CHAPTER The Human Organism

01 : 2 BASIC APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF

1.1. Anatomy ANATOMY – LEVELS OF STUDY

〰  study of the structure and shape of the ★ Systemic Anatomy
body and its parts 〰 study of the body by systems -- such as the
〰 word anatomy means to dissect, or cut apart cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal, and muscular
and separate, the parts of the body for study. systems

Allows us to interact with our surroundings by ★ Regional Anatomy

adjusting how the body responds to changes in 〰 study of the organization of the body by
environmental information. These changes serve as areas -- such as the head, abdomen, or arm, all
stimuli. systems are studied simultaneously

Importance of the relationship betweem 2 GENERAL WAYS TO EXAMINE THE

strucvture and the function
THE INTERNAL STRUCTURES
✦ anatomy examines the relationship
★ Surface Anatomy
between the structure of a body part and its
function -- For example, bones can provide strength
〰 study of external features -- such as bony
projections, which serve as landmarks for
and support because bone cells secrete a hard,
locating deeper structures
mineralized substance.
★ Anatomical Imaging
〰 involves the use of x-rays, ultrasound,
ANATOMY – LEVELS OF STUDY
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) , and other
★ Gross Anatomy technologies to create pictures of internal
〰 Large structures structures
〰 Easily observable without the aid of magnification

1.2. Physiology
〰  study of how the body and its parts work or
function

2 MAJOR GOALS IN STUDYING

PHYSIOLOGY

★ Microscopic Anatomy (1) to understand and predict the body’s

〰 Very small structure
〰 Can only be viewed with a microscope
responses to stimuli
(2) to understand how the body maintains
internal conditions in the presence of
continually changing internal and external
environment
1.3. Structural and
Functional Organization
of the Human Body
★ Chemical Level
〰 atom combine to form molecules
★ Cellular Level
〰 cells are made of molecules
〰 Molecules can combine to form
organelles (little organs), which are the
small structures that make up some cells
★ Tissue Level
〰 Similar cells and surrounding materials
make up tissues.
〰 composed of more tissue types that
together perform one or more common
functions -- organs such as heart, stomach,
liver, and urinary bladder
★ Organ Level
〰 Different tissues combine to form
organs, such as the urinary bladder
★ Organ System Level
〰 Organs, such as the urinary bladder and
kidneys that work closely together make up
an organ system.
〰 Example :The kidneys produce urine,
which is transported by the ureters to the
urinary bladder, where it is stored until
eliminated from the body by passing
through the urethra
★ Organism Level
〰 Organ systems make up an organism
〰 Organism is any living thing considered
as a whole, composed of trillion of cells. The
human organism is a complex of organ
systems that are mutually dependent upon
one another
Levels of the
Organization for the
Human Body
The simplest level of
organization in the human
body is the atom. Atoms
combine to form
molecules. Molecules
aggregate into cells. Cells
form tissues, which
combine with other
tissues to form organs.
Organs work in groups
called organ systems. All
organ systems work
together.
Organ Systems of the
body
 ★ Integumentary
FUNCTION

ミ Provides protection - like bacteria, pollution, and UV rays from the sun
ミ Regulates temperature, prevents water loss (from drying out), and helps produce
vitamin D (essential for calcium and phosphorous absotion).
ミ Consists of skin, hair, nails, sebaceous glands and sweat glands.

system

FUNCTION

ミ Provides protection on body organs and support structure of your body

ミ Allows body movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals (calcium)
and adipose tissue.
ミ Consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints.

★ SKELETAL system

★MUSCULAR
system
FUNCTION

ミ Produces body movements, maintains posture, and produces body heat.

ミ Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons.
ミ Nearly all movement in the body is the result of muscle contraction.
 ★ NERVOUS
FUNCTION

ミ A major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movements

(fast- acting controlling system) physiological processes, and intellectual functions.
ミ Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors.
ミ Responds to internal and external change
ミ Activates muscles and glands

SYSTEM

★ endocrine system
FUNCTION

ミ A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth,

reproduction, and many other functions.
ミ Consists of endocrine glands, such as the pituitary, that secrete
hormones.

★Cardiovascular
system
FUNCTION

ミ Transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the

body;
ミ Plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body
temperature.
ミ Circulates OXYGEN and removes carbon dioxide
ミ Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
 ★ Lymphatic
FUNCTION

ミ Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats disease,
maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs dietary fats from the digestive tract.
ミ Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs.

SYSTEM
★RESPIRATORY
system

FUNCTION

ミ Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air and
regulates blood pH.
ミ It also cleans waste gases, remove carbon dioxide from your blood.
ミ Consists of the lungs and respiratory passages.

★ Digestive system
FUNCTION

ミ Performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion

ミ Turning your food (breaks down food) into the nutrients and energy you
need to survive
ミ Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
ミ Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory
organs.
 ★ Urinary
FUNCTION

ミ Removes waste products (nitrogenous waste) from the blood and regulates
blood pH, ion balance, and water balance.
ミ Regulation of materials
-- Water
-- Electrolytes (i.e, sodium, potassium etc)
ミ Consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and ureters.

sYSTEM

★ Reproductive
FUNCTION

ミ To produce egg and sperm cells. To transport and

sustain these cells. To nurture the developing
offspring.

system

1.4. Charscters
of Life
〰 The most important common feature of
all organisms is life.
★ Organization
〰 refers to the specific relationship of an
organism, from cell organelles to organs,
interacting and working together.
〰 Disruption of this organized state can result
in loss of function and death.
★ Metabolism
〰 ability to use energy to perform vital
functions, such as growth, movement, and
reproduction.
Excretion - Elimination of waste from
metabolic reactions
★ Responsiveness
〰 the ability of an organism to sense changes
in the environment and make the adjustments
that help maintain its life.
ex. responses are movements that away from
danger or poor environmental conditions such
as extreme cold or heat.
〰 Organisms can also make adjustments that
maintain their internal environment.
ex. if body temperature increases in a hot
environment, sweat glands produce sweat,
which can lower body temperature down to the
normal level.
★ Growth
〰 refers to an increase in size of all or part If
the organism.
〰 It can result from an increase in cell number,
cell size, or the amount of substance
surrounding cells.
ex. bones grow when the number of bone cells
increases and the bone cells become
surrounded by bone matrix.
★ Development
〰 includes the changes an organism
undergoes through time.
〰 Human development begins when the egg is
fertilized by the sperm and ends with death.
〰 Development usually involves growth, but it
also involves differentiation. Differentiation is
change in cell structure and function from
generalized to specialized.
ex. following fertilization, cells start to specialize
to become different cell types, such as skin,
bone, muscle, or nerve cells.
★ Reproduction
〰 formation of new cells or new organisms.
Without reproduction of the organism, the
species becomes extinct.
SURVIVAL NEEDS
★ Nutrients
〰 Chemicals for energy and cell building –
includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
vitamins, and minerals
★ Oxygen
〰 Required for chemical reactions
 ★ Water
〰 60–80% of body weight
〰 Provides for metabolic reaction
★ Stable body temperature
★ Atmospheric pressure must be appropriate
Homeost
1.5.
asis
〰 maintenance of a stable environment within
the body despite the external or the internal
environment – a dynamic state of equilibrium.
It is dynamic because it is constantly adjusting
to the changes that the systems encounter. It is
in equilibrium because body functions are kept
within a normal range.
〰 must be maintained for normal body
functioning and to sustain life
〰 Homeostatic imbalance – a disturbance in
homeostasis resulting in disease
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT FOR
PROPER BODY FUNCTION
〰 Living organisms need to maintain
homeostasis constantly in order to properly
grow, work, and survive. In general,
homeostasis is essential for normal cell function,
and overall balance.
Ex. In the human body, chemicals like Oxygen
(O2), Carbon dioxide (CO2) and digested food
enter and exit the cells using the concept
called diffusion and osmosis. For this process to
function properly, homeostasis helps our body
to keep both water and salt balance level.
It is impotant to note that homeostasis occurs
naturally when a system is stable and functions
correctly. This can be achieved by continuously
making systems work together in harmony.
MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS
〰 Homeostatic mechanisms, such as sweating
or shivering, normally maintain body
temperature near an average normal value, or
set point -- most homeostatic mechanisms are
governed by the nervous system or the
endocrine system. As long as body temperatures
remain within this normal range, homeostasis is
maintained.
Negative Feedback
〰 which maintain homeostasis.
〰 negative means “to decrease.”
〰 Negative feedback from the set point is
made smaller or is resisted. Negative feedback
does not prevent variation but maintains
variation within a normal range.
〰 The maintenance of normal body
temperature is an example of a negative-
feedback mechanism.
〰 An optimal body temperature prevents
molecules from being permanently destroyed.
Ex. picture the change in appearance of egg
whites as they are cooked; a similar
phenomenon can happen to molecules in our
body if the temperature becomes too high.
Thus, normal body temperature is required to
ensure that tissue homeostasis is maintained.
3 Components
(1) receptor - monitors the value of a variable,
such as body temperature, by detecting stimuli
-- a thing or event that evokes a specific
functional reaction in an organ or tissue) – send
information to the control center
(2) control center - such as part of the brain,
determines the set point for the variable and
receives input from the receptor about the
variable

(3) effector - such as the sweat glands, can

change the value of the variable when directed
by the control center – provide means for
response to the stimulus.

〰 The stepwise process that regulates body

temperature involves the interaction of
receptors, the control center, and effectors.

Positive Feedback
〰 occur when the initial stimulus further
stimulates the response.

〰 positive means that the deviation from the

set point becomes even greater.

〰 “positive” indicates an increase.

〰 For example, during blood loss, a chemical

responsible for clot formation stimulates
production of itself.

〰 Ex. Birth is another example of a normally

occurring positive feedback mechanism. Near
the end of pregnancy, the uterus is stretched by
the baby’s large size. This stretching, especially
around the opening of the uterus, stimulates
contractions of the uterine muscles. The uterine
contractions push the baby against the opening
of the uterus, stretching it further. This
stimulates additional contractions, which result
in additional stretching -- this positive-feedback
sequence ends when the baby is delivered from
the uterus and the stretching stimulus is
eliminated.
1.6. Terminol
gy and the
Body Plan
A.Anatomical Position
〰 refers to a person standing upright with the
face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging
to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing
forward
〰 A person is supine when lying face upward
and prone when lying face downward.
〰 In the anatomical position, the elbow is
above the hand -- the supine or prone position,
the elbow and hand are at the same level.
B.Directional Terms
〰 terms are in relation to the body in the
anatomical position: a person standing erect
with the face directed forward, the arms
hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands
facing forward
〰 Right and left are used as directional terms in
anatomical terminology.
〰 In anatomy, the term superior is used for
above, or up, and the term
〰 inferior is used for below, or down.
〰 anterior is used for front
〰 posterior is used for back.
〰 the word anterior means that which goes
before
〰 the word ventral means belly.
Therefore, the anterior surface of the human
body can also be called the ventral surface,
because the belly “goes first” when we are
walking.
____________________________________
〰 the word posterior means “that which
follows
〰 dorsal means “back.”
Thus, the posterior surface of the body is the
dorsal surface, or back, “which follows” as we
are walking.
_______________________________________
〰 Proximal means nearest,
〰 Distal means distant.
These terms are used to refer to linear
structures -- such as the limbs, in which one end
is near another structure and the other end is
farther away.
Each limb is attached at its proximal end to the
body, and the distal end, such as the hand, is
farther away.
____________________________________
〰 Medial means toward the midline
〰 Lateral means away from the midline.
The nose is located in a medial position on the
face, and the ears are lateral to the nose.
The term superficial refers to a structure close
to the surface of the body, deep is toward the
interior of the body.
For example, the skin is superficial to muscle
and bone.
Directional Term for the
Human Body
C. Body Parts and Region

★ lower limb is divided into the thigh, leg, ankle, and

〰 Central region of the body consists of the head,
foot.
neck, and trunk.
ミ The thigh extends from the hip to the knee, and
★ trunk can be divided into the thorax (chest),
abdomen (belly), and pelvis (hips). ミ The leg extends from the knee to the ankle.

★ upper limb is divided into the arm, forearm, wrist, Note that, contrary to popular usage, the terms arm
and hand. and leg refer to only a part of the respective limb.

ミ The arm extends from the shoulder to the elbow

ミ The forearm extends from the elbow to the
wrist.
〰 The abdomen is often subdivided superficially
into four sections, or quadrants, by two imaginary
lines—one horizontal and one vertical—that
intersect at the navel

★ right-upper quadrants
★ left-upper quadrants
★ right-lower quadrants
★ left-lower quadrants

〰 In addition to these quadrants, the abdomen is

sometimes subdivided into regions by four
imaginary lines—two horizontal and two vertical.

〰 These four lines create an imaginary tic-tac-

toe figure on the abdomen, resulting in nine
regions:

★ epigastric
★ right hypochondriac
★left hypochondriac
★ Umbilical
★ right lumbar
★ left lumbar
★ hypogastri
★ right lilac
★left iliac

〰 Clinicians use the quadrants or regions as

reference points for locating the underlying organs.

Ex. the appendix is in the right-lower quadrant, and

the pain of an acute appendicitis is usually felt there.

〰 Pain in the epigastric region is sometimes due to

gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) -- in which
stomach acid improperly moves into the esophagus,
damaging and irritating its lining.

〰 Epigastric pain -- can have many causes and

should be evaluated by a physician.

Ex. gallstones, stomach or small intestine ulcers,

inflammation of the pancreas, and heart disease can
also cause epigastric pain.

D. Planes