ANCIENT HISTORY

Reasons why Magadha became powerful ...................... 5

Contents History of Magadha ................................................................. 5
Prehistory ................................................................................0
Haryanka dynasty ................................................................ 5
1. Paleolithic Phase ..............................................................0
Shishunaga Dynasty ............................................................ 6
Paleolithic painting ..........................................................0
Nanda Dynasty .................................................................... 6
2. Mesolithic Phase..............................................................0
Maurya Rule ........................................................................ 6
Mesolithic painting ..........................................................0
Administration of the Mauryas ....................................... 7
3. Neolithic Phase ................................................................1
Economy of the Mauryas ................................................ 7
Indus Valley Civilization ...........................................................1
Society of the Mauryas.................................................... 7
Urban Planning of IVC......................................................1
Post Maurya period ............................................................. 7
Economy during IVC ........................................................2
Trade and Commerce during post Maurya period.......... 8
Society of IVC ...................................................................2
Gupta Period ....................................................................... 8
Polity of IVC .....................................................................2
Administration under Guptas.......................................... 9
Religious Practices of IVC.................................................2
Society during Gupta period ........................................... 9
Decline and disintegration of IVC ....................................3
Religious practices during the Guptas ............................. 9
Chalcolithic Culture .................................................................3
Sangama Period ...................................................................... 9
Advent of Aryans .....................................................................3
The Cheras........................................................................... 9
Early Vedic Period(1500-1000BC) ........................................3
The Cholas ......................................................................... 10
Economy during early Vedic period.................................3
The Pandyas ...................................................................... 10
Polity during Early Vedic period ......................................3
The North .............................................................................. 10
Das Rajan War .................................................................3
Pushyabhuti Dynasty ......................................................... 10
Society During Early Vedic period ...................................4
Pallava and Chalukya (South) ............................................ 10
Religious practices during Early Vedic period..................4
Pala Rulers of Eastern India............................................... 11
Later Vedic Period (1000-6th century BC) ...........................4
Pratihara-Gurjars of Western India ................................... 11
Economy during later vedic period .................................4
Rashtrakutas of Central India ............................................ 11
Polity during later Vedic Period .......................................4
South India... ......................................................................... 12
Society during Later Vedic Period....................................5
Mainline chola Dynasty ..................................................... 12
Religious Practices in the Later Vedic Period ..................5
Administration of the Mainline Cholas ......................... 12
Rise of 16 Mahajanapadas.......................................................5

Prehistory
Human beings first appeared on planet earth in the middle of
Pliestocene Epoch.
Mesozoic was their phase of evolution.
The Present phase of human evolution is known as Holocene.
The early Human History can be traced with the help of the Stone
tools used by them and also the paintings which they created inside
the caves where they lived.
On the basis of stone tools used by them the early human history
can be divided into 3 lithic(stone) Phases.
1. Paleolithic Phase
It is further subdivided into three phases
(a) Lower paleolithic Phase (5lakh BC - 1lakh BC): In this phase,
core stone tools were used which were irregular in shape and quite
heavy. The name of the characteristic tools in this period were
• hand axes
• cleavers
• choppers
(b) Middle Paleolithic Phase (1lakh BC - 50k BC)
In this period the core stone was used for creating flakes. They were
more affective than lower paleolithic tools. Most of the tools were
rectangular in shape.
The name of the characteristic tools were
• Scrapers
• Borers
• Burines
• Blades
(c) Upper Paleolithic Phase (50k BC - 10k BC)
In this phase pointed tools were created which were basically
triangular in shape. Instances of bone made tools are also found
from this period. At few places harpoons were also found.
All these tools of the paleolithic phase were found all over India
except Gangetic planes and Kerala.
Some Important sites of Paleolithic Phase:
• Bhimbhetka (MP)
• Belan Valley(region b/w Mirzapur and Rewa)
• Sohan valley(Present day pak)
• Kurnool (Andhra)
• Brahmagiri Hills (Karnataka)
Paleolithic painting
Paleolithic people created paintings on the walls of the caves.
Basically they scratched the wall of the cave to create images and
then it was filled with the colors. Generally they used Yellow,
green, Brown and Red color. These colors were naturally obtained
from the minerals.
These type of Scratch paintings on the walls are known as
petroglyph.
The major themes of these paintings were Hunting, gathering,
fighting Scenes, animal riding, etc. These themes suggest that early
humans were basically concerned about there subsistence.
Bhimbhetka(MP) is the most important site regarding paleolithic
painting. For the first time these paintings were discovered by an
archaeologist W.S. Wakankar.
2. Mesolithic Phase
(10000BC - 6000BC)
It is known as a transition phase and now the earth was becoming
more warmer ( many Glacial ages were observed during the
Paleolithic Phase).
The Characteristic tools of this period were Microliths which were
small and sharp. It not only facilitated in effective killing of the
animals but also in creating Mesolithic paintings.
Most of the tools were in the shape of Lunate and trape. Perhaps
they were made in these shapes to be affective when launched on a
projectile path. There are also instances of creation of bow and
arrow.
The first evidence of domestication of animal is found during this
period from Adamgarh(MP) and Bagohar(Rajasthan).
Mesolithic painting
These were also petroglyphs but more finer than the paleolithic
paintings because of the use of microlith tools.
They were using yellow, green, brown and red colors. Red was the
most dominant color and it was obtained naturally and also from the
animal blood (Perhaps it increased the longevity the painting and
also it was easily available).
Themes - old themes [Hunting, Gathering, Fighting] + New themes
like
• Celebration and Group dance → Depicts community sense
and coordination
• Sexual Union
• Household activity → depicts Division of labour
• Phallus and Yoni worship → Primitive Worship etc.
 These all themes not only represent the socio cultural life
of that time but also improving aesthetic sense of
Mesolithic people.
3. Neolithic Phase
(6000BC - 3000BC)
In this period the tools were highly polished which increased its
effectiveness.
The first evidence of agriculture is found from this period from
Mehargarh in Balochistan province of Pakistan.
The first evidence of agricultural activity in the world happened in
present day Syria.
• The community sense got consolidated in this period and
people started to live at one place permanently.
• They created wheels and also wheel made pottery.
• Neolithic people also became aware of Copper and its
uses.
• They mastered the controlled use of fire.
Indus Valley Civilization
Also known as Harappan Civilization or Bronze Civilization
• Area of Civilization - 12,99,600 sq. km
• Boundaries of IVC:
o The area of Indus Valley is roughly closer to shape of a
triangle
Important Sites of IVC
o Lothal - Dockyard/port of the civilization, situated
on the banks of river Bhogava
o Rakhigarhi - Largest site of IVC in India
o Dholavira - located in Ran of Kuchhh, It had 3
layers of town planning like Mohenjodaro
o Khetri and Jhunjhunu - Copper mines
Important rivers of IVC
o Indus → Saptasindhu
o Ravi → Parushani
o Beas and Chenab → Hakra-Ghaggar
o Sabarmati → Bhogava
o Saraswati (now dried up)
o [Kabul and Kubha( presently k/a oxus)] (flowed in
Afghanistan)
• In 1920, Archaeological Survey of India head JH Marshal
decided to go for excavation in Western Punjab and Sindh
province. The task of excavation was entrusted with two
Indian Archaeologists — Dayaram Sahni and RD
Banerjee. In 1921 Harappa was excavated by Dayaram
Sahni and in 1922 Mohenjodaro was excavated by RD
Banerjee.
• At this moment the British govt in India declared that IVC
is the most advanced civilization of the world. Earlier due
to the monumental structures like Pyramids, Egyptian
civilization was considered the most advanced. But IVC
despite not having any monumental building was given the
acronym of most advanced civilization due to the first use
of burnt bricks in the world and also its very advanced
Urban Planning (Pyramids were made up of Unburnt /
Sundried bricks).
Urban Planning of IVC
• Generally Indus town can be divided into two parts —
Western and Eastern.
o On the western side Citadel was created on an
upraised platform. Generally this area was fortified.
Administrative buildings were created in citadel.
o On the Eastern side very big lower town was
created. It was meant for habitation of commoners.
Lower town was divided into various sectors and
there was very good network of roads in grid
pattern. Roads used to cut each other at right angle.
On both the sides of the roads very good drains
were created. The main hole of the drains were
created with Gypsum which absorbed the water
and impurities/waste material were left behind. All
the drains were covered with stone/brick slabs.
o Inside the sectors houses were created. There were
instances of single, double and even triple storey
houses.
o All the houses were made up of burnt bricks of
same shapes and sizes which were in the ratio of
4:2:1. Inside the houses kitchen, washrooms,
courtyards, bedrooms were created. Each house
was connected with the main drain.
In the majority of the areas the roads were made from unburnt
bricks.
Common Bath
• Common bath was meant for Ritual Bathing.
 • The stairs of the common bath was created from burnt bricks
and they were created in North and South directions. In the
Eastern and Western Side small rooms were made.
• example - The Great Bath of Mohenjodaro
Q. How does the Urban Planning of IVC provides input to the
contemporary Urban Civilization or Urban Centers? (2014
MAINS)
Ans. Points to consider
• Sectors Chandigarh was the first planned city in India by French
architect Lee Kurbozier
• Drainage systems
• Single, double , triple storey houses in the same sector. In
Chandigrah also LIG (Low Income Grp), MIG, HIG houses are in
the same sector
• also criticize the contemporary urban planning . The major
problem of today's urban planning is the drainage problem. The
main reason for this is the plastic which is clogging the drains. In
this aspect, IVC cannot provide any input to Contemporary
Urban Centers. Include ideas like attitudinal change and solid
waste management tactics
Economy during IVC
Agriculture
• IVC was agriculture based economy
• The major crops which were cultivated are Wheat, Barley, Millet,
Rye, Pea, Sesamum, [Cotton], Melons, [Rice]
o It is believed cotton was cultivated for the first time in
IVC in the world.
o Cotton was used for making clothes and there were
three centers of textile Industry — Alamgirpur(UP),
Kalibangan and Mohenjodaro.
• All these agricultural commodities were exported to following
countries or regions
o Oman
o Sumer (present day Baghdad)
o Dilmun (present day Bahrain)
o Mesopotamia
o Egypt
o Afghanistan
o Magan Region (Iran Coast)
o [Rice] was cultivated only at Rangapur and Lothal.
Metals
• Copper, Tin, Gold and Silver were known to Indus Valley people.
o Tin was imported from Afghanistan.
o Gold, Silver from Mesopotamia.
o Copper was abundantly available in India from Khetri
and Jhunjhunu copper mines in Rajasthan.
• Copper was generally used for creating tools.
• Gold and Silver was used for creating seals.
• The copper and tin mixture Bronze was used for creating arms
and sculptures.
(Precious, Semi-precious) Stones
• Indus Valley people were fond of ornaments and jewelry. They were
aware of precious and semi-precious stones like
o Amethyst
o Carnelian Stone
o Lapis Lazuli and common stones like Steatite
o Beads(moti) and amulets (taabij) were created from these
stones.
o In Chanudaro a very flourishing bead industry was there.
o At Kalibangan bangle industry was there
Society of IVC
• IVC society was class-based society. There was income inequality
which is reflected from the pattern of the houses inside the
sectors. But at the same point of time, it can also be said that
there was equality of opportunity and mobility in the society.
• As far as the authority in the society is concerned it is very
unclear. A small lot of historians believe that it was patriarchal.
They cite example of the coveted position of priest was given to
males. On the other hand, majority of the historians believe that
it was matriarchal system. They cite example of the abundance
of image of a Mother Goddess.
• Indus Valley people were fond of Cosmetics which included
o Lipstick
o Soap
o Kajal
o Sindoor (HgCl2)
o They were also aware of benefits of tincture as an
antiseptic. Hg2Cl2 was used for creating tincture.
• They were also aware of some herbal medicines which can be
confirmed by the presence of Pestle and Mortar.
Polity of IVC
• There is no evidence of monarchial system in IVC. But it is very
clear that a central authority was there in the Indus Valley.
• There was debate among the historians regarding the Central
Authority. Some said that the central leader was democratically
elected while the others said that Priest can also be the central
authority. But most of the historians believe that Traders and
Rich Merchant Class formed the Central Authority.
Religious Practices of IVC
Deities
• From the seals it can be confirmed that Indus Valley people
worshipped both male and female deities.
• In one of the seals a person is depicted sitting in yogic posture.
He is accompanied with images of animals like tiger, bull,
elephant, rhinoceros and deer. This image was identified as
Proto Shiva or Pashupati Shiva.
• Another example is Peepal leaf seal which indicates towards
nature worship.
• One of the most abundantly worshipped deity in Indus Valley
was Mother Goddess. In some of the images of mother goddess
a plant was shown emerging from the naval point. On the basis
of this it was inferred that she was the Goddess of fertility.
Shamanic (Taantrik) practices
• Shamanic practices were also prevalent in the IVC
• It can be confirmed by the use of amulets *(Taabij).*

Decline and disintegration of IVC
• By 1800BC IVC came to a complete end.
• Initially it was proposed that it came to an end due to the Aryan
invasion but later this theory was rejected.
• A theory of famine and malaria was also proposed which cannot
be proven without doubt.
• The most accepted reason of the decline of IVC is the change in
Climatic phenomena like floods and droughts which must have
led to the end of IVC.
Chalcolithic Culture
Chalco means copper
• Chalcolithic word stands for usage of copper and stone at the
same point of time.
• As compared to IVC, Chalcolithic Communities were rural in
nature.
• Their main occupation was agriculture, fishing, livestock raising,
poultry, etc.
• There were many popular pockets of Chalcolithic culture in India
which are as follows
o Ahar-banas (Rajasthan)
o Malwa (MP-Guj)
o Kayatha (Rajasthan)
o Svalda(MH)
• Chalcolithic people created wheel made pottery which were
basically red and black in color and also ochre colored.
• One of the major achievements of this period was the start of a
practice which became a constant phenomenon in Indian culture
i.e. the burial practice of their dead whereby they started to bury
their dead in one particular direction all over an area. For
example, in the Svalda region, all the dead were buried in the
North-south direction.
Advent of Aryans
Q. The Aryans were (a) A Racial community (b) Ethnic
community (c) Religious Community (d) Linguistic Community
• By 1500BC several tribesmen from Central Asia (or Southern
Russia or Steppes of Russia) started to arrive on Indian
subcontinent. They were nomadic and pastoralists. They were
always in search of very good pasture land for their most
important wealth — Cattle.
• Collectively these all tribesmen from Central Asia came to be
known as Aryans.
• The term Aryan stands for Linguistic Community which means
they spoke same group of languages.
• Aryans were able to defeat Indigenous Indians with their use of
horses and horse driven chariots. They also used superior tools
like mail coats and helmets made up of bronze.
• After their arrival in Indian subcontinent they resided in
Kabul(Afg), Krumu(Afg), North West Frontier Province, Punjab ,
Haryana, Kashmir , Western Up and some parts of Rajasthan.
Just after their arrival Aryans composed Rigveda which is the
most important source of information about early Vedic period.
• In the Rigveda they mentioned Himalayas as Himavant or
Mujvant mountain. They also mentioned Saptasindhu or the
Seven Rivers : •Indus - Sindhu [most important river of the time]
•Jhelum - Vitasta •Chenab - Ashkini •Ravi - Parushani •Beas -
Vipasa •Sutlej - Shutudri •Saraswati also known as Naditarana
[most sacred river of the time]
o Ganga and Yamuna are also mentioned but only 2-3
times in Rigveda.
Early Vedic Period(1500-1000BC)
Economy during early Vedic period
1. Cattle was the most important economic wealth of the
early Vedic Aryans.
o Its importance can be highlighted by several words
mentioned in the Rigveda
⇒ Gopa or Gopajanya = King / Master of Cow
⇒ Gavyu = Cow
⇒ Gavisthi = Search for Cow
⇒ Godhuma = The one which originates from cow dung
i.e. wheat
⇒ Duhitri = Milcher of Cow (daughter was called as
Duhitri)
⇒ Aghanya = Not to be killed (In relation with
economic benefit of cow)
⇒ Goghana = One who eats beef
⇒ Godhuli = dusk (scale of time)
EXAM POV : UPSC may give a word among these
and ask for its meaning
2. The second important wealth was Agricultural
Commodities like Barley = yava
• There was no formal system of taxation in early Vedic period
but people voluntarily contributed to the chieftain of the
community in the form of Bali or bhaga which was a particular
part of their agricultural produce.
Polity during Early Vedic period
• Head of tribal community was known as Rajan.
• The most important function of Rajan was to organize battle to
secure large number of Cattle.
• In all his political endeavors Rajan was assisted by three political
Assemblies
1. Sabha : It was an exclusive assembly which consisted
of elder members of the society. It also included elder
women in their cadre. This was the most decisive
assembly.
2. Samiti : It was an inclusive assembly but women were
not part of this assembly.
3. Vidhata : Both male and females were part of this
assembly. There is no clarity regarding the exact
function of this assembly but it is believe that it served
religious functions and also some agriculture related
decisions.
Das Rajan War
• One of the strongest aryan tribe of that time was the Bharath
tribe ruled by Sudas. He gave the coveted position of head priest
to Vashishth Rishi instead of Vishwamitra. Humiliated by this
incident, Vishwamitra decided to persuade 5 Aryan Kings and 5
 Non-Aryan Kings (Indigenous kings). A battle was fought
between das rajan and Sudas on the banks of river Parushani. In
this battle Sudas defeated and all of his ruling territory came to
be known as BharathVarsha after the name of his clan.
Society During Early Vedic period
Later Vedic Period (1000-6th century BC)
• Society was identified on the basis of three professions
1. Priestly Class
2. Warrior Class
3. Traders, Peasants and Artisans
• Family or kula was the most important unit in the society. It was
headed by kulapa who was the eldest male member of the
family. It suggests that the society was patriarchal in nature.
• But at the same point of time women enjoyed respectable
position in the society. They were entitled to many privileges.
For example, the political rights whereby they enjoyed the
membership of Sabha and Vidhata.
• They were also allowed to go for educational discourses. One of
the very intellectual personalities of that period was Lopamudra
who participated in many debates and discussions.
• There was no instance of child marriage at this point of time.
• Both male and female were allowed to choose their spouses
under Gandharva Vivah system (The only condition was that the
person must belong to the same community i.e., they cannot
marry the non-Aryans)
• Widow Remarriage was allowed under Niyoga Vivah system
where she needed to marry the younger brother of the deceased
Economy during later Vedic period
husband.
• Slavery was rampant at this point of time. The defeated people
were made slaves. The defeated Aryans were known as the Dasa
and the defeated Non-Aryans were known as Dasyu. Many a
times Dasas were given favorable treatment and Dasyus were
heavily discriminated. There is a mention of mass killing or
Dasyu-Hatya in the Rigveda.
• Discrimination on the basis of skin color also started during this
period. The Aryans were the Albinos(white) whereas the
Indigenous people were brown skinned.
Religious practices during Early Vedic period
Deities Worshipped
• At this point of time, Early Vedic people personified the
Polity during later Vedic Period
elements of nature into the God.
• Indra was the most important divinity. He was also known as
Purandhar (Meaning breaker of forts). He was considered as God
of rain and Storm. He has been mentioned more than 250 times
in the Rigveda.
• Agni was the second important divinity and he was considered as
intermediary god. He has been mentioned more than 200 times
in the Rigveda.
• Varun was the third important divinity and the God of water. His
original function was to maintain the cosmic balance.
• Last important divinity was Mitra — God of Wind or air. Later he
came to be known as Maruti.
• Apart from these all deities, some female divinities were also
worshipped like Aditi (Goddess of daytime, Daughter of Sun),
Usha (dawn) and Savitri. Gayatri mantra which was composed by
Vishwamitra was dedicated to the Sun and Savitri.
Mode of worship - through offering prayers and chanting mantras
Objective of worship
• The main objective of worship was material gain and
development of highly cultured society.
• People also worshipped for Suvirah (brave son).
• There was no concept of spiritualism at this point of time.
• Around 1000BC iron was discovered from the two places in
western UP — Atranjikhera and Jakheera.
• With the discovery of iron, a new era ushered in. With the help
of iron, they created very good quality tools which facilitated in
clearing the dense forest of ganga Yamuna valley. Now a very
fertile land was available on which people started aggressive
agriculture.
• From this period onwards they entered into different parts of
the country which are as follows
o Bhrahmavart - NW part
o Aryavarta - Northern part
o Brahmarishi - Ganga Yamuna Valley
o Madhyadesh - Central India
• All this information about later Vedic period can be traced from
the Vedic text like Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda and
also extended texts of Vedas like Brahman, Aranyaka and
Upanishads.
• In the later Vedic texts, the Gandak river is mentioned as
Sadaneera
• At this point of time, agriculture became very important and so
as the land. The importance of the land is highlighted from the
word "Rashtra" mentioned in the Later Vedic Texts. Cattle
became the second important economic wealth
• Important Agricultural commodities Wheat → Godhuna Rice was
a new entrant and known as Vrihi Barley → yava
• Indigenous people knew about the cultivation of rice before the
Aryans
• There was no formal system of taxation at this point of time and
people voluntarily contributed to the Rajan in the form of bali or
bhaga.
• Aryans knew about the gold and they mentioned it initially as
Ayas and later Nishka.
• At this point of time the post of Rajan became very important
but the earlier political assemblies Sabha, Samiti lost their
former relevance and Vidhata completely disappeared. Now
rajan was assisted by priestly class who became very influential.
To confer Supreme powers to the Rajan Brahmins initiated
several sacrificial rituals which are as follows
1. Rajasuiya : It was a consecration ceremony where a
rajan was chosen and after his elevation to throne
some animals were sacrificed.
2. Vajpeya (meaning drink of Strength): This ceremony
was organized to win the trust of people. In this
ceremony Chariot race was organized and after the
end sports event a free feast was thrown to the public.
3. Ashwamedha : This ceremony was meant to increase
the territory. A bruised horse was let loose along with
the flag of the kingdom to venture into the other
territories. If the king of other territory captures the
horse then he needs to fight a battle with the
Ashwamedha king and whoever turns victorious will
control all of the territory. But if the horse is not
 captured it means that others have accepted the
supremacy of Ashwamedha king. On the 40th day of
the ceremony horse was brought back to the kingdom
and it was sacrificed along with 21 Sterile cows and
600 bulls.
Society during Later Vedic Period
• In the 10th Mandal of Rigveda it has been mentioned to divide
the society on the basis of birth (ascriptive) into four Varnas. In
the Purusha sukta the reason of this division is mentioned.
1. Brahmins : Purusha sukta says that Brahmins emerged
from the mouth of the Primeval man (Adi Brahma)
2. Kshatriya : — They emerged from the chest and
shoulder of Adi Brahma
3. Vaishya: — They emerged from the thighs of Adi
Brahma
4. Shudra : — They emerged from the feet of Adi Brahma
• Though the position of women was not very bad at this point of
time but it started to deteriorate. Vidhata completely
disappeared and women were evicted from the assembly of
Sabha (No political rights).
• Women were still allowed to participate in the educational
discourse. The great example is the intellectual debate between
Rishi Yajnya Valkya and Vidushi Gargi.
• There was no instance of child marriage at this point of time.
• Gandharva Vivah was frowned upon at this point of time and the
ideal marriage was chosen by the parents.
• At this point of time Brahmins came up with the idea of Gotra
which means Lineage from a common ancestor. Brahmins also
advised Exogamy of Gotra in the matters of matrimonial
alliances.
• They also elaborated the concept of 16 sanskaras . For example,
janma Sanskara, Naamkaran Sanskara, Vivaah Sanskara,
Upnayana Sanskara....
• Upanayana Ceremony( Janayu Sanskara) only Brahmins,
Kshatriyas and Vaishyas were titled for Upanayana Sanskaras as
they were considered as Dwij (entitled to 2 consecutive human
births).
Ashrama Vyavastha
• It started to emerge at this point of time.
• The first three stages of Ashrama were consolidated at this point
of time which are
1. Brahmacharya — Study period and abstaining from
sexual pleasures
2. Grihastha — Marriage and responsibilities of
household lives.
3. Vanaprastha — It is partial retirement for obtaining
higher knowledge.
4. The last stage Sanyaas was not fully developed in the
later Vedic period but it got consolidated after the life
of Buddha.
Religious Practices in the Later Vedic Period
• The early Vedic Gods like Indra, Agni, Varun and Mitra lost their
former relevance. Now Prajapati (creator of the Universe) or
Brahma became the most important God.
• The concept of Vishnu and Rudra got consolidated and people
started worshipping them.
• The general mode of worship was through prayers and offering
sacrifices for material gain. At this point of time one new stream
emerged in the society who rejected the sacrificial rituals. They
emphasized on spiritualism and said that objective of worship
should be spiritual gain rather than material gain.
Rise of 16 Mahajanapadas
• Mahajanapadas were those places where large number of
footfall was identified along with an infused Administrative
machinery to look into the affairs.
• As such 16 such places emerged in Indian subcontinent which
included monarchy, confederacy and Oligarchies.
• The literary source of information about Mahajanapadas can be
traced from Buddhist book Anguttar Nikaya and Mahavastu and
also from Jain text Bhagawatisutra.
• Initially Kashi and Kosala were very powerful because of the
cotton cultivation and textile industry.
• Later on, Magadha Mahajanapada became most powerful.
Reasons why Magadha became powerful
• Magadha was strategically located.
• The capital of Magadha — Rajgriha or Girivraj was surrounded
by 5 mountains which promoted safety and security of the
capital.
• Magadha was effluent with large number of river channels
which facilitated trade and commerce.
• Magadha was heavily forested and provided good quality
timber.
• Magadha was on the abode of iron with which they created very
good quality tools, arms and ammunitions.
• Magadha society and rulers were unorthodox () and
enterprising ().
o Unorthodox :
▪ Trade through liquid and trade of liquid was
prohibited
▪ As per Dharmashastra, taking interest on
loan was prohibited
▪ Rulers of Magadha did not follow any of
them.
History of Magadha
Haryanka dynasty
• Bimbisar was founder (554 - 492BC)
• Bimbisar annexed the province of Anga and placed it
under his son Ajatshatru. He also followed the policy of
matrimonial alliance whereby he married Mahakosala Devi
from Kashi, Chellana(sister of Lichhavi king Chetak) and
Khema from Madra (Punjab).
• Bimbisar also sent his famous physician Jivak to treat an ill
Avanti ruler Chanda Pradyota suffering from Jaundice.
• In 492BC his son Ajatshatru assassinated him to become
the next ruler.
• After the death of Bimbisar there was protest and revolt in
Kashi and Lichhavi. Ajatshatru suppressed the revolt from
Kashi and completely destroyed the capital of Lichhavi -
Vaishali. In this fight Ajatshtru used two innovative war
engines
1. Rathmusala : A revolving mace was attached with
chariot.
2. Mahashilakantaka : It was a flexible platform to
catapault stones on the enemy.
 • Buddha was the contemporary of Bimbisar and Ajatshatru.
After the death of Buddha in 483BC, Ajatshatru convened
first Buddhist council in 483BC at Rajgriha.
• He took a decision to transfer the capital to Pataliputra but
unfortunately, he died in 460BC.
• The next ruler Udayin constructed the beautiful city of
Pataliputra.
• The last ruler of Haryanka - Nagdasak was killed by his
own minister Shishunaga, who then established
Shishunaga dynasty.
Shishunaga Dynasty
Bindusar
Shishunaga
• Shishunaga completely annexed Avanti.
• He was followed by his son Kalaashok.
Kalaashok
• Kalaashok's most important contribution was that he convened
second Buddhist council at Vaishali in 383BC.
• It is believed that he was assassinated by his own illegimate son
Mahapadma Nanda who then established Nanda dynasty in
Magadha in 344BC.
Ashoka (269 - 232BC)
Nanda Dynasty
Mahapadma Nanda
• Mahapadma Nanda also took resolve to eliminate all the
Kshatriyas from Magadha. Because of his aggressive stance he
was also known as Ugrasena or Ekarat.
Dhana Nanda
• The most powerful ruler of Nanda dynasty was Dhana Nanda
• It was believed that he possessed one of the strongest army in
the world.
• At the same point of time Alexander started his campaign of
India. In 326 BC in the Battle of Hydaspus he defeated the Indian
ruler Pourous (Paras in Hindi). Impressed by the bravery of
Pourous he reinstated him and made him his ally. After this
battle Alexander decided to cross the river Indus and attack on
Magadha but his army was so tired that they wanted some time
to recuperate. And that is how a battle was avoided.
Maurya Rule
Chandragupt Maurya
• In 321 BC one of the person from Taxila -Chandragupta Maurya
defeated and killed Dhana Nanda with the active support of
Vishnugupt (Kautilya/Chanakya).
• The political mechanisation devised by Kautilya is mentioned in a
historical book Mudra Rakshasa written by Vishakha Dutta.
• One of the Greek governors of Alexander — Seleukos Nikator
decided to fight with Chandragupt Maurya in 305BC. Again with
the active support of Kautilya Chandragupta Maurya defeated
Nikator.
• As per the terms of treaty Nikator ceded the province of
Afghanistan, Sindh and area lying west of river Indus to
Chandragupta.
• Nikator also married his daughter Helena with Chandragupt.
• Nikator requested to depute a Greek ambassador -
Megasthanese in the court of Mauryas.
• Megasthanese wrote a book Indica which is a very important
source of information about Mauryan society and economy.
• Meanwhile under the influence of Jain monk Bhadrabahu,
Chandragupt accepted Jainism. Around 300BC there was a
severe famine in Magadh. At this time Chandragupt decided to
shift to Shravan Belgola in Karnataka where he performed the
extreme penance Sallekhana or Santhara (fasting till death) and
ended his life.
• After the death of Chandragupta his son Bindusar became the
next ruler in 299BC.
• Most important contribution of Bindusar was that in 297BC he
convened the First Jain Council. But he was a follower of Ajivika
sect.
• Bindusar also maintained very cordial relationship with the ruler
of Syria and also Philadelphius Ptolemy of Egypt. (At this point
of time Anaximander started cartography).
• After the death of Bindusar in 273BC there was a war for
succession among the sons of Bindusar. After 4 years of unrest,
one of his son Ashoka in 269BC killed many of his brothers to
become the next ruler.
• When Ashoka came to power there was only one challenge
before him that was province of Kalinga. Kalinga controlled all
the major ports of that time and hence it was important for
Mauryan trade and commerce. In 261BC he decided to attack on
Kalinga but in the battle at the sight of Dhauli, lakhs of people
died. when Ashoka saw the blood red Daya river he was full of
remorse and guilt. At that moment he decided to abandon the
policy of Bherigosha (Military annexation).
• After some point of time, he accepted Buddhism and started the
policy of Dhammagosha (Socio-cultural annexation)
• In 250BC he convened the third Buddhist council at Pataliputra.
It is considered as the most important Buddhist Council. Not only
he removed all the divergence from Buddhism in this assembly
but also he started Buddhist missionary activity. He sent his own
son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Ceylon (Today's Sri
Lanka) to spread Buddhism. He also sent many Buddhist missions
to East Asia and Central Asia.
• The most important source of information about Ashoka is the
pillar inscriptions and Rock edicts. These inscriptions were
written in Pali, Prakrit, Greek and Aramic (mixture of Greek +
Armanian labguage) languages and in the following scripts —
Brahmi, Kharoshti, Greek and Aramic.
• Rumindei Inscription This was inscribed in the village of Lumbini
— birthplace of Buddha. Here Ashoka was addressed as
Devanam Piya Piyadasi meaning "beloved of the gods". It is also
written that Ashoka declared this region tax free for many years.
• For the first time Ashokan inscriptions were deciphered by a
British anthropologist James Princep in 1837.
• The Kalinga war was mentioned in the 13th Major Rock Edict.
• After the death of Ashoka in 232BC, the weak successors were
not able to defend the Magadh and it slowly started to
disintegrate. Finally, in 185BC one of the Brahmin minister
Pushyamitra Shunga assassinated the last Maurya ruler -
Brihadrath and established Shunga dynasty in the Magadh.
Administration of the Mauryas
• Mauryan administration was based on seven organs which were
known as Saptang.
1. Swamin - King
2. Ammatya - Ministers
3. Durg - Fort
4. Kosha - Treasury
5. Bala - Army
6. Mitra - Ally
7. Shatru - Enemy
• According to these 7 organs, officers were appointed. Some of
the important officials were as follows -
1. Shulkadhyaksha - Revenue Collector
2. Sitadhyaksha - The one who is the head of the land /
looks after the land
3. Nagarika - Supritendent of City Administration
4. Guptchar - Spies
Economy of the Mauryas
Shrenis/Guilds
• Particular grouping of traders and merchants
• They not only passed on technical education but also regulated
affairs of a particular trade
• Jesthaka was head of the guilds
Society of the Mauryas
• Megasthanese very well observed that there was no instance of
slavery during Mauryan society
• Women were accorded respectable position in the society and
many a times they were appointed on High Official position
• Moreover, any crime or violence against women and child was
not tolerated.
• Tax evasion was considered a grave crime
• Brahmins, Old people and disabled were exempted from paying
taxes.
• Ashoka took initiative to open hospitals and large number of
Bhesaj (Doctors/Physicians) were appointed.
• Ashoka was the first king who created many Wildlife Sanctuaries.
• Mauryan rulers also took care of irrigation facilities and created
canals.
Post Maurya period
Indo-Greeks
• Indo Greeks started to arrive in Indian subcontinent by 165BC
• Dimitrius-I was the first ruler
• Indo Greeks were the first people in India who introduced gold
coins
• Menandir was the most important ruler of the Indo Greeks. He
established his capital at Shakala (present day Sialkot).
• Menandir was pursued by a Buddhist monk Nagasen to accept
Buddhism. In the process asked many questions to Nagasen to
which he gave satisfying replies. As such Menadir accepted
Buddhism and changed his name to Milinda. The historical
conversation between Melandir and Nagasen is mentioned in
the book
• Indo Greeks brought the theatre tradition and curtains to India
Shakas (Scythians)
• Shakas started to arrive in Indian subcontinent by 90BC. They
were also known as Scythians and they came from Central Asia.
• Shakas arrived in many branches but the most important branch
was the western branch which operated from present day
Gujarat, Saurashtra and Maharashtra.
• Rudradaman was the most important ruler from this branch. He
is known for very famous Junagadh inscription in Girnar hills.
This is the first inscription written in pure Sanskrit. In this
inscription he mentions that he repaired very famous Sudarshan
Lake (Constructed by brother of Chandragupt Maurya -
Pushyagupta Maurya). He further writes that he defeated
Satvahana ruler Vasisthiputra Satkarni two times but every time
he spared his life respecting the matrimonial alliance between
the two kingdoms.
Parthians (paahlav)
• Though they were there in India for a very short period but
during their reign Christianity came to India.
• At the time of Gondophernus, a Saint from Israel - St. Thomas
came to India for propagation of Christianity which led to the
creation of the first Church in India in Vellankanni.
Kushanas
• Kushanas started to arrive in India by 65AD
• Originally, they were Yuechi tribe who made Central Asia as their
home.
• They arrived in two branches. The first branch was Kadphise
branch led by Kujul Kadphise and succeeded by Wima Kadphise
• Wima Kadphise released coins in India. On the obverse side of
the coin a freestanding image accompaniewd with a trident and
a bull was created. It suggests that Kushanas were devotee of
Shiva.
• BY 78AD Kanishka branch started its campaign. They defeated
the northern Shakas. To celebrate this victory, he started Shaka
Samvatt of Shaaka calender (Ofiicial calendar of the govt of
India) from 78 AD.
• Kanishka was a devotee of lord Shiva but under the influence of
Buddhist monks Ashwaghosh and Vasumitra he convened Fourth
Buddhist Council in Kashmir
• After this council he joined Mahayana Buddhism
• As per the tenets of Mahayana Buddhism, he started to
patronize Buddhist Sculptures at Mathura and Gandhara.
• Kanishka phase is also noted for urban growth in India. During
his period two new cities emerged — Kaniskapur in Jammu
Valley and Pururshpur in Peshawar (present day Pak). At this
time the Silk Route connecting China to the roman world was
completed. Kanishka utilized Silk route to establish trade with
Chinese and the Roman world. Cotton textile Muslin and spices
were exported to the roman world. In turn they received large
amount of Gold from the Roman world. Kanishka period was also
noted for high level of monetization. He released very large
number of copper and gold coins.
• The Gold coins of this period were purest of the pure quality.
• On one hand where Indo Greeks introduced curtains in India, on
the other Kurta Paijama and long coats was introduced by
Kushanas.
Shungaa
• Founded by Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 BC (rememmber! from
Maurya period the minister who killed last Maurya king
Brihadrath )
• Pushyamitra Shunga was a staunch Hindu and he destroyed
many Buddhist monasteries in Sanchi and Vidisha.
• Later on, he made Vidisha as the capital of Shunga
• He revived the Vedic practices and rituals and he conducted one
Ashwamedha Yajna. The details of this yajna are mentioned in
Ayodhya inscription.
• Patanjali was the head priest of the Shungas. At that point of
time he wrote a book Yogasutra which established the Yoga
philosophy. He also wrote a very important Sanskrit Grammar
book Mahabhashya which was basically a commentary upon
Panini's Ashtadhyayi.
• He was followed by his son Agnimitra Shunga whose love affair
with the princess of Vidisha - Malvika is mentioned in the
historical work of Kalidas — Maalvikaagnimitra.
• The next ruler Vasumitra Shunga not only accepted Buddhism
but also reconstructed the Buddhist Stupas and monasteries
destroyed by Pushyamitra Shunga.
• During the end rule of the Shungas a greek ambassador -
Heliodorus came to India. With him large number of foreigners
converted to Hinduism under the influence of Vasudev Kanva.
Heliodorus erected a pillar at Vidisha (then known as Besnagar
or Bhilsa) to mark the worship of Vishnu. This pillar came to be
known as Garudadhwaj. It is considered as first archaelogical
evidence of worship of Vishnu in India.
• In 75BC Vasudev Kanva killed the last ruler of Shunga and
established Kanva dynasty in Magadh which remained for a very
short period of time.
Satavahana
• Satavahana's origin can be traced in and around 200BC but they
came to prominence in 1st century AD when they usurped the
power from the Kanvas.
• Satavahanas were also known as Andhras or Andhrabhritya
• Simukh is considered as the real founder of this dynasty.
• The major souorce of information about the Satavahanas is the
Hindu religious text Purana.
• Gautamiputra Satkarni was the most important ruler of this
dynasty. He took the name of his mother before his name which
suggests that Satavahanas were Matrilineal. HIs mother Gautami
Balashri wrote an inscription at Nashik in which she proclaimed
that Satkarni was the only protector of the brahmins.
• During the time of Satkarni women were highly respected and
they were given considerable freedom. Even the intercaste
marriages were not frowned upon. Women were also allowed to
secure independent source of living.
• Perhaps Satkarni was the first ruler who released Lead coins for
commercial transaction
• During satavahana period Brahmins were granted land in lieu of
their service.
• It was the first time in India that land grant was given to
somebody for the service
• One of the very important rulers of Satavahana was Hala who
was known for his patronage to Architechture and literature. He
wrote a very famous love poetry — Gatha Saptasati in Prakrit
language.
Trade and Commerce during post Maurya period
• When Hippalus mentioned about the Monsoon winds around
45AD, it ushered in new avenues for trade. Kingdoms from India
started to trade with Arabian nations, Greek and roman world
and also South Asia.
• As far as the land route is concerned there were two important
land routes
1. Uttarapanth - It was connecting the Northernmost
Pakistan till the place in Bangladesh closer to Bay of
Bengal. Koushambi was the center point of this route.
2. Dakshinapanth - It started from BhriguKacchh and
connected Paithan(MH) then Muziri(KER)
• On both sides of the coasts of India some important ports also
emergerd
1. Bhrigukacchh
2. Muziri
3. Tamralipti (WB)
4. Arikamedu (present day Pondicherry)
• These all routes were very important for internal as well as
external trades
• Guilds were still continuing and it was headed by Shreshtha (It
was Jyestha in Maurya period)
Gupta Period
• This dynasty emerged somewhere around 230AD and its founder
was Srigupta who was followed by Ghatotkacha
• In 319AD Chandragupta-I consolidated his rule in North India
ans established a Central Authority
• He is considered as the real founder of the Guptas
Chandragupta-I (319-335AD)
• Chandragupta-I initially followed the policy of Military
Annexation and defeated small principalities.
• Later he started to follow the policy of Matrimonial Alliance
whereby he married Kumardevi of Lichhavi.
• To celebrate this marriage a special type of GOld coin was
minted. For the first time the image of the queen was imprinted
on the coin along with the king. On the reverse side of the coin
the images of Female deities like Lakshmi, Parvati, Durga,
Saraswati was created.
Samudragupta(335-375)
• Samudragupta was the most powerful ruler of the Guptas. His
court poet Harisen wrote very famous Prayag Prashasti in which
he eulogized Samudragupta
• As per Harisen Samudragputa never faced any defeat and won
more than hundred battles.
• He was a deep believer of Hinduism and also performed
Ashwamedh Yajna. BUt he was also tolerant and accomodative.
For example, he not only granted the land to the Sri Lankan ruler
Meghavarman to create a Buddhist monastery in Bodh Gaya but
also funded it.
• He was also fond of art and literature. In some of his gold coins
he has been shown playing Veena.
Chandragupta-II(385-415)
• Chandragupta-II was considered as the most enlightened ruler of
the Guptas
• After ascending the throne, he took the title of Vikramaaditya.
He is known for his patronage to various spheres of growth like
Temple architechture, religious literature, Science, Metallurgy,
Astronomy, Astrology, mathematics, Medicine, Surgery, etc
• HE maintained several luminaries in his court who were —
Kalidasa, Amarsimha, Dhanvantari, Varahmihira. Varahmihira
gave the cloud formation theory.
• At this point of time the first Chinese Buddhist traveller — Fa-
Hien came to India. He wrote a book Fu-Kuo-Ki (Experiences of
the Western World) which gives very important insight about
the Gupta polity and the society.
• At this point of time Kumargupta - Son of Chandragupta-II was
so influenced with Fa-Hien that he decided to create the modern
University of Nalanda for Buddhist learning.
• Nalanda University was the first truly International and Modern
University.
• After the death of Chandragupta-II, Kumargupta became the
next ruler.
Q. Taxila University was one of the Universities of the world
with which were associated a number of renowned learned
personalities of different disciplines. Its strategic location caused
its fame to flourish, but unlike Nalanda it is not considered as a
university in the modern sense. Discuss.
Ans ⇒
**
Skandagupta (455-467)
• After the death of Kumargupta, Skandagupta became the next
ruler
• during his tenure, a barbaric tribe from Central Asia - HUNA
strated to Invade Gupta territory but this threat of Hunas was
eliminated by Skandagupta for some time. After the death of
Skandagupta, the Hunas reorganized themselves under the
leadership of Toraman and Mihirkula and looted the Gupta
territory.
• After the Hunas attack, Guptas' rule was so weakened that by
550 AD they completely disappeared from India
Administration under Guptas
• Guptas administration was not as elaborate as Mauryas.
• Kumar amatyas were the most important officers. They were
appointed in the home divisions.
• For administrative convenience the entire Kingdom was divided
into three parts —
1. Bhukti (province) headed by Uparika
2. Vishaya(District) headed by Vishayapati
3. Vithi(Block) headed by Vithipati
• The stamp of Guptas included the image of Garuda
• The Normal rate of tax was 1/6 of the produce but in
emergency situations it was increased to 1/4 of the produce. It
was also the norm that whenever the army was passing through
any village or town then the people of village or town had to
feed the army. Vishti was a kind of tax in the form of forced
labor in central and western part of the Gupta territory
• The practice of land grant increased under the Guptas. Now not
only Brahmins but also officers were paid in the form of land
grants in lieu of their service.
• Agrahara and Brahmadeya were special land grants given only
to the Brahmins
Society during Gupta period
• The position of women deteriorated in the post Maurya period
but there was some effort from the Guptas side to upliftthe
position of women in society. They allowed women and Shudras
to listen epics and puranas.
o Though the lower caste women were allowed to work
outside their houses but upper caste/class women
were not allowed to have independent source of living.
o They did not enjoy land property rights. But they
exercised full right to sell or mortgage the movable
property given to the girl at time of her marriage. This
wealth was popularly known as Stree Dhan (The
concept of Stree Dhan was elaborated by famous law
giver Katyayana).
o At this point of time stereotyping of women increased
and also the instituion of Prostitution.
• At this point of time there was rapid increase of the
Untouchables — Chandals. They were not allowed to live inside a
village or town but on the peripheries or graveyards. Several
disabilities were imposed on Chandalas whenever they were
entering inside the villages. For example, blowing horn or
beating drums was mandatory when they were entering the
village.
Religious practices during the Guptas
• The concept of tridevata (Brahma-Vishnu-Mahesh) was
consolidated by the post Maurya period. During the Guptas the
concept of Tridevi was consolidated which includes Sarswati,
Lakshmi and Parvati. These female deities were considered as
consorts of Shakti (Durga)
• Temple architechture also began under the Guptas
• Majority of the HIndu literature which includes the Puranas,
Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagvad Gita were compiled in
Sanskrit.
• Vaiseshikha philosophy also appeared at this point of time
Sangama Period
• In the early Christian era, three new dynasties emerged in South
India and by 300AD they became very rich and powerful
The Cheras
• Also known as Keralaputras
• They ruled from their capital Karur
• Udayinjeral was the earliest ruler of the Cheras
• Senguttuvan was the most important ruler of the Cheras. He was
also known as Good Chera or Red Chera. He built temple of
Kannagi and also founded Pattini cult.
• There was a very good relation between the Cheras and The
Romans. IT was believed that at the port of Muziri Romans
created temple of Augustus.
The Cholas
• Elara was the earliest ruler. It is said that he conquered Sri lanka
and ruled there for 50 years
• The capital of chola was Kaveripatnam
• The most important ruler was Karikala. He created the city of
Puhar on the banks of river Kaveri. He embanked Kaveri River on
a stretch of 150km. Perhaps he was the first ruler who created a
dam on Kaveri River known as Karikala dam.
• The city of Urayur was known for cotton cultivation and textile
industry.
• Kaveripatnam (Puhar) and Arikamedu were the important posts
of the Cholas
The Pandyas
• Mudukumudi was the first ruler
• Pandyas ruled from Madurai which was not only a cultural
center but also a center of cotton textile industry
• Nedunjeliyan was the most important ruler of the Pandyas. He
was known for the Curse of Kannagi.
• Under the Pandya rulers, three Sangama assemblies were held.
It is believed that first Sangama assembly was attended by Gods
and angels(mythological)
• From the second Sangama assembly one book survived known
as Tolakappiyam(Tamil Grammar book)
• The Third Sangama Assembly was very successful. 473 poets
participated in this assembly which included 30 female poets. All
the books of this assembly survived which can be classified into
two categories — Malkanakku (18 books) and Kilkanakku(18
books)
• After the assembly was over many other important books were
written which includes
o Thirukural written by Thiruvalluvar
o Silapadhikaram - Ilago Adigal
o Mannimekalai - Chattanar
The North
• After the demise of the Guptas a vacuum was created in the
North and Central India. By 600AD many small principalities
emerged in the North and Central India which included
1. Pushyabhuti Dynasty of Thaneswar
2. Maukhari of Kannauj
3. Maitraka of Gujarat
4. Gauda of Bengal
• Out of these 4, Pushyabhuti Dynasty was the most important
Pushyabhuti Dynasty
• Founder: Prabhakar Vardhan
• He married his daughter Rajya shri to Maukhari ruler -
Grihaverman
• After the death of Prabhakarvardhan his eldest son
Rajyavardhan became the next ruler
• At this point of time the Maitraka and Gaudas allied and killed
Grihaverman and captured Rajyashri
• Later when Rajyavardhan fought with the Maitrakas he was
treachorously killed by Shashank Gauda. In this situation younger
brother Harshavardhan became the ruler.
• First, he freed his sister Rajyashri from Kannauj. Shashank Gauda
was a formidable enemy and Harshvardhan had to wait 13 years
when he finally defeated Shashank Gauda.
• Harshvardhan was an ambitious ruler and he tried to extend his
territory to the South of River Narmada which led to a fight
between Harshvardhan and Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin-II.
Pulakeshin-II defeated Harshvardhan and a friendship treaty was
signed between the two rulers which was written in Aihole
inscription (written in Sanskrit and pronounced as Aihode). As
per the terms of the treaty both rulers promised each other that
in future they would not extend or venture into each other’s
territories.
• Harshvardhan was an ardent devotee of Shiva. At this point of
time a Chinese Buddhist traveler Hiuen Tsang came to Kannauj.
He wrote a book named as Si-Yu-ki. In this book he mentioned
that there was very strict provision of Punishment even for the
pettiest of crimes in Kannauj but at the same point of time he
also mentions that streets of Kannauj were not free from
robbers.
• Harshvardhan under the influence of Hiuen Tsang accepted
Mahayana Buddhism
• He also convened two assemblies to support the cause of
Mahayana Buddhism.
o The First Assembly was held at Kannauj. This assembly
was considered as "Shot in Arm" for Mahayana
Buddhism
o The second assembly was held at Prayag. Here Hiuen
Tsang mentions that Harshvardhan gave up all his
personal wealth in donation and he ruled as a monk.
• Harshvardhan shared friendly relation with the Chinese Tsong
Dynasty. The Chinese ruler sent an envoy led by I-Tsing to meet
Harshvardhan but unfortunately Harshvardhan died on the day
on the day when I-Tsing reached Kannauj (647AD)
Pallava and Chalukya (South)
• By 600AD two new strong dynasties emerged in South India.
They were
1. Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami), Karnataka
2. Pallavas of Kanchi (Kancheepuram, TN)
• From the very beginning these two dynasties fought with each
other to control the fertile region between Krishna and
Tungabhadra river. Initially Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin-II defeated
pallava ruler Mahendravarman and captured the area of Vengi
(present day Amravat, Andhra Pradesh). He gave this area of
Vengi to his brother Vishnuvardhan. After the death of
mahendravarmanhis son Narsimhavarman not only defeated
Pulakeshi but also captured his capital at Vatapi. To celebrate
this victory Narsimhavarman took the title of Vatapikondi
(meaning: conqueror of Vatapi). At this moment Vishnuvardhan
of Amravati drclared the creation of Eastern branch of
Chalukyas. It also led to creation of western branch with the
capital of kalyani (Present day Kalyan, Mumbai).
• Both Chalukyas and Pallavas were pioneer of temple architecture
in South India.
• Chalukyas created Vessara style of temple in Karnataka. Pallavas
initiated Rock cut cave architechture which later gave rise to
dravida style of temple. for example, Ratha temple at
Mahabalipuram
Pala Rulers of Eastern India seventeenth century. According to these, the Pala
rulers were great patrons of Buddhist learning and
religion.
750AD
• Pala rulers are also known for starting miniature painting in
India.
Founder : Gopala

Most Important Ruler : Dharampala

Pratihara-Gurjars of Western India
Gopala (750 - 770 AD)

• This dynasty also emerged around 750AD

• He was not born in a royal family. His father was probably a
soldier
• He unified Bengal and also brought Magadha under his control
Dharampala (770 - 810 AD)
• His reign was marked by a tripartite struggle between the
Palas, Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas for the control of
Kannauj and North India.
• He established 3 universities — Vikramshila (BIhar),
Oddantpura(Bihar, now JH) and Somarupa (Bihar, now
JH)
• He also donated 200 villages to the Nalanda University for
its maintenance
• Pratiharas revived power under Nagabhatta II. Dharampala
fell back and
Rashtrakutas of Central India
• Tripartite Struggle
o Pratihara ruler advanced upon Gaud(Bengal) but
before a decision could be taken, he was defeated by
the Rashtrakuta ruler, Dhruva
o The pratihara ruler retaliated and sought refugee in
deserts of Rajasthan
o Then Dhruva returned to Deccan
o Dharampala seized this opportunity and occupied
Kannauj and held a Grand Darbar which was attended
by Vassal kings of Punjab, Eastern Rajasthan, etc.
o Apparently the territory of Dharampala extended from
North-West upto Malwa and also Berar. The kings
probably accepted the suzerainty of Dharampala.
• Dharampala was succeeded by his son Devapala
• Though there is no clarity regarding the founder of this dynasty
yet it is believed by many that Nagabhatta was the initial ruler.
• Mihirbhoj was the most important ruler of this dynasty. He took
the title of Adi Varaha to showcase that he was an ardent
devotee of Vishnu
• On the question of Kannauj there was a tripartite struggle
between Pala, Pratihara and Rashtrakuta. In this struggle
Pratiharas finally became victorious
• The strength of the Pratiharas emanated from the very good
quality horses which they procured from Central Asia
• Pratihara means Laxman
• 757 AD
• Founder: Dantidorg
• Dantidorg was followed by Krishna-I who created Monolithic
Kailashnath temple inside Ellora cave
• Amoghavarsha was the most important ruler. He wrote a book
Kaviraj marg which is considered as earliest book on Kannada
poetics
• After Chandragupt Maurya he was the second Monarch from
India to perform Santhara or Sallekhana

Devapala (810 - 850AD)

• Extended his control over Pragjyotishpur (Assam) and parts of

Orissa. Probably a part of modern Nepal was also under Pala
suzerainty.

• Pala rule as described by an Arab Merchant Sulaiman who

visited India in the Mid Ninteenth Century and wrote an
account of it
o He calls the Pala Kingdom Ruhma, (or Dharma, short
for Dharampala), and says that the Pala ruler was at
war with his neighbours, the Pratiharas and the
Rashtrakutas, but his troops were more numerous that
his adversaries. He tells us that it was customary for
the Pala king to be accompanied by a force of 50,000
elephants, and that 10,000– 15,000 men in his army
were employed ‘in fulling and washing clothes’. Even if
these figures may be exaggerated, we can assume that
the Palas had a large military force at their disposal.
o But we do not know whether they had a large standing
army, or whether their forces consisted largely of
feudal levies.
o Information about the Palas is also provided to us by
Tibetan chronicles, although these were written in the
South India...
Mainline chola Dynasty
• Vijayalaya was the initial founder of this dynasty in
850AD
• Later in 890 Aditya-I usurped the power from the Pallavas
and laid the real foundation of mainline chola
• Parantaka-I was the first important ruler who enlarged the
territory of mainline Chola by annexing some of the areas
from Pandyas and Chalukyas
• The first most important ruler was Rajaraja-I who came
to power in 985 AD
o His period is known for cultural exchange between
India and Malaya peninsula (with Shailendra ruler)
o He focused on increasing the strength of his navy
o He annexed the North and the Eastern part of Sri Lanka
and also acquired considerable territory from the
Pandya and the Chera Kingdom
o In 1011 AD he led the foundation of Brihadeshwara
Temple at Thanjore, TN
• Rajaraja-I was followed by Rajendra-I who is considered
as the most important ruler of the mainline Chola
o He completely annexed Pandya Kingdom, Chera
Kingdom and Sri Lanka
o He also invaded the cities of Srivijay in Malaya
Peninsula
o HE also marched towards Gangetic Valley where he
defeated Mahipal of the Pala Dynasty but he did not
annex any part in the Pala Kingdom. Instead when he
returned to his own place he celebrated this victory by
creating a city Gangaikondcholapuram on the banks of
river Kaveri.
Administration of the Mainline Cholas
o Though all the powers were concentrated in the hands
of king but for the first time in India decentralization
started to happen under the mainline Chola rulers.
o for ease of administration various Subdivisions were
created which are as follows —
▪ Cholamandalam (Empire)
▪ Mandalam (province)
▪ Valanadu (district)
▪ Nadu (Block/ small town)
▪ Kottam (Village)
o At each and every level officers were appointed and
they were given sufficient powers and autonomy to act
o Perhaps they were the first ruler in India who started
to act as Bankers and doled out loans to the people.
Earlier this was the job of the Guilds.