW/(kg/s) 2, 3st
2000 t =15°C 1800 t =10°C
2 R15 10(Σb-Σbopt)/q0.15 2
1800 1600 O10
1600 1400 R1010(Σb-Σbopt)/q0.10
Σb/q0.10
1400 Σb/q0.15 O15 1200
1200
1000
1000
800
800
600 600
400 400
200 200
0 q15opt q15rat 0 q10opt q10rat
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 q0, kW/(kg/s)
50 55 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 q0, kW/(kg/s)
50 55
(a) (b)

0 and ( b − bopt )/q0 for ta2 =

Figure
Figure 9.9. Relative
Relativeincrements
incrementsofofannual
annualspecific
specificfuel
fuelreduction ∑b/qb/q
0 and (∑b − ∑bopt)/q0 for ta2 = 15 °C
P P P
reduction
(a)
Energies15 ◦and 10and
C (a)
2020, 13, x°C (b)◦against
10PEER
FOR C (b) specific
against
REVIEW cooling
specific capacity
cooling q0.
capacity q0 . 13 of 23

10(Σb-Σbopt)/q0, g/kW/(kg/s) 4 st Σb, g/kW 10(Σb-Σbopt)/q0, g/kW/(kg/s) 4 st Σb, g/kW

2000 t =15°C 30000 1400
∑b15max 30,000 60,000
60000
2 R15 t2=10°C 10(Σb-Σb )/q
1800 10(Σb-Σbopt)/q0.15 opt 0.10
25000 1200
∑b15rat 25,000 R10 ∑b10max 50,000
50000
1600 O15 O10 ∑b10rat
1400 ∑b 20000 1000 40,000
Σb15 15opt 20,000
Σb10 ∑b10max 40000
1200 800
1000 15000
15,000 30,000
30000
800 600
Δq0.15 10000
10,000 Δq 0.10 20,000
20000
600 400
400 5,000
5000 10,000
10000
200
200
0 0 0 0
0 q15opt q15rat q15 max 0 q10opt q10rat q10max
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 q50 0, kW/(kg/s)
55 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 q50
0, kW/(kg/s)
55
(a) (b)
P
Figure
Figure10.
10.Annual
Annualspecific
specificfuel
fuelreduction
reduction∑bband andrelative
relativeincrement
incrementofofannual
annualspecific
specificfuel
fuelreduction
reduction
= ◦ C and ◦ C (b):·−(−P
P P P
(∑b
Energies b−−∑b13,
( 2020, )/q
bopt
opt 0 for
x FOR
)/q0 t
PEER
fora2 t= 15
a2 °C
REVIEW
15 (a) (a) 10
and °C
10 (b):·−(∑b ∑b
b −
opt )/qb0. )/q
opt 0 . 14 of 23

Here: q0.opt—optimal,Σb/q q0.rat,—rational and q0.max 2st—maximum values;Σb, points

g/kWO15 and O10 correspond
0 g/kW/(kg/s)
to q0.15opt and q0.10opt; R15 and 1800 R 10 —for q0.15rat and q 0. 10rat ; Δq 0.15 = q 0.15max − q 0.15rat and Δq0.10 = q0.10max − q0.10rat −
70000
70,000
t2=7,10,15°C Σb/q0.7 ∑b7
reduction of design specific 1600 cooling capacity Σb/q0.10q0. O7 ∑b7opt 60,000
60000
As Figures 9 and 10 1400show, a maximum rate of annual ∑b specific fuel reduction increment (∑b −
Σb/q 10 50000
50,000
∑bopt)/q0.15 when cooling1200 ambient air to t0.15 a2 = 15 O °C10
takes place at ∑b specific
10opt cooling capacity q0.15rat = 24
1000
kW/(kg/s) and provides annual specific fuel reduction ∑b15rat very close to its maximum value ∑b15max 40000
40,000
= 27 kg/kW, but achieved 800at a rational cooling capacity ∑b15 30000 that is less than its
30,000
q0.15rat = 24 kW/(kg/s)
O15 ∑b15opt
oversized maximum value 600q0.15max = 31 kW/(kg/s) by Δq0.15 = q0.15max − q0.15rat of about 7 kW/(kg/s), i.e.,
20000
20,000
400
more than 20%. When cooling ambient air to ta2 = 10 °C a maximum value of (∑b − ∑bopt)/q0.10 takes
10,000
10000
place at the rational cooling 200capacity q0.10rat = 37 kW/(kg/s) and provides annual specific fuel reduction
∑b10rat = 47 kg/kW that is close 0 to its maximum q15opt valueq10opt q7opt
∑b10max = 48 kg/kW 0 and0 achieved at a rational
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 q50 0, kW/(kg/s)
55
cooling capacity q0.10rat = 37 kW/(kg/s) less than its oversized maximum value q0.10max = 44 kW/(kg/s) by
Δq0.10 Figure
=Figure
q0.10max −
11. q 0.10rat of about
Relative increment 9 kW/(kg/s),
of annual i.e., approximately
specific fuel
11. Relative increment of annual specific fuel reduction b/q0 and annual
P20% less.
reduction ∑b/q 0The
andpoints
annualRfuel
specific and
specific
15 R10fuel
reductionon the
TIACreduction
Pcumulative
b due to∑bcoolingcharacteristics
due to air
cooling
to ta2air=ofto7,
dependence
= 7,
ta210 and 15 of
10 and ◦ 15 annual
C °C against
against specific
a cooling
a cooling fuel reduction
capacity
capacity needed
needed ∑bq150q0=(2
(2f(qstage
0) and
stage of∑b10
of
= f(q0)methodology).
on the specific cooling capacities q0.15 and q0.10 are determined according to rational values of
methodology).
design specific cooling capacities q0.15rat and q0.10rat, calculated at the stage P 3 of design methodology. As
AsTo Figures
achieve 11
closeand to12 show,
maximum
it is seen, the values of rational annual specific a maximum
annual rate
specific of annual
fuel fuel
reduction
reduction ∑b reduction
b15opt increment
at more
15rat and ,(∑b
precise
∑b10rat − value
∑bopt)/qof0
determined
in the ranges
rational
proceeding cooling
frombeyond
capacity their
the points optimal
q0.rat
R and Rvalues
15without ∑bopt close
10,oversizing
are very (Figure
the chiller, 11) itismaximum
ischaracterized
proposedvalues by∑b maximum
to determine values
the maximum10max. of
Pto their P 15max and
P ∑b
ratios of(∑b
rate Graphs − ∑b
annual in )/q0 which
specific
Figures
opt fuel
9 correspond
andreduction
10 allow to rational
increment
users to as
matchdesign −specific
( bcurrent bopt cooling
)/q
cooling
0.15 in capacities
the
duties range
and q
of
provide
0.rat when
b 15 cooling
beyond
minimum its
= =
P
ambient
value
sizing system bair to the
22.5 temperatures
kg/kW t
corresponding = 7, 10 toand 15
optimal
15opt at maximum rate of annular cooling effect increment0.15opt
a2 °C: q
design
0.7rat = 41
capacity kW/(kg/s),
q q 16 = 35
kW/(kg/s) kW/(kg/s)
due to operation at optimal
0.10rat for and
cooling
=kW/(kg/s)
15 ◦ C qas0.10opt = 42 = due
P
qair
coolingto =ta224
0.15rat capacity (stage
well 3, Figure
as beyond
(Figure 9) or bto 12). These
peak
10opt valuesneeds
kg/kW
cooling of rational
corresponding
without design
to specific
q0.10opt
oversizing cooling
27 kW/(kg/s) capacities
to running ta2
for at
q= 10
0.rat
◦ C (Figures
determine the9 position
and 10).
rational cooling capacity q0.rat (Figure 10). of the points R 7, R 10 and R 15 on the TIAC cumulative characteristics of
dependence of annual specific fuel reduction ∑b7 = f(q0), ∑b10 = f(q0) and ∑b15 = f(q0) and corresponding
rational
4. Discussion annual specific fuel reduction ∑b7rat, ∑b10rat and ∑b15rat, calculated at the stage 4 of design
methodology (Figure 13).
To generalize the results of analysing the efficiency of engine intake air cooling in TIAC systems,
using chillers of different types, the optimal and rational design thermal loads for cooling intake air
to target temperatures 7Σb/q ,10(Σb-Σb
to 015 °C in opt actual kW/(kg/s)
)/q0, g/site climatic conditions 3st were calculated step-by-step year
Energies 2020, 13, 6201 13 of 22

Here: q0.opt —optimal, q0.rat —rational and q0.max —maximum values; points O15 and O10
correspond to q0.15opt and q0.10opt ; R15 and R10 —for q0.15rat and q0. 10rat ; ∆q0.15 = q0.15max − q0.15rat
and ∆q0.10 = q0.10max − q0.10rat − reduction of design specific cooling capacity q0 .
P
As Figures 9 and 10 show, a maximum rate of annual specific fuel reduction increment ( b −
bopt )/q0.15 when cooling ambient air to ta2 = 15 ◦ C takes place at specific cooling capacity q0.15rat =
P
P
24 kW/(kg/s) and provides annual specific fuel reduction b15rat very close to its maximum value
b15max = 27 kg/kW, but achieved at a rational cooling capacity q0.15rat = 24 kW/(kg/s) that is less than
P

its oversized maximum value q0.15max = 31 kW/(kg/s) by ∆q0.15 = q0.15max − q0.15rat of about 7 kW/(kg/s),
i.e., more than 20%. When cooling ambient air to ta2 = 10 ◦ C a maximum value of ( b − bopt )/q0.10
P P

takes place at the rational cooling capacity q0.10rat = 37 kW/(kg/s) and provides annual specific fuel
reduction b10rat = 47 kg/kW that is close to its maximum value b10max = 48 kg/kW and achieved at
P P

a rational cooling capacity q0.10rat = 37 kW/(kg/s) less than its oversized maximum value q0.10max =
44 kW/(kg/s) by ∆q0.10 = q0.10max − q0.10rat of about 9 kW/(kg/s), i.e., approximately 20% less. The points
R15 and R10 on the TIAC cumulative characteristics of dependence of annual specific fuel reduction
b15 = f (q0 ) and b10 = f (q0 ) on the specific cooling capacities q0.15 and q0.10 are determined according
P P

to rational values of design specific cooling capacities q0.15rat and q0.10rat , calculated at the stage 3 of
P
design methodology. As it is seen, the values of rational annual specific fuel reduction b15rat and
P
b , determined proceeding from the points R15 and R10 , are very close to their maximum values
P 10rat P
b15max and b10max .
Graphs in Figures 9 and 10 allow users to match current cooling duties and provide minimum
sizing system at maximum rate of annular cooling effect increment due to operation at optimal cooling
capacity q0.10opt (Figure 9) or to peak cooling needs without oversizing due to running at rational
cooling capacity q0.rat (Figure 10).

4. Discussion
To generalize the results of analysing the efficiency of engine intake air cooling in TIAC systems,
using chillers of different types, the optimal and rational design thermal loads for cooling intake air
to target temperatures 7 to 15 ◦ C in actual site climatic conditions were calculated step-by-step year
round on the basis of the proposed novel methodology (Figures 11–14).
P
As Figure 11 shows, a maximum rate of annual specific fuel reduction b/q0 due to cooling
ambient air to the temperatures ta2 = 7, 10 and 15 ◦ C takes place at the optimal design specific cooling
capacities (points O7 , O10 , O15 ): q0.7opt = 33 kW/(kg/s), q0.10opt = 27 kW/(kg/s) and q0.15opt = 16 kW/(kg/s),
which provide annual specific fuel reduction b7opt = 56 kg/kW, b10opt = 42 kg/kW and b15opt =
P P P
P
22 kg/kW considerably less than their maximum values. These values of bopt are used to determine
P P P
the range of annual specific fuel reduction ( b − bopt ) beyond their optimal values bopt to calculate
P P
the ratios ( b − bopt )/q0 that characterize the rate of annual specific fuel reduction beyond the optimal
P
values bopt and their maximum values correspond to rational design specific cooling capacities: q0.rat .
P P
As Figures 11 and 12 show, a maximum rate of annual fuel reduction increment ( b − bopt )/q0 in
P
the ranges beyond their optimal values bopt (Figure 11) is characterized by maximum values of ratios
P P
( b − bopt )/q0 which correspond to rational design specific cooling capacities q0.rat when cooling
ambient air to the temperatures ta2 = 7, 10 and 15 ◦ C: q0.7rat = 41 kW/(kg/s), q0.10rat = 35 kW/(kg/s) and
q0.15rat = 24 kW/(kg/s) (stage 3, Figure 12). These values of rational design specific cooling capacities
q0.rat determine the position of the points R7 , R10 and R15 on the TIAC cumulative characteristics
of dependence of annual specific fuel reduction b7 = f (q0 ), b10 = f (q0 ) and b15 = f (q0 ) and
P P P
P P P
corresponding rational annual specific fuel reduction b7rat , b10rat and b15rat , calculated at the stage
4 of design methodology (Figure 13).
P P P
As it is seen, the values of rational annual specific fuel reduction b7rat , b10rat and b15rat ,
determined proceeding from the points R7 , R10 and R15 , are very close to their maximum values.
ambient air to the temperatures ta2 = 7, 10 and 15 °C: q0.7rat = 41 kW/(kg/s), q0.10rat = 35 kW/(kg/s) and
q0.15rat = 24 kW/(kg/s) (stage 3, Figure 12). These values of rational design specific cooling capacities
q0.rat determine the position of the points R7, R10 and R15 on the TIAC cumulative characteristics of
dependence of annual specific fuel reduction ∑b7 = f(q0), ∑b10 = f(q0) and ∑b15 = f(q0) and corresponding
rational
Energies annual
2020, specific fuel reduction ∑b7rat, ∑b10rat and ∑b15rat, calculated at the stage 4 of design
13, 6201 14 of 22
methodology (Figure 13).

Σb/q0,10(Σb-Σbopt)/q0, g/kW/(kg/s) 3st

2000 t =7,10,15°C
2 R15
1800 O7
R7
1600
O10 R
1400 O
10

1200 Σb/q0.7 15
Σb/q
1000 Σb/q 0.10
0.15
800
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 23
600
400
oversized maximum value 200 q0.10max = 44 kW/(kg/s) by Δq0.10 = q0.10max − q0.10rat of about 9 kW/(kg/s), i.e.,
q7opt
approximately 20% less. 0 q15opt q15rat q10opt q10rat q7rat
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 q0, kW/(kg/s)
50 55
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
10(Σb-Σbopt)/q0, g/kW/(kg/s) 4st Σb, g/kWP 15 of 23
Figure 12.
Figure 12. Relative
Relativeincrements
increments ofof
annual specific
annual fuelfuel
specific reduction
reduction ∑b/qP 0 and (∑b − ∑bopt)/q0·due to cooling
b/q0 and
P
( b − bopt )/q0 ·due to
2000 ∑b
70,000
70000
t =7,10,15°C R
= 7,
air10
ta2and
air ta2 maximum = 7,15
10°C against byΣb
2 specific cooling capacities needed qneeded7rat
0 (3−stage): −∑b/q 0; −(∑b
◦C P − ∑boptP )/q0.
oversized
cooling 1800
value
and q15
0.10max = 44 kW/(kg/s)
against specific coolingΔq =7 q0.10max
7capacities
0.10 q0.10rat
0 (3of
q60,000 about
stage): − 9b/q
kW/(kg/s),
0 ; −( b − i.e.,
60000
1600
P
approximately
bopt )/q0 . 20% less.
R10 Σb10 ∑b10rat 50,000
As it is seen, the 1400 values of rational annual specific fuel reduction 50000∑b7rat, ∑b10rat and ∑b15rat,
determined proceeding 1200 from the points R7, R10 and R15, are very close to40,000 their maximum values.
100010(Σb-Σbopt)/q0, g/kW/(kg/s) 4st Σb, 40000
g/kW
As Figure 13 shows, a maximum rate of annual Σb15specific fuel reduction ∑b15rat70,000
30,000increment (∑b − ∑bopt)/q0.15
2000 30000
800 t =7,10,15°C
2 = 15 °C takes place Σb R7 ∑b7rat 70000
when cooling ambient air 1800to
600 t a2
R15
at7 specific cooling capacity q0.15rat = 24 kW/(kg/s)
Δq0.7 20,000
20000
60,000
60000
and provides annual specific1600
400 fuel reduction ∑b15rat very close to its maximum value ∑b15max = 26 kg/kW,
Δq0.15 R10Δq0.10 Σb10 ∑b10rat 50000
10,000
10000
but achieved at a rational 1400
200
cooling capacity q0.15rat less than oversized50,000
itsq 10max maximum value q0.15max = 31
1200
kW/(kg/s) by Δq0.15 = q0.15max 0− q0.15rat of about 7q15rat q15 max q10rati.e.,
kW/(kg/s), q7rat more q 7max 020%. 0When cooling ambient
than40,000
40000
1000 0 5 10 15 20 25Σb 30 35 40 45 q50 , kW/(kg/s)
0∑b 55
air to ta2 = 10 °C a maximum 800 value of (∑b–∑bopt)/q0.10 takes place at the
15 30,000
30000 cooling capacity q0.10rat
15ratrational

= 35 Figure
kW/(kg/s) and provides annual specific fuel reduction
600 fuel reduction ∑b 15and its relative increments
13. Annual specific R ∑b
Δq0.7 10rat = 47
(∑bkg/kW
20,000
20000 − ∑bopt)/qthat
0·foris ta2close
= 7, 10to its
maximum value ∑b 400
= 49 kg/kW and achieved
and 15 °C: Δq0—reduction of design specific cooling
10max at a
Δqrational
Δq0.15 capacity;·−(∑b
0.10 cooling
− ∑bopt capacity
)/q0. q 0.10rat less than its
10,000
10000
200 q 10max
0 q15rat q15 max q10rat q7rat q 0 0
The values of rational annual specific fuel reduction ∑b7rat, ∑b7max 10rat and ∑b15rat, proceeding from the
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 q50 0, kW/(kg/s)
55
points R7, R10 and R15, determined according to rational cooling capacities q0.rat, are very close to their
Figure
Figure 13.
maximum 13. Annual
values, specific
butspecific
Annual achieved fuelat
fuel reduction
rationalP∑b
reduction andits
cooling
b and itscapacities
relativeincrements
relative increments P(∑b −P∑bopt)/q0·for ta2 = 7, 10
q0.rat less(than b − their
bopt oversized
)/q0 ·for ta2 =maximum
7, 10
and
values by15 °C:
aboutΔq —
20%reduction
(Figure of
14). design specific cooling capacity;·−(∑b
and 15 C: ∆q0 —reduction of design specific cooling capacity;·−( b − bopt )/q0 .
◦ 0
P − ∑b
P opt )/q0.

The values of rational Σb,

annual
g/kW specific fuel reduction ∑b7rat, ∑b10rat and ∑b15rat, proceeding from the
1-4st t2=7,10,15°C
points R7, R10 and R15, determined
70000 ∑b according to rational cooling capacities q0.rat, are very close to their
70,000 Σb7
maximum values, but achieved at 7rat
rational cooling capacitiesRq7 0.rat less than their oversized maximum
60000
60,000 ∑b7opt O7
values by about 20% (Figure 14).
50000
50,000 ∑b10rat R10 Σb10
∑b10opt O10
40000
40,000
Σb, g/kW
1-4st t2=7,10,15°C
70000
30,000
30000
70,000 ∑b15rat
∑b
R15 Σb15
Σb7
7rat R7
∑b15opt O15
60000
20,000
20000
60,000 ∑b7opt O7 Δq0.7
Δq0.15 R Δq0.10 Σb
10,000
10000 ∑b10rat
50000
50,000 10 10
∑b10opt O10
4000000
40,000 q15opt q15rat q10opt q7opt q10rat q7rat
30000 0 ∑b 5 10 15 20 R25
30,000 30 35 40 45 q0, kW/(kg/s)
50 55
15rat 15 Σb 15
∑b15opt O15
Figure 14.
Figure 14. Annual 20,000
20000of
Annual values
values of specific
specificfuel
fuelreduction
reduction ∑b
P
againstspecific
b against specific coolingcapacities
Δq0.7 cooling capacitiesq0q0for ta2 == 7,
forta2
Δq Δq
15 °C: Δq0 —10,000
10 and 15 C: ∆q0 —reduction
10 and ◦ reduction of design specific 0.15 capacity.
10000 of design specific cooling capacity.
cooling 0.10

00 q15rat q10opt q7opt q10rat q7rat

rateq15opt
P P
As
To Figure 13 shows,
generalize a maximum
the results of annual specific fuel reduction increment ( b − b systems )/q0.15
0of analysing
5 ◦ 10 15 the 20efficiency
25 30 35of engine 40 45 intake
50 55 air cooling in TIACopt
q0, kW/(kg/s)
when cooling
by chillers ofambient
differentairtypes = 15TIAC
to ta2the C takes place at specific
cumulative cooling capacity
characteristics q0.15rat =of24annual
of dependence kW/(kg/s) and
specific
=
P P
provides
fuel Figure annual
reduction ∑bspecific
14. Annual fuel
= f(qvalues
0) on ofreduction
the specific
specificfuel breduction
cooling
15rat very ∑bclose
capacities qto
against
0 areits maximum
specific
presented value
cooling
in b
capacities
relative q
values
15max0 for t
as26
a2 = kg/kW,
7,
referred
but achieved
10 and
to their at aΔq
15 °C:
maximum 0—reduction
rational
values, cooling capacity
of design
selected on the q0.15rat
specific
basis of less
cooling than
capacity.
traditional itsmethods
oversized ofmaximum
designing,value ∑b/bmax==
i.e., asq0.15max
f(q0/q0.max) (Figure 15).
To generalize the results of analysing the efficiency of engine intake air cooling in TIAC systems
by chillers of different types the TIAC cumulative characteristics of dependence of annual specific
fuel reduction ∑b = f(q0) on the specific cooling capacities q0 are presented in relative values as referred
to their maximum values, selected on the basis of traditional methods of designing, i.e., as ∑b/bmax =
Energies 2020, 13, 6201 15 of 22

31 kW/(kg/s) by ∆q0.15 = q0.15max − q0.15rat of about 7 kW/(kg/s), i.e., more than 20%. When cooling
ambient air to ta2 = 10 ◦ C a maximum value of ( b– bopt )/q0.10 takes place at the rational cooling
P P

capacity q0.10rat = 35 kW/(kg/s) and provides annual specific fuel reduction b10rat = 47 kg/kW that is
P

close to its maximum value b10max = 49 kg/kW and achieved at a rational cooling capacity q0.10rat
P

less than its oversized maximum value q0.10max = 44 kW/(kg/s) by ∆q0.10 = q0.10max − q0.10rat of about
9 kW/(kg/s), i.e., approximately 20% less.
P P P
The values of rational annual specific fuel reduction b7rat , b10rat and b15rat , proceeding from
the points R7 , R10 and R15 , determined according to rational cooling capacities q0.rat , are very close
to their maximum values, but achieved at rational cooling capacities q0.rat less than their oversized
maximum values by about 20% (Figure 14).
To generalize the results of analysing the efficiency of engine intake air cooling in TIAC systems
by chillers of different types the TIAC cumulative characteristics of dependence of annual specific fuel
reduction b = f (q0 ) on the specific cooling capacities q0 are presented in relative values as referred to
P

their maximum values, selected on the basis of traditional methods of designing, i.e., as b/bmax =
P

f (q0 /q0.max ) (Figure 15).

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23

t2=7,10,15°C
Σb/Σbmax R15,R10,R7
rat15, rat10, rat7
1
opt7 O10
0.9 opt10
O7
O15
0.8 opt15
0.7
t2=7°C
0.6
t2=10°C
0.5
t2=15°C
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 opt15 opt10opt7 rat15 rat7
rat10
0 q0/q0.max
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Figure
Figure 15.
15. Relative values of
of annual
annual fuel
fuelreduction
reduction ∑b/b against relative
relativecooling capacitiesq0q/q
coolingcapacities 0/q0.max
P
Relative values b/bmax
max against
0.max
a2 ==7,
needed for cooling ambient air to ta2 7,10
10and
and15 ◦ C.
15°C.

As shown in Figure 15, the application application of developed

developed novel methodology allows to determine the
precise values
valuesof ofrational
rationaldesign
designspecific
specific cooling
cooling capacities
capacities q0.rat (corresponding
q0.rat (corresponding overall
overallvalues Q0.rat
values ) of)
Q0.rat
TIAC
of TIAC systems
systems that provide
that provide annual
annual fuel reduction
fuel reduction veryvery close to to
close their maximum
their maximum values,
values,butbutachieved
achieved at
cooling
at cooling capacities
capacities lessless
thanthanthe values,
the values, defined by traditional
defined by traditional methods issuing
methods from maximum
issuing from maximum yearly
thermalthermal
yearly loads or maximum
loads or maximum annualannual effect due to intake
effect due to air cooling,
intake by about
air cooling, by20%.
about 20%.
As well as the proposed absorption-ejector TIAC systems, systems, there are the advanced versions of
typical basic absorption TIAC system, system, the economiceconomic comparison,
comparison, where where the the latter
latter might
might be be done
done by
taking into accountaccount onlyonly the the cost
cost of extra heat exchangersexchangers of of ECh
ECh (refrigerant
(refrigerant evaporator-air
evaporator-air cooler,
cooler,
refrigerant condenser and ejector) with unchanged maintenance cost, personal costs, costs, etc.
etc.
As a basic
basic variant,
variant,the theGTGTofofpower poweroutputoutputofof 1010 MW MW andandairair
massmass flowflow
raterate
Ga G= a40
=40 kg/s
kg/s might
might be
be accepted
accepted forforeasyeasy recalculation
recalculation for for turbines
turbines withwith
otherother characteristics.
characteristics. According
According to Figure
to Figure 14 q14 =
q0.10rat
0.10rat
=3535kW/(kg/s)
kW/(kg/s) forTIAC
for TIACsystem
systemwith withAEChAEChand q0.15rat =
andq0.15rat = 24 kW/(kg/s) for traditional ACh or their total
values Q 0.10rat ==1400
Q0.10rat 1400kWkWand andQ Q0.15rat = = 960960 kWkWfor forair
airmass
massflowflowraterateGGaa==40 40kg/s
kg/swith
with corresponding
corresponding
P 0.15rat
=47 =
P
annual specific
specific fuelfuelreduction
reduction ∑b b10rat
10rat = kg/kW and ∑bb15rat
47kg/kW 15rat= 26 26kg/kW
kg/kW or
or annual
annual total
total fuel
fuel reduction
reduction
= =
P P
∑BB10rat =
10rat 470470t and
t ∑B
and B
15rat = 260
15rat t. Proceeding
260 t. Proceedingfrom these
from data,
these the
data,value
the of the
value total
of thecooling
total load
cooling onload
low
temperature
on low temperature ECh Q0.10-15rat
ECh=Q Q0.10-15rat
0.10rat − Q =0.10rat i.e., 440
Q0.10rat − QkW,0.10ratprovides
i.e., 440additional
kW, provides annual fuel reduction
additional annual∑B fuel10-

∑B15rat =
P P P
=∑B10rat −B10-15rat
reduction
15rat about 210− t as
B10rat compared
B15rat about 210 witht astraditional
comparedTIAC system with
with traditional TIACACh. Thus,with
system the
cooling
ACh. Thus, capacity of refrigerant
the cooling capacity evaporator-air cooler of ECh
of refrigerant evaporator-air Q0.10-15rat
cooler of ECh= 440 kW and
Q0.10-15rat = 440
of refrigerant
kW and of
condenser Qcondenser = Q0.10-15rat (1 + COP), i.e., about 1760 kW, where COP of ECh can be accepted as
0.3 [42,43]. Taking into account the cost of extra heat exchangers of ECh about 150,000$ according to
[75] and including addition 10% increase for ejector and 10% for their mounting the cost of addition
equipment of ECh is about 180,000$. On the other hand, the cost of gas fuel annually saved is about
$45,000 (proceeding from the price of gas $150 per 1000 m3) and the payback period is about four
Energies 2020, 13, 6201 16 of 22

refrigerant condenser Qcondenser = Q0.10-15rat (1 + COP), i.e., about 1760 kW, where COP of ECh can be
accepted as 0.3 [42,43]. Taking into account the cost of extra heat exchangers of ECh about 150,000$
according to [75] and including addition 10% increase for ejector and 10% for their mounting the cost
of addition equipment of ECh is about 180,000$. On the other hand, the cost of gas fuel annually saved
is about $45,000 (proceeding from the price of gas $150 per 1000 m3 ) and the payback period is about
four years.
Because of the fluctuations in cost of heat exchangers of different manufacturers and the price of
the gas fuel especially the economic analysis is to be conducted for the concrete case. Thus, we use
the considered method of designing focuses to provide just initial basic data as rational technical
characteristics for further complicated detailed economic analysis.
The proposed approach and a novel methodology of rational designing of engine intake air cooling
systems enables saving about 20% of financial expenses and to cover actual yearly cooling duties
without cooling system oversizing and unproductive decrease of engine power output to overcome
the intake air pressure drop in oversized air coolers.
Such a method is quite quantitative to evaluate the effect due to cooling and select the rational
design cooling capacity and estimate a decrease in sizes of chillers.

5. Conclusions
The efficiency of cooling ambient air at the inlet of gas turbines in temperate climatic conditions by
waste heat recovery chillers, using the exhaust gas heat, was analyzed and reserves for its enhancing
through deep cooling were revealed.
The gas turbine intake air cooling by combined absorption-ejector chillers (AECh) with ACh as a
high temperature cooling stage and ECh as a low temperature cooling stage was proposed. It was
shown that turbine intake air cooling to about 7 to 10 ◦ C in temperate climatic conditions by combined
absorption-ejector chillers provides an annual fuel saving of about 50% greater than its value gained
due to traditional air cooling to about 15 ◦ C in absorption lithium-bromide chiller of a simple cycle.
As a result, a novel trend in engine intake air cooling in temperate climatic conditions by two-stage
cooling in chillers of combined type has been proposed.
A method of logical analysis of the actual operation efficiency of turbine intake air cooling
systems in site varying environment, supplemented by the simplest numerical simulation, was used to
synthesize new solutions. The real input data on site actual climatic conditions (ambient air temperature
tamb and relative humidity ϕamb ) were taken by using the well-known program “meteomanz” [74].
The annual fuel reduction was considered to be a primary criterion as an example.
The novelty of the research methodological approach to analysis of the TIAC system operation
efficiency consists of summation of the current changeable effect (fuel reduction) due to cooling air
over the year as an annular effect (annual fuel saving). The rate of its increment according to cooling
capacity is used as an indicator to efficient realization of the design cooling capacity.
The improved methodology of TIAC system designing, based on this methodological approach,
is developed. It involves the stages to determine an optimal value of cooling capacity, providing the
minimum system sizes at maximum rate of annual effect increment, and its rational value, providing
a close to maximum annual effect without TIAC system oversizing at the second maximum rate of
annual effect increment within the range beyond the first maximum rate.
Such a method is quite quantitative when evaluating the effect due to cooling, selecting design
cooling capacity, and estimating a decrease in sizes of chillers.
The rational value of design cooling capacity (thermal load) provides practically maximum annual
fuel saving but with reduced by about 15 to 20% sizes of cooling systems due to correspondingly
reduced design cooling capacity of the systems as compared with their values defined by traditional
designing focused to cover maximum current thermal loads.
The method allows users to peak maximum cooling needs without oversizing system or provide
minimum sizing TIAC system at maximum rate of annular cooling effect. The last variant of TIAC
Energies 2020, 13, 6201 17 of 22

system operation is very reasonable for applying the energy saving technologies, for instance, based on
the thermal storage with accumulating excessive (not consumed) cooling capacities at lowered current
thermal loads on the cooling system to cover the peak loads.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.R. (40%), M.R. (30%), E.T. (10%), K.K. (10%) and D.M. (10%);
methodology, A.R. (30%), E.T. (30%) and M.R. (30%).; software, A.R.; validation, A.R. (30%). and M.R. (30%);
formal analysis, A.R. (30%), E.T. (30%), K.K. (30%), D.M. (30%) and M.R.; writing—original draft preparation, A.R.
(30%), E.T. (30%) and M.R. (30%); writing—review and editing, D.M. (50%) and K.K. (50%). All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
AC air cooler
ACHT high-temperature air cooler
ACLT low-temperature air cooler
ACh absorption lithium-bromide chiller
AECh absorption-ejector chiller
CAECh cascade absorption-ejector chiller
CDH cooling degree hour; CDH = ∆t·τ
COP coefficient of performance
ECh ejector chiller
GT gas turbine
O optimal point for maximum rate of annual fuel reduction increment
R rational point for close to maximum annual fuel reduction
SAECh stage absorption-ejector chiller
SCAECh stage-cascade absorption-ejector chiller
TIAC turbine intake air cooling
Symbols
B total mass fuel consumption decrease, B = CDH (∆be /∆t)·Pe .
be specific fuel consumption
ca specific heat of humid air
CDH CDH = ∆t·τ
damb ambient air absolute humidity
Ga air mass flow rate
Pe power output
Q0 total cooling capacity, heat flow rate
q0 specific cooling capacity—per unit air mass flow rate
t temperature
tamb ambient air temperature
ta2 outlet air temperature
t0 refrigerant boiling temperature
ξ specific heat ratio of the total heat (latent and sensible) rejected from air to its sensible heat
τ time interval
ϕamb ambient air relative humidity
∆be specific fuel consumption decrease
∆t air temperature decrease
annual total fuel reduction due to cooling turbine intake air to temperatures 7, 10, 15 ◦ C
P
B7,10,15
P annual specific fuel reduction (per 1 kW turbine power output) due to cooling turbine
b7,10,15
intake air to temperatures 7, 10, 15 ◦ C
Subscripts
a air
amb ambient
max maximum
opt optimal
rat rational
Energies 2020, 13, 6201 18 of 22

Appendix A
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 23

"Climate"
Input: time, region.
Program: "mundomanz.com"
Output: ambient air tamb , φamb

"Thermal (cooling) load"

(ambient air cooling process)
Input: tamb ; φamb ; Ga ;
ACh: ta2 = 15 °С; AECh: ta2 = 10 °С;
Δta = tamb − ta2 ∙∙∙
"Gas Turbine climatic characteristic"
Equations, correlations:
Input:
cooling process in dI-diagram:
GT climatic characteristic
tamb ; φamb ; ta2 = 15 °С; tw = 7 °С for ACh;
be = f(tamb ), g/(kWh).
tamb ; φamb ; ta2 = 10 °С; t0 = 4 °С for AECh;
Output: Δbe /Δt =0.35·10−3 kg/(kWh·K)
tamb ; φamb ; ta2 = 7 °С; t0 = 2 °С for cascade AECh;
total Q0 = Ga сa ∙Δta ∙ξ, kW/(kg/s) or kJ/kg;
specific q0 =Q0 /Ga ; q0 = сa ∙Δta ∙ξ, kW/(kg/s) or kJ/kg;
where ξ= q0 /(сa ·Δta )
Output: Q0 = f(tamb , φamb , ta2 ); q0 = f(tamb , φamb , ta2 ).

"Cooling degree-hour (CDH) potential":

Input: tamb ; φamb ;
ACh: ta2 = 15 °С; AECh: ta2 = 10 °С;
Δta = tamb − ta2 ; Δta , Q0 , q0 .∙∙∙
Gas Turbine: Pe = 104 kW; Ga = 40 kg/s, Δbe /Δt .
Equations, correlations:
ACh: Δt15 = tamb − ta2 ; ta2 = 288 K (15 °С);
AECh: Δt10 = tamb − ta2 ; ta2 = 283 K (10 °С);
current CDR= Δta ∙τ, K·h;
annual ΣCDH =Σ(Δta ∙τ) , K·h.
Annual cumulative characteristic:
ΣCDH = f(q0) for ta2 = 7; 10 (AECh); 15 °С (ACh).
Σbe = Σ[(Δbe /Δt ) Δt ∙τ] , kg/kW;
ΣΔB = Σ[Pe (Δbe /Δt ) Δt ∙τ] , kg
Output: ΣCDH = Σ(Δt ∙τ) , K·h;
Σbe = Σ[(Δbe /Δt ) Δt ∙τ] , kg/kW;
ΣΔB = Σ[Pe (Δbe /Δt ) Δt ∙τ] , kg

"Rational cooling load of TIAC system (air cooler)":

Input: tamb ; φamb ; Δta = tamb – ta2 ;
ACh: ta2 = 15 °С; AECh: ta2 = 7, 10 °С;
Gas Turbine: Pe = 104 kW; Ga = 40 kg/s
Q0 = f(tamb , φamb , ta2 ); q0 = f(tamb , φamb , ta2 ).
Equations, correlations:
Criterion—annual total fuel reduction
ΣΔB = Σ[Pe (Δbe /Δt ) Δt ∙τ] , kg
1-stage:
Cumulative characteristic of TIACS:
ΣΔB = f(Q0);
2-stage: indicator—relative value ΣΔB /Q0
Relative characteristic ΣΔB /Q0 = f(Q0);
Output: Q0.opt , ΣΔBopt at [ΣΔB /Q0]max
3-stage: indicator—relative value Σ(ΔB–ΔBopt )/Q0
Σ(ΔB–ΔBopt )/Q0 = f(Q0);
Output: Q0.rat , ΣΔBrat at [Σ(ΔB–ΔBopt )/Q0]max
4-stage: indicators [ΣΔB /Q0]max , [Σ(ΔB–ΔBopt )/Q0]max
Σ(ΔB–ΔBopt )/Q0 = f(Q0); ΣΔB = f(Q0);
Output: Q0.rat , ΣΔBrat at [Σ(ΔB–ΔBopt )/Q0]max
Q0.opt , ΣΔBopt at [ΣΔB /Q0]max

Figure
Figure A1.Flow
A1. Flow chart
chartofofcalculation
calculationprocedure.
procedure.
Energies 2020, 13, 6201 19 of 22

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