EXTENSIVE READING

Top Ten Implementation

Issues

Willy A Renandya, Maria Hidayati & Francisca M Ivone

©2020
 Top Ten Concerns About Extensive Reading

Table Of Contents

ABSTRACT 2

INTRODUCTION 2

1.  LIMITED TIME 4

2.  LACK OF RELEVANT READING MATERIALS 5

3.  DELAYED IMPACT OF ER 7

5.  LACK OF SUPPORT FROM SCHOOL LEADERS 10

6.  LIMITED KNOWLEDGE ABOUT ER 11

7.  NO PERSONAL EXPERIENCE WITH ER 12

8.  LACK OF MOTIVATION 14

9.  LIMITED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITY 15

10.  ER PRINCIPLES ARE TOO DEMANDING 17

CONCLUSION 18

REFERENCES 19

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 Extensive Reading: Top Ten Implementation Issues

ABSTRACT
The goal of this paper is to explore some of the main concerns that teachers
might have about ER, which can range from teachers being concerned about
the amount of time that ER may eat into the already crowded curriculum to
lack of resources or support from school leaders and administrators. Unless
we address these concerns, the adoption rate of ER in schools may continue to
be small. Even if it is adopted, the implementation may fall far below
expectations, thus yielding minimal or no language learning bene ts.

INTRODUCTION
Since the publication of Richard Day and Bamford’s (1998) book on extensive
reading (ER), the number of theoretical discussions and empirical research
studies on this topic has grown tremendously. A decent body of literature on
ER now exists and is easily accessible. For those new to the idea but wish to
explore the theoretical underpinnings of ER and its associated empirical
research studies, they could visit a dedicated site on the Internet that archives
more than 600 works, including journal articles, book chapters, books, MA
theses and Doctoral dissertations
(https://www.erfoundation.org/bib/biblio2.php).

Similarly, a growing number of language teachers have begun to implement

ER in their teaching as they want to see for themselves whether and to what
extent the much acclaimed approach could actually help their students
improve their overall pro ciency in the target language. Some have been
quite successful, while others encountered numerous problems and ended up
discontinuing the ER programme barely a year after its

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However, a larger number remain non-committal. Many of them are

unconvinced that there is such an approach to language teaching “that is so
universally hailed as bene cial, important, and necessary – truly an approach
that has no detractors and many fervent advocates …” (Hedgcock & Ferris,
2009, p 208). It is small wonder that the implementation of ER has been rather
spotty or sparsely distributed. In some places (e.g., Japan), ER seems to be
ourishing, perhaps partly because of the larger concentration of ER scholars
who not only actively promote ER but also provide on-going support to
teachers who are keen to start their ER programme. It is not a coincidence that
the Extensive Reading Foundation is managed by ER scholars and enthusiasts
who reside in Japan. In other places, however, ER is only beginning to make
small waves (e.g., Indonesia, Korea) and in other countries (e.g., Cambodia,
Myanmar, Thailand), ER may still be “under-utilized or even ignored”
(Hedgecock & Ferris, 2009, p. 208).

Yet in other places, ER may be quite popular and widely applied, but often not
for the right reason. In some provinces in China for example, ER is a familiar
concept and many college English teachers are actually teaching it using locally
produced coursebooks to give students a taste of ER. However, a recent study
by Renandya, Hu & Yu (2015) found that the contents of these ER coursebooks
are not quite well-aligned with the accepted principles of ER; it fact, the
design, contents and organization of the coursebooks show typical
characteristics of an intensive reading approach (also known as read-then-
answer-comprehension-questions-approach to teaching reading). The reading
passages are uninteresting and di cult, the post-reading tasks and activities
are also unappealing and not likely to motivate students to read more outside
the classroom.

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 Extensive Reading: Top Ten Implementation Issues

The goal of this paper is to explore some of the main concerns that teachers
might have about ER, which can range from teachers being concerned about
the amount of time that ER may eat into the already crowded curriculum to
lack of resources or support from school leaders and administrators. Unless
we address these concerns, the adoption rate of ER in schools may continue to
be small. Even if it is adopted, the implementation may fall far below
expectations, thus yielding minimal or no language learning bene ts.

We outline below the top 10 concerns that teachers have about extensive
reading and o er suggestions on how we can alleviate their concerns. Each of
the concerns begins with the word ‘No’ such as No Books, No Legitimacy, No
Motivation and No Results for easy reference. In our discussion below, the
word ‘No’ refers to a range of unfavourable conditions (e.g., little or limited
access to books, minimal or limited support from school administrators etc)
that make it hard for teachers to implement ER in their school contexts.

1.  LIMITED TIME

Time seems to be a rare commodity among teachers. This is not surprising as
teachers tend to work longer hours compared to other people in other
professions. In addition to a heavy teaching load, they carry other school-
related responsibilities, including marking, supervision, mentoring junior
colleagues, giving extra tuitions to low progress students, attending endless
sta meetings, organizing educational trips for their students, just to name a
few.

When schools introduce a new teaching innovation, their initial response is

likely to be “Yes, but I have no time”. Similarly, many teachers know that
reading is good; they may also have heard from their colleagues or language
teaching experts that extensive reading is an excellent way to improve
language pro ciency. But when asked if they would implement ER in their
teaching, we are likely to hear the same response: “Yes it’s good, but ER would
take up too much of my time and it would also eat into my curriculum time.”

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There are two possible solutions. One is to convince teachers that ER is worth
implementing because of its numerous and proven language learning bene ts.
If we can show them good evidence, they might be keen to set aside time to
infuse ER in some way in their teaching. The other way is to work with school
leaders or ministry o cials. Again, if we can present compelling evidence
about the e cacy of ER, they might consider including ER in the language
curriculum. A case in point is the inclusion of ER in the English language
curriculum in Singapore. The explicit mention of ER in the curriculum gives
teachers the motivation to implement ER in a more sustained manner.

2.  LACK OF RELEVANT READING MATERIALS

At the heart of an ER programme is the availability of large amounts of
reading materials. These materials are ction or non- ction books that have
been specially written for language learners. Known as graded readers, these
books can cater for the needs of language learners with di erent pro ciency
and ability levels. Lower pro ciency students can start by reading linguistically
less challenging books, while higher pro ciency students can choose to read
the more challenging ones.

Since amount of reading is usually associated with a higher language learning

bene ts, schools usually have a sizeable collection of graded readers in their
library. For well-resourced schools, the cost of purchasing graded readers may
not be a huge problem. But for most schools in low resourced countries, the
cost may simply be too prohibitively high. This especially true for higher
quality graded readers published by mainstream publishers such as
Cambridge or Oxford University Press.

Thus, the concern about schools having little access to graded readers is real
and unless this is addressed, teachers are not likely to implement ER.

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We o er two suggestions here. First, instead of purchasing physical books, we

now have a choice of purchasing a digital library. This is a popular option
because the cost is lower and students nowadays prefer to read books on
their laptop or mobile gadgets. One such digital library can be purchased from
XReading (https://xreading.com/). XReading contains some 1,000 graded
readers published by major ELT publishers. The XReading platform is student
and teacher-friendly; it is easy to use and it allows teachers to guide and
monitor students’ reading.

Second, a less costly way to set up an ER library is to use online reading

materials that teachers and students can view and/download for free. The
following are some of the more popular sites that provide free access to ER
reading materials:

 https://www.er-central.com/
 https://americanenglish.state.gov/ebooks
 https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/lals/about/sta /paul-nation#free-graded-readers
 https://asiafoundation.org/what-we-do/books-for-asia/lets-read/
 https://storyweaver.org.in/
 https://digitallibrary.io/

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3.  DELAYED IMPACT OF ER

This is another often heard concern. Teachers are pragmatic people who want
to see the immediate results of their labour. After three months of ER, they
would expect some tangible results, e.g., improvements in students’ reading
comprehension skills and increased performance on tests and examinations.
This is of course understandable. However, ER is not a technique or teaching
trick that produces instant results. It is an approach to language learning that is
geared towards activating students’ internal language learning mechanism.
Research shows that internal processes such as comprehending the language
input, noticing language features present in the input, establishing the form-
meaning relationship, consolidating and restructuring previously seen or
heard language features, and nally developing a complex and implicit
linguistic system takes time (Renandya, 2013; N. Ellis. 2002, Wong & VanPatten,
2003).

N. Ellis (2002), a theoretical SLA theorist, aptly describes the slow and gradual
process of language acquisition:

The real stu of language acquisition is the slow acquisition of form function
mappings and the regularities therein. This skill, like others, takes tens of
thousands of hours of practice, practice that cannot be substituted for by
provision of a few declarative rules. (p. 175)

In the same vein, but from a more applied perspective, Elley (2001) describes
the acquisition process through ER in the quote below:

When the student repeatedly focuses on the meaning of a large number of

interesting messages, he/she incidentally and gradually acquires the form in
which they are couched. This is where the learning takes place, not in the
conscious, step-by-step direct teaching and applications of rules. (p. 129)

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To sum up, the professional literature on language acquisition and ER seems

to suggest three key points: (i) language acquisition is a slow and gradual
process, (ii) extensive input-based practice where students are constantly
exposed to interesting and comprehensible contents is a necessary condition
for language learning; (iii) ER can promote incidental language learning, which
contribute to the development of students’ implicit knowledge of the
language.

The practical question then is: how long does it take for ER to show
measurable impact on language learning? Estimates vary. Some suggest that
we can see improvements in reading uency (the ability to read faster as
measured by number of words per minute) after students have read some
100,000 words; others say 200,000 words. For a more remarkable
improvement in di erent areas of language learning (e.g., reading, writing,
listening and speaking), the number of words can be much higher, ranging
from 500 thousand to 1 million words.

In his book the Power of Reading, Krashen provides a synthesis of research

studies that compared students who did ER and those who followed
traditional intensive reading instruction. Overall, his conclusion was that ER
students outperformed non-ER students; but students who were put in the ER
programme for one year or longer, showed much greater improvements on a
variety of measures (Krashen, …).

Thus, it is a too hasty a conclusion to say that ER does not produce results.
Indeed, the empirical evidence on the e ectiveness of ER is well documented
in the professional literature (see recent meta-analysis studies by Jeon & Day,
2016; Nakanishi 2015 ). This is further supported by successful stories
recounted by teachers who have successfully integrated ER in their teaching.

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What teachers need to remember is that the e ect is delayed, rather than
immediate. Students do make improvements after a month or two (e.g., faster
and more e cient form-meaning mappings), but these improvements are
di cult to measure using traditional language testing measurements.

4.  LEGITIMACY ISSUE

Teachers and administrators have certain xed views about what constitutes
legitimate language learning activities. In most language learning situations,
teachers are expected to be an authority gure who is responsible for learning
to happen in the classroom. They prepare a well-structure lesson plan which is
then delivered in an orderly and systematic manner. This often involves the
teacher taking on a very active role of explaining the objective of the lesson,
presenting the key learning points, assigning individual or group activities,
checking and monitoring student learning and assessing the learning
outcomes, i.e., whether the objective of the lesson has been successfully
achieved.

ER is an approach that relies more on students doing independent learning via

self-selected, silent reading and less on teacher explanations. So, students
choosing books that they want to read and then reading silently in the corner
of the classroom with minimal intervention from the teachers are often “not
perceived as a class learning, … both by the students themselves and the
school administration” (Prowse, 2002, p 144). Teachers may feel that they have
not done a good job as teachers, students may feel that they have not been
taught by their teachers, and administrators may feel that ER is not worth any
curriculum time.

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One way to tackle the issue of legitimacy would be to integrate ER into

coursebooks. Brown (2009) for example, has suggested that that coursebooks
provide the much needed legitimacy for ER and can make ER a credible
language learning activity. This is because coursebooks are often seen as
“powerful legitimizing tools, for teachers, for learners, and for institutions” (p.
240). There is one problem though. Most commercially available coursebooks
do not usually include ER-inspired texts and tasks. One plausible solution
would be for teachers to create a set of ER reading materials that are
thematically related to the lesson units in the coursebooks. By explicitly
linking ER to coursebook contents, ER may no longer be seen as a stepsister of
the more popular (and legitimate) approach to language learning, i.e., the
intensive reading approach.

5.  LACK OF SUPPORT FROM SCHOOL LEADERS

There are well-resourced and less-well-resourced schools. Interestingly, even
the more well-resourced schools often cite limited resources as being the
main reason for not providing adequate funding for ER. School leaders or
administrators would readily acknowledge that reading is good, but they may
not be fully aware of the salutary bene ts of ER in students’ literacy
development. Even if they have heard about its bene ts, they would still
demand to see more concrete evidence demonstrating the positive e ect of
ER on improving students’ high-stake examination results.

What can be done to get a buy-in from school administrators is to put

together a synthesis of the ER research written in a style that suits their needs.
In other words, instead of summarizing the research on ER using technical
jargons, the document will need to be written in using non-technical language
and with a strong slant on how ER can enhance not only their reading and
general pro ciency, but also their examination scores. 

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There are research studies that have examined the impact of ER on students’
examination performance. One such study was conducted by Davis (1995), in
which he reported the e ect of large scale ER programmes on students
secondary school leaving examinations. Students who performed below the
national average on the O level English examination made substantial
improvements following a year-long ER programmes. At the end of the
experiments, these students’ performance on their O level English
examination was above the national average. It is this type of studies that is
likely to convince school administrators to allocate adequate resources for ER.

6.  LIMITED KNOWLEDGE ABOUT ER

Information about ER is more widely available and accessible than ever
before. The Extensive Reading Foundation website (www.erfoundation.org),
for example, provides extensive information about ER, including information
about how to start an ER programme, how to use graded readers, how to nd
free online reading materials, how to use M-Reader to monitor and assess
reading, and a practical guidebook written in multiple languages. The site also
houses an annotated bibliography of hundreds of academic and research
papers on extensive reading.

Mainstream journals also regularly publish new research articles or conceptual

papers that teachers can get hold of. TEFLIN journal, one of the oldest ELT
journals based in Indonesia, for example, has a special issue on ER that Rob
Waring and Willy Renandya guest edited. There are also a number of
professional associations that regularly conduct outreach workshop activities
to promote ER to teachers and parents. In Indonesia for example the
Indonesian Extensive Reading Association (IERA) holds free webinars and
workshops for teachers. Likewise, the ER Foundation organizes their ER World
Congress every other year in di erent countries in Asia (e.g., Japan, Korea and
Taiwan).

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Despite these e orts, a number of teachers seem to have minimal or no

knowledge about ER, or even misconception about ER. Some believe that
extensive reading is good for advanced level students, i.e., those who can read
longer and more di cult texts. They would insist that Lower pro ciency
students won’t bene t much from ER. For this group of students, they feel
that the step-by-step teaching of language done in an explicit and systematic
manner would produce superior results (Elley, 2001).

Others believe that students should read only ‘quality’ books, i.e., books that
have literary or moral values. Reading ction books (e.g., romance, thrillers,
etc) for pleasure is often frown upon. They are often referred to as ‘ u y’
books that students should not be reading in school (Renandya, Krashen &
Jacobs 2018). But it is precisely these kinds of books that get students
become hooked onto reading, which overtime would enable them to read
more serious books. Fortunately, some school libraries that we have visited in
Singapore are beginning to acknowledge the importance of having ction
books that are more appealing to the emerging young readers. Popular series
books such as the Harry Porter and Percy Jackson Series can now be seen on
display in strategic, high tra c areas in the school libraries.

7.  NO PERSONAL EXPERIENCE WITH ER

Having relevant knowledge about ER, which includes knowing the
technicalities of implementing it in school, is important ingredients for
success. But this alone is not su cient. We have seen excellent ER
programmes that started o with great fanfare but only to disappear in one
or two years’ time. 

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We have also seen ER programmes that are only half-heartedly implemented.

We have seen how some teachers became very excited when they heard from
ER experts about the numerous language learning bene ts of ER. They wanted
to give it a try and to see if this approach really worked. However, their initial
enthusiasm was often short-lived. When they faced implementation issues and
when they didn’t see immediate results, they lost interest and discontinued
the programme.

One of the reasons is that they may not have had a personal success
experience with ER when they were learning the target language in schools or
colleges. Francisca, the third author, was able to achieve a high level of
pro ciency mainly through ER. She was and continues to be an avid reader. She
has for the past few years been implementing ER with her rst year English
major students in her university. Although she has encountered numerous
obstacles, her unwavering conviction that ER is an excellent way to help her
students improve on their pro ciency has kept her motivated to continue with
her ER programme.

We are currently planning to design an ER project that involves both the

teachers and students reading a set number of books over a 12-month period.
We will select teachers whose pro ciency is at the B1 level and put them on a
specially designed ER programme, which require them to read a certain
number of highly interesting and readable ction and non- ction books. We
expect to see signi cant improvements when the project ends, with the
majority reaching at least a high B2 level or C1. When these teachers see their
own improvements and their students’ improvements, they will be more likely
to embrace ER more whole-heartedly and implement it in a more sustained
manner.

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8.  LACK OF MOTIVATION

Motivation is a key factor that plays a signi cant role in learning. Success often
depends on the extent students are motivated and whether their motivation
can be sustained over a longer period of time. Work on motivation by Dornyei
& Ushioda (2013) has demonstrated that in L2 learning, success often hinges
on students’ levels of motivation. Those with a higher level of motivation are
generally more successful in achieving at least a working knowledge of the
target language. Research on ER has also shown that motivation plays a key
role (Day & Bamford, 1998). As the impact of ER can only be seen after a
longer time duration, sustained motivation becomes critically important in
ensuring that students don’t stop reading after a couple of months or so.

Teachers’ concern about ER centres around two inter-related issues. First,

many would say that their students are not interested in reading. These
students have little or no motivation to read, not in their rst language, much
less in a second or foreign language. They would watch movies, youtube
videos or listen to podcasts but they would not pick up a book to read.
Second, since ER requires sustained motivation, there is little chance that
students would spend time doing self-selected reading over a period of time.

We understand that not all students would enjoy reading, but our repeated
experience has convinced us that the majority do enjoy reading, if and only if
they could choose to read books that they can relate to and those that pique
their curiosity. James Patterson, an accomplished novelist, has been quoted as
saying: “There's no such thing as a kid who hates reading. There are kids who
love reading, and kids who are reading the wrong books.”

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The quote above seems to be supported by research. When children nd the

right books to read, either on their own or recommended by their teachers,
their reading motivation increases and their chances of replicating the same
pleasurable experience with reading also goes up. Trelease (2001) used a
special term to refer to these kinds of books: “home run books”, the kinds of
books that triggers students’ rst strong desire and interest in reading. Ujiie &
Krashen (2002) provided empirical support for the highly motivating power of
home run books. They reported that a high percentage of students who had
home run book experience also enjoyed doing self-selected reading.

In addition to having home run book experience, teachers play a key role in
motivating their students to do ER. As Miller (2010) noted, “students will read
if we give them books, the time and the enthusiastic encouragement to do so
(p. 177).” Verbal encouragement alone however is not su cient. The teachers
themselves must serve as a good role model of a reader. They should
demonstrate to their students that they too enjoy reading and model good
reading habits both in and out of the classroom (Day & Bamford, 1998; Miller,
2010).

9.  LIMITED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITY

Teachers need to continually upgrade their knowledge and skills by attending
professional development (PD) courses or workshops. They can attend in-
house sta seminars organized by their institutions and facilitated by the
more senior teachers, sign up for courses organized by external parties. The
latter take many di erent forms, e.g., certi cate or diploma courses, short
courses or workshops and seminars or conferences organized by professional
associations (e.g., JACET, AsiaTEFL and TEFLIN).

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Teachers working in well-resources schools have ample opportunities to

participate in PD courses and may have attended workshop sessions on ER,
there are those working in low-resourced schools located in remote provinces
whose PD opportunities are very limited and therefore may not have heard
about ER. Even if they have heard about ER, their knowledge tends to be
limited, thus reducing the chance that they might include ER in their teaching.

Providing PD opportunities to those from low resourced schools might seem

like an insurmountable problem at rst glance. The cost of sending teachers to
big cities to attend PD courses or conferences might be too high for the
school to bear. However, technology has now made it possible for teachers to
attend quality PD courses at a fraction of the cost of in-person workshops.
Video-based workshops delivered via popular online platforms (e.g., Zoom,
Google Meet) are becoming increasingly popular. The cost is either minimal; in
fact, some ER scholars and practitioners are more than willing to organize free
online workshops for any teachers who are keen to know more about ER. The
Indonesian Extensive Reading Association, for example, has organized a
number of workshops on various aspects of ER at no charge.

For those who prefer in person workshops, they can approach Board
Members of the Extensive Reading Foundation (www.erfoundation.org) for
free workshops. The Foundation has conducted a number of ER workshops in
several countries using their internal and external funding sources. In 2018 for
example, the Foundation organized a week long workshops in several cities in
Indonesia fully sponsored by the US State Department via its RELO o ce in
Indonesia. More than 1,000 teachers participated in the workshops.

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Workshops and other similar PD activities are useful but not enough. Teachers
may still have concerns and questions related to implementation issues. They
also need support from other ER practitioners. Fortunately, there now exists a
number of online ER communities, which teachers can join for free as well.
They can share their concerns, problems and more importantly, success
stories; they can also exchange practical tips on how to nd free resources on
the Internet, how to motivate reluctant readers, and how to nurture good
reading habits.

10.  ER PRINCIPLES ARE TOO DEMANDING

A number of teachers often tell us how di cult it is to fully implement the 10
principles of ER (Day & Bamford, 2002). Many mistakenly believe that all 10
principles will need to be fully applied to ensure success. These principles are
cast in stone, they say. If one or two of these principles were ignored or
misapplied, the programme could no longer be called extensive reading. One
of the principles that is often singled out as being the most di cult is this:
“Reading is its own reward”. Day & Bamford (2002) explained this principle in
this way:

Reading is its own reward. The learners' experience of reading the text is at
the center of the extensive reading experience, just as it is in reading in
everyday life. For this reason, extensive reading is not usually followed by
comprehension questions. It is an experience complete in itself. (p. 138)

No one would disagree that the principle is generally sound. But when applied
in the formal learning contexts, teachers run into a range of problems. How do
they know that their students have actually read the books? How do they
assess students’ linguistic as well as a ective learning outcomes? Fortunately,
in their subsequent publications, the authors acknowledge the di culties of
applying some of the principles in the school contexts. They then put together
a collection of post-reading activities that teachers can use to assess/monitor
student reading (Bamford & Day (2004).

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Our suggestion is to use the 10 principles as guidelines (not as rules that must
be strictly followed) for the implementation of ER. It is good to see all of
them being applied in an ER programme, but not all of them can be applied in
typical school contexts. However, there is a core set of principles that need to
be put in place, or we run the risk of deviating too much from the key ER
variables that have the most direct impact on language learning. These core
set of principles include the following (Macalister, 2015; Ng, Renandya &
Chong, 2019; Waring & Mclean, 2015).

1. The reading materials are interesting and comprehensible

2. Students read as much as possible
3. Reading speed is faster rather than slower
4. Students choose what they want to read, where possible
5. The purpose of reading is mostly for enjoyment and general information

CONCLUSION
ER is about reading a lot, reading in great quantity interesting and
comprehensible texts. Grabe & Stoller (2002) write that ‘students learn to read
by reading a lot, yet reading a lot is not the emphasis of most reading
curricula’ (p. 90). In fact, research into ER shows that reading a lot not only
improves students’ reading pro ciency, it also enhances their overall language
pro ciency. Their grammar becomes more sophisticated, their vocabulary
expands, their speaking and writing skills also improve a great deal (Day &
Bamford, 1998).

In this paper, we have outlined 10 of the most important reasons why ER is not
widely or e ectively implemented. More concerted e orts need to be done
in order to address these 10 concerns that teachers have about ER. When their
concerns are adequately address, we can expect a greater number of teachers
and schools to embrace ER more whole-heartedly and make ER a central
element of their language curriculum.

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REFERENCES
Bamford, J., 7 Day. R.R. (2004). Extensive reading activities for language
teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Day, R. R., & Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive reading in a second language.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Day, R. (2002). Top ten principles for teaching extensive reading. Reading in a

foreign language, 14(2), 136-141

Brown, D. (2009). Why and how textbooks should encourage extensive

reading. ELT Journal, 63, 238-245.

Davis, C. (1995). Extensive reading: an expensive extravagance?. ELT

journal, 49(4), 329-336.

Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2013). Teaching and researching: Motivation. New

York: Routledge.

Elley, W.B. (2001). Guest editor’s introduction. In W.B. Alley (Guest Editor),
Book-based approaches to raising literacy in developing countries.
International Journal of Educational Research, 35, 127-135.

Ellis, N.C. (2002). Frequency e ects in language processing. SSLA, 24, 143-188.

Grabe, W. & Stoller, F. L. (2002). Teaching and Researching Reading. London:

Pearson Education Longman.

Hedgcock, J. S., & Ferris, D. R. (2009). New Teaching Readers of English

Students, Texts, and Contexts. New York: Routledge.

Jeon, E. Y., & Day, R. R. (2016). The e ectiveness of ER on reading pro ciency:
A meta-analysis. Reading in a Foreign Language, 28(2), 246-265.

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Krashen, S. D. (2004). The power of reading (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH:

Heinemann. 

Macalister, J. (2015). Guidelines or Commandments? Reconsidering Core

Principles in Extensive Reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 27(1), 122-128.

Miller, D. (2010). The book whisperer: Awakening the inner reader in every

child. San Francisco, Calif.: John Wiley & Sons.

Nakanishi, T. (2015). A meta-analysis of extensive reading research. TESOL

Quarterly, 49(1), 6-37.

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