Effort and Bearing Capacity Testing of Laterally R

Journal of Constructional Steel Research 172 (2020) 106181
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Constructional Steel Research
Effort and bearing capacity testing of laterally restrained asymmetrical

stepped steel I-columns
Michał Redecki a,⁎, Bronislaw Gosowski b
a
Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
b
Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Environmental Engineering and Geodesy, Institute of Building Engineering, ul. Norwida 25, 50-375 Wrocław, Poland
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This paper presents extensive experimental investigations of models of I-shaped steel columns with segmentally
Received 10 June 2019 prismatically variable stiffness. The models are discretely braced with lateral restraints along their length. With
Received in revised form 12 May 2020 regard to the geometry of the actual columns, the models were made on the semi-industrial scale of 1:2. An ex-
Accepted 28 May 2020
ternal load, in the form of a vertical concentrated force, was applied to the header (in the Ch test series) or to the
Available online xxxx
bracket (in the Cb and Chb test series). Selected static equilibrium paths of the linear displacements and the an-
Keywords:
gles of rotation of column cross sections, determined in each of the test series, are presented and their behaviour
Steel structure is described in detail. Moreover, in the case of the Ch3 and Cb3 models, stress intensity in selected cross sections is
Stepped column examined by means of electrical resistance strain gauges, and the increase in normal stress with regards to the
Lateral restraint external load is shown. In addition, the experimental investigations included relevant material studies to deter-
Prescribed axis of rotation mine the strength and chemical composition of the steel of which the columns were made.
Flexural-torsional buckling © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
Experimental investigation creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1. Introduction depending on the design of the connections, the rotational movements

(twists) of the cross sections can also be constrained.
Steel buildings are widely used in many branches of industry includ- Industrial halls that have horizontal transport and are equipped with
ing production buildings, agriculture, construction, and trade (store- top running cranes are characterized by a different structure of their
houses, warehouses and commodity storage buildings). When load-bearing system columns (see Fig. 1). These columns are mostly
designing them, one should properly shape their transversal load- stepped columns (with a stepwise variable cross section). The columns
carrying structure [1–4]. Industrial hall buildings with material handling cross section changes at the runway beam support level. Depending on
systems in the form of a top running bridge or underslug overhead the number and type of bridge cranes, the columns can be two-stepped,
cranes, lifts, and material handling lines have a peculiar structure. Due two-stepped with a bracket, or three-stepped.
to their special design or additional fittings, they enable the installation As regards their geometry, one can distinguish inter-bay columns, in
of runway beams, platforms, etc. which stiffness can vary radially, and edge columns, in which the cross
The principal structural members of a steel hall are joined together section varies eccentrically (see Fig. 1). Such members of a hall load-
to form its primary load-bearing structure. When analysing individual bearing structure are designed as solid, latticed or mixed. In the case
steel hall components, one should bear in mind their spatial interaction. of solid columns, both the parts above and under the crane are made
The fact that displacements are not only constrained in the joints, but of IPE, HEA and HEB hot rolled steel or plated girders. In older structures,
also along the length of the members, should be taken into account. Ex- the cross sections were formed by riveting the particular shapes and
amples of such displacements are purlins or wall girts braced with clad- plates together. Lattice columns are built-up columns laced in one or
ding, solid roof girders restrained in the plane of lesser stiffness, crane two planes. Usually, both the chords and the latticework of the columns
runway girders stiffened with a platform, or columns braced with wall are made of rolled sections. As regards to mixed columns, the part under
girts or with an independent structure. In these examples, the linear dis- the crane is latticed, while the part above the crane has the form of a
placements of the intermediate cross sections of the structural members rolled steel joist or an I-beam made of welded plates.
are constrained from the plane of their lesser stiffness. Moreover, As already mentioned, the structural members of the load-carrying
system of steel halls form a geometrically invariable spatial system.
This also applies to the columns. Since the appropriately shaped system
⁎ Corresponding author. of wall girts and braces has a bearing on the static load behaviour of the
E-mail address: michal.redecki@pwr.edu.pl (M. Redecki). columns, when dimensioning the latter, one should take into account
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2020.106181
0143-974X/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
2 M. Redecki, B. Gosowski / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 172 (2020) 106181
Fig. 1. Schematic of the transversal system of a multi-bay hall with top running cranes on many levels.
the constraints due to them determining the spatial form of structural research covering different buckling aspects of stepped columns in mill
instability. buildings was carried out by Girão Coelho et al., and the research results
were reported in a series of publications [20–24]. The authors provided
2. Research on the load-bearing capacity of metal frame structures tables for determining effective length factors for a range of parameters,
such as: the end fixings, the ratio of the end axial load to the intermedi-
Thin-walled open-cross-section columns with nonaxially and seg- ate axial load, the ratio of the length and moment of inertia of the upper
mentally varying stiffness that are braced with lateral point restraints segment to those of the lower segment, and the mechanical properties
pose a complex analytical problem. Such members are usually charac- of the splice. They also examined imperfection sensitivity to the linearly
terized by low torsional rigidity and have at least one axis of symmetry. evaluated critical load.
Because of the nonaxially varying cross section, the stress intensity gen- Under certain steel column parameters, relating to the cross section,
erated by the bending moment also varies. Moreover, the eccentric lat- support method and type of external load, a more complex spatial form
eral point bracings force the spatial behaviour of such a column. of structural instability occurs. The greatest contribution to this problem
A comprehensive method of determining the flexural buckling loads area was made by Vlasow [25], who developed a thin-walled elastic
of stepped bars can be found in monographs [5–7]. However, Timo- beam theory. Joshi and Suryanarayan [26] also became interested in
shenko and Gere [5], in the 1940s, were among the first researchers to the spatial instability problem. They numerically determined the critical
analyse stepped columns. Rapid advances in research on the stability loads of a beam subjected to a constant axial force and a constant bend-
of members with a stepwise changing cross section were made in the ing moment. An attempt to estimate flexural-torsional buckling loads
second half of the 20th century, which was due to the development of was made by Attard [27], who determined the effective column
numerical methods that could be applied thanks to digital computers length for deflection and twist, respectively. Eisenberger and Cohen
becoming increasingly more common. The finite difference method [28] derived appropriate shape functions, and using the finite ele-
was applied to problems relating to the stability of stepped members ment method provided solutions for the particular cases of the spa-
by Iremonger [8], and also by Vrabie et al. [9]. Aristizabal-Ochoa, in a se- tial buckling of thin-walled beams and compared them with the
ries of his works [10–13] analysed using various approaches analysed results reported in the literature. Using the energy equilibrium the-
the stability equations for sidesway inhibited, partially inhibited and ory and the Galerkin method, Xie et al. derived approximate expres-
uninhibited single stepped columns subjected to concentrated axial sions for flexural and flexural-torsion buckling for columns with a
loads located at their ends and at the intermediate joint, including linearly variable box cross section [29]. The works by Kollár [30,31]
semi-rigid connections and shear force effects. deal with the buckling and vibration of open-section thin-walled
Madhusudan et al. [14] described the problem of the nonelastic buck- structural members. The presented solutions were based on the en-
ling of stepped columns loaded not only with a concentrated axial force, ergy equilibrium method, but they took into account the effect of the
but also with a continuous axial force. Rahai and Kazemi [15] investi- deformations resulting from shear. A parametric analysis of the ef-
gated similar problems using the modified vibrational mode shape fect of a cross-sectional taper on the values of the flexural-torsional
(MVM), the energy method and the finite element method. They com- buckling loads was carried out by Guo et al. [32].
pared their solutions with the ones presented by Babcock and Waas For finite element method purposes, Cywiński [33] presented gen-
[16]. Although the latter work dealt with composite materials, it can eral and particular element stiffness matrices stemming from the thin-
be seen to be one of the few studies that raise the problem of the exper- walled beam theory. Idealized computational models are used to de-
imental load-bearing capacity of members with a nonaxially varying scribe the behaviour of the structural members. Andrade et al. [34]
cross section. assessed the validity of the adopted models on the basis of the finite el-
The effect of load eccentricities and initial imperfections was exam- ement method. They compared the values of the critical loads for the
ined by Raftoyiannis and Ermopoulos [17] and Konstantakopoulos et al. derived one-dimensional thin-walled fine element with a variable
[18]. The proposed problem formulation is based on the exact solution cross section, with the results being obtained using the commercial
of the governing equation for the buckling of columns with a variable Abaqus FEA software. In most of the analysed cases, the respective re-
cross section. The parabolic initial imperfection according to EC3 is ei- sults were in agreement, but at certain limit values (mainly for short
ther taken, or not taken, into account. The column is loaded by axial beams with a high cross-sectional taper coefficient), the differences
forces applied concentrically or eccentrically, and also by concentrated amounted to as much as 25%. Similar conclusions were reached by
moments applied at the column's ends or at intermediate points. Gosowski and Niżniowski [35], who verified stability and torsion solu-
The structure of the column joint (splice) has a major effect on the tions obtained using different FE models.
load-carrying capacity of columns with prismatically variable stiffness. Among the few experimental studies, the one by Parent et al. [36] de-
Highly important in this regard are the experimental investigations car- serves special attention. It describes tests carried out on 36 models that
ried out by Snijder and Hoenderkamp [19]. Although they did not inves- were vertical and diagonal members of a full-scale truss, in which seg-
tigate columns with a stepwise variable cross section, they did analyse mentally stepwise variability involved the closing of the channel section
strength and stiffness requirements for column splices with regard to with a plate. The spatial instability of prismatic bars, taking into account
column stability. They found that splices can have a negative influence transverse deformations in an FE formulation, was also the subject of
on the load-carrying capacity of slender columns. Extensive theoretical work [37] by Erkmen and Mohareb. Mohri et al. [38] analysed
M. Redecki, B. Gosowski / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 172 (2020) 106181 3
bisymmetric members in the nonlinear range, plotting and comparing high. The above crane part was made of 1.8 m long I-section IPE 140.
appropriate static equilibrium paths. Therefore, the overall length of each of the tested columns amounted
Deliberations on the spatial load-bearing capacity of the beam col- to 5.32 m. A comparison of the tested models overall dimensions with
umn from the codes perspective were presented in works by Szalai those of the columns used in contemporary industrial halls shows that
and Papp [39], Kindmann et al. [40,41], Taras et al. [42], and more re- the models were made on a scale of 1:2. The two sections are so jointed
cently by Papp [43], Giżejowski and Stachura [44] and Tankova et al. [45]. together that the planes of their outer flanges are aligned with each
A comprehensive solution to the spatial stability problem of two- other. Moreover, plated cantilevers were welded to the outer flanges
stepped columns with prismatically variable stiffness, discretely braced so that the latter could be connected with idealized wall girts. The can-
with both linear and rotational lateral restraints, was presented by tilevers are situated at a distance of respectively 1.11, 2 × 1.2 m and 0.9
Gosowski [46]. He experimentally verified the obtained solutions by ex- m from the base plate. A schematic of the tested column with its basic
amining the behaviour of point braced prismatic bars [47,48]. dimensions and ordinates in the test stand is shown in Fig. 2, while a
The present paper covers extensive semi-industrial scale experi- photograph of the column is shown in Fig. 3.
mental investigations of nine steel asymmetrically stepped I-shaped Since column models from an abandoned research project were
columns. No research on such structures has been reported before in used in the tests, the strength parameters of the steel of which their par-
the generally available world literature. The experimental results pre- ticular members had been made were unknown. Therefore, first the
sented here represent an attempt to fill this gap. steels yield point Re and then its tensile strength Rm were determined
using the Brinell method. Thirty hardness tests were carried out in ran-
3. Test plan domly selected places. A mobile Zwick PZ-3 Brinell tester with a carbide
ball indenter of 5 mm in diameter was used for this purpose. A test load-
The original test plan envisaged carrying out load capacity tests on ing force of 7355 N at a 10–15 s duration was applied. Diameter readings
six models of steel columns with a stepwise nonlinearly variable cross were taken by a Conrad DP-M17 digital microscope connected to a lap-
section. The tests were divided into two series, which differed in their top. After the results had been statistically processed, the mean yield
loading configuration. In the first series, the load was applied to the col- point and the tensile strength were estimated to amount to respectively
umn header, while in the second series it was applied to the column Re = 293 MPa and Rm = 408 MPa. After the loading tests, the values
bracket (the place where column stiffness changes). The following de- were verified by subjecting the steel to a static tension test, which is de-
notations were adopted: the capital letter “C” denoted the column scribed in Section 4.4.1. More information on the indirect determination
model, while the small letter “h” or “b” accompanying it stood for the of the strength characteristics of constructional steels on the basis of the
load applied respectively at the header level or at the bracket level. In Brinell hardness test results can be found in [49,50].
addition, the letter denotations were accompanied by a number
representing the particular test, i.e. Chi or Cbi, where i assumes values 3.2. Test stand
from 1 to 3.
The test plan was modified in the course of the investigations, since The Building Structures Laboratory stand for testing columns was
after the tests on the Ch and Cb model series had been carried out, it was used for the experimental investigations. The test stand is a spatial
found, despite some deformations, that the first series' models could be framework tower inside which the test item is placed. Structurally,
loaded again at the bracket level. The resulting third series of tests was these are two plane trusses connected together by latticework so that
denoted as Chbi. Consequently, the total number of tests carried out on the structure in the cross section resembles the letter “U”. The spatial in-
all the column models increased to nine. teraction between the two parts is ensured by a rigid diaphragm at the
During the tests carried out in each of the series, the displacements base of the test stand and by two box girders in its upper part. Moreover,
of selected cross sections were registered – in the plane of greater stiff- the whole system is fastened together at the level of each of the tested
ness and out of this plane – by inductive displacement transducers. columns little cantilevers by girts made of wide HEA 140 and HEA 100
Moreover, in the case of the Ch3 and Cb3 models, strains were measured flange sections, which constitute guideways for the lateral bracing of
using electrical resistance strain gauges. the column. A general schematic of the test stand is shown in Fig. 4a,
After the tests had been completed specimens were taken from the while its cross section with the column inside and the places of load ap-
tested models for steel strength and chemical composition tests. The plication in the particular test series are shown in Fig. 4b. Fig. 5 shows a
specimens were cut out from both the top and bottom part of the general view of the constructed test stand.
column. The base of the tested columns, resting on the diaphragm (Fig. 4),
In order to carry out the load capacity tests it was necessary to build was rigidly fixed in the plane of the columns greater stiffness and pin-
a complex test stand. The stand is described in detail in Section 3.2. Each supported in the plane of the columns lesser stiffness. This was done
test series involved the following operations: using two M24 bolts and a tangential rocker bearing, as shown in Fig. 6a.
It was very important to ensure pin-support-in-space conditions in
• assembling the test stand and placing the column inside it; the column header. Moreover, the freedom of vertical displacements
• mounting and connecting an actuator and measuring instruments; in both the plane of the columns greater stiffness and the plane of its
• preloading the model to a small value, and then unloading it; lesser stiffness had to be ensured, and horizontal displacements and
• gradually loading the column until failure; twist had to be precluded while preserving the freedom of rotation an-
• dismantling the measuring instruments; gles and deplanation. A pair of C65 channel sections, bolted to the hor-
• removing the column from the test stand. izontal plate of the column header, was used for this purpose (Fig. 6b).
As with the intermediate girts, these elements were topped with the
ring of a thrust ball bearing (Figs. 6c and d). The bearings ensured the
3.1. Tested models freedom of displacement in the plane of contact with the guideways.
In addition, the vertical displacement of the header in the plane of the
Tests were carried out on six models of asymmetrically stepped steel columns greater stiffness was limited by an angle strut made of a square
I-columns. In their structure, two parts can be distinguished: the under tube, which rested against the test stand latticework. Details of the
crane part and the above crane part, which are jointed together via a header support conditions for the Ch series column are shown in Fig. 6b.
short bracket (characteristic of such columns). In actual industrial The nonaxial intermediate bracings, i.e. the wall girts, have an influ-
halls this bracket transmits loads from the runway girder. The columns ence on the spatial form of the structural instability of the columns
under crane part was made of rolled section IPE 270 and was 3.52 m (Fig. 4). As in the case of the column header bracings, these were C65
Fig. 2. Schematic of the tested steel I-column with a stepwise asymmetric change in its cross section: a) general view, b) detail of the bracket.
channel sections jointed to the column with a M12 bolt via the small implemented. In both cases, an HGC 50 S10 hydraulic actuator with a
plate cantilevers. The idea behind the girt-column connection was to maximum load capacity of 500 kN and a maximum piston stroke of 50
only transfer the horizontal displacements in the plane of the column's mm was employed. The actuator was connected via a 5 m long H5
lesser stiffness, and at the same time to ensure the freedom of rotation SOU hydraulic hose with an HTW 2200 A hand-pump. The set was pur-
angles and displacements in the vertical direction. Friction between chased from Holmatro. In the first test series (Ch) the load was directly
the girt and the column was eliminated with the use of a set of thrust transferred by a set consisting of the actuator, a dynamometer and a
ball bearings. A detailed view of the actual connection is shown in Fig. spherical bearing to the column header (Fig. 7a), and it was blocked
6c. The freedom of vertical displacements was achieved with the same with a 2 × I 200 spreader bar reinforced with a C 200 channel section
bearings, since the wall girts were topped with an end plate with just and then anchored indirectly to the truss. Since in the second test series
a ball bearing cage. The use of just the ball bearing cage enables dis- (Cb) the load was exerted at the bracket level an extension pipe topped
placements to be possible in the plane of contact with the guideway, with spherical bearings was added to the set (Fig. 7b). Load values were
resulting from the shortening of the column and its horizontal displace- registered by the dynamometer connected to a set of Spider 8 strain
ments due to bending in the plane of the columns greater stiffness. gauge amplifiers made by Hottinger Baldwin Messtechnik. In order to
Owing to this, the wall girt would slide in the guideways made of measure displacements, the whole system was linked to W50TS linear
wide-flange I-sections. The plate visible in Fig. 6d can be adjusted, and variable displacement transducers (LVDTs, with a measuring range of
any assembly deviations arising during the successive series of tests 100 mm) and two WI transducers (with a measuring range of 2),
can therefore be eliminated. whereby readings could be taken with a frequency of 5 Hz. The whole
Since the two principle series of tests differed in their way of system was monitored by a PC with Siemens testXpert II software,
exerting load, two ways of loading the models had to be devised and which made it possible to control the course of the test and to export
Fig. 3. Tested steel I-column.

Fig. 4. General schematic of the test stand (a) and its cross section (b).
the results in the form of a text file needed for further analysis. In the stresses resulting from the eccentric compression of the column were
case of tests on the Ch3 and Cb3 models (models with electrical resis- obtained (after converting the strains to stresses). The measurements
tance strain gauges glued to them), due to the large number of hooked were taken in five cross sections denoted with the Roman numerals I
up measuring devices (18 displacement transducers and 60 electric re- to V. Twelve strain gauges per cross section were used, which gave a
sistance strain gauges), the slightly older (and slower - enabling read- total of 60 measuring points. The exact locations of the displacement
ings with a frequency of merely 1 Hz) strain gauge amplifier Hottinger transducers and the electrical resistance strain gauges are shown in
Baldwin Messtechnik UPM 100 was used. Fig. 8.
Moreover, the way in which the measurements were performed
contributed to the complexity of the test stand. For each of the four dis- 4. Experimental investigations
placement measurement levels, it was necessary to construct a
supporting structure for LVDTs. At levels 1–3, displacements were mea- 4.1. Series of Ch models
sured in four points, i.e. in two points in each of the cross sections edge
corners – in both the plane of greater stiffness and that of lesser stiffness. This series of model tests comprised of three models: from Ch1 to
The spatial form of buckling for the tested column is described by two Ch3. The experimental investigations, after placing the column inside
functions of linear displacements v and w along axes y and z, and also the test stand and connecting all the measuring devices, involved:
by the cross sections rotation angles φ, hence a pair of transducers in
each of the planes. The mean displacement obtained from each pair of 1. Preloading the column to a low value (about 50 kN) in order to
transducers represents the displacement of the column axis at a given “break in” the structure and eliminate any clearance in the joints,
level. The angles of rotation can be calculated from the well-known trig- followed by unloading (down to about 1).
onometric relations. Only displacements v and w along axes y and z 2. The principle loading of the column until failure.
were controlled at the column header level – because of the potential During the test, column Ch1 behaved as expected. As the load in-
compliance of the supports in this cross section. As already mentioned, creased, the column began to bend in the plane of greater stiffness as
in the case of two tests: Ch3 and Cb3, displacements were also regis- a result of the transmission of eccentric load. Moreover, due to the col-
tered by electrical resistance strain gauges. Uniaxial strain gauges umns geometric and assembly imperfections, it was increasingly bend-
made by HBM were used for this purpose. Only the values of the normal ing out of the bending plane and its cross section was twisting. Up to
Box girder
Spatial truss
Actuator,
dynamometer
Column model
Guideways
DAQ set:
computer,
bridge,
pressure pump
Fig. 5. General view of the constructed test stand.
270 kN, the columns behaviour was linearly elastic (Hookes law ap- The final (third) tested model was column Ch3. The obtained load
plied). Above this value and up to about 300 kN, permanent strains in- paths in their shape resembled those for the Ch2 model, but differed
creased, which is reflected in the curvilinear dependence in the static in both the load and displacement values. In the case of this test, the seg-
equilibrium path diagrams (load–displacement curves). After the load ment in which Hookes law is valid evidently extends up to the load of
of 300 kN was reached, rapid spatial buckling in the plastic range oc- about 189 kN.
curred. The axis of the column deformed: the almost plane curve The highest limit load registered during the test amounted to Nmax,
(with only slight deformations due to imperfections) changed to a spa- Ch3 = 246.6 kN. A comparison of displacements out of the columns
tial curve. The maximum load registered by the measuring system plane shows that while the linear displacement values on the particular
amounted to Nmax,Ch1 = 305.6 kN and resulted from the failure of the levels are similar, the angular displacement values differ considerably.
above-crane part of the tested model. Selected test results for the Ch1 In the case of the Ch3 model, the angle of rotation at which the yield
model, in the form of static equilibrium paths for the angle of rotation point was reached was about twice as small as than that obtained for
and for linear displacement, are shown in Fig. 9. the Ch2 model, amounting to about 0.018 rad. The static equilibrium
The behaviour of the Ch2 model and its response to the load were paths for the angular and linear displacements of the Ch3 model at
similar to those in the previous test. Major differences only become ap- level 2 are shown in Fig. 12.
parent in the static equilibrium paths. In the initial stage of the test, the In the case of the Ch3 model, the state of strain was also analysed in
curves actually have a rectilinear character, but very gradually they be- order to obtain, after appropriate transformations, the stress values. De-
come curvilinear. This continues up to the load of about 208 kN, at tails on the locations of measuring points and the acquisition of mea-
which the curve clearly inflects and the displacement increases faster. surements are provided in Section 3.2. Since the set of the
The load was increased up to the ultimate value Nmax,Ch2 = 252.9 kN. measurements is very large, only selected (appropriately converted) re-
The full test results for Ch2 model are presented in Figs. 10–11. sults of the tests are presented below.
Fig. 6. Structural details of the constructed test stand: a) column base, b) column header, c) girt-column connection, d) wall girt end.
Fig. 13a shows normal stresses σx calculated on the basis of the mea- variation in the stress registered by the particular pairs of strain gauges,
sured strains. These are mean values obtained from each of the opposite while the graph on the right represents a solid of stresses, plotted on the
pairs of electrical resistance strain gauges (see Fig. 8). The results are centre line of cross section II for four selected load values (respectively
presented in two ways: the diagram on the left side illustrates the 50, 100, 150 and 200 kN). It should be noted that under the latter load
a) b)
Extension
Spherical pipe
bearing
Actuator
Hydraulic
hose
Dynamometer
Header Bracket
Fig. 7. Method of applying load to: a) header in the Ch series, b) bracket in the Cb series.
+5.37 - Header
LVDT sensors
Header Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
+4.46 - Level 1
+3.56 - Level 2
Strain gauges +2.36 - Level 3
+1.16
±0.00
Fig. 8. Numbers and locations of displacement transducers and electrical resistance strain gauges.
point no. 1 yields since as shown in Section 4.4.1, the mean yield point of The distribution of stresses in cross section V, which along the col-
the upper cross section amounted to Re,SU = 312 MPa. It is worth noting umns height is located above the trapezoidal plates of its base, seems
the shape and course of stress variation with an increasing load. Partic- to be much more interesting. In the initial phase of the test, the stresses
ularly characteristic is the curvilinear course after the yield point is increased relatively uniformly for a cross section eccentrically com-
reached and the subsequent behaviour of the cross section. One should pressed in the plane of greater stiffness. At the moment immediately
also note the fact that at the instant of failure, the distribution of stresses preceding the failure, a redistribution of the stresses occurred, whereby
resembled that for the I-section under compression and bending rela- at the load of 264 kN the effect of torsion of the column relative to the
tive to both the axes of the cross section. Moreover, the effect of torsion prescribed axis of rotation appeared. Moreover, the support conditions
relative to the imposed axis of rotation of the column is visible. were not without significance, since the column was fixed in the plane
Fig. 13b also shows the variation of stress in cross section III, i.e. in of greater stiffness and pin-supported out of this plane. Under this
the columns lower part (made of section IPE 270) below the bracket. load, the maximum stresses (195.5 kN) were registered in point 2,
Due to its larger geometric characteristics, section III works only in the while in point 1 the stresses changed their sign – from compression to
elastic range, and the stresses determined under the load close to the ul- tension. The stress values regarding the applied load are presented in
timate one (246 kN) were added. In order to keep the diagram clear, no Fig. 13c.
return stress paths (which returned to the initial position when the load The shapes of the stress curves for the other cross sections are not as
was removed) are shown. The graphs indicate that this part of the column interesting as the ones obtained for cross sections II, III and V. An analy-
was far from the yield point, which amounted to Re,SU = 326.8 MPa. The sis of cross section I showed the stress distribution to be typical of ec-
course of stress variation is characteristic, particularly in point 2, because centric compression. The maximum stress value under compression
as the load increases, the stress values change their sign – from compres- did not exceed 190 MPa. In cross section IV, the negative absolute
sion to tension. Here the effect of torsion, which is relative to the imposed stresses were much lower than in cross section III. Their distribution
axis of rotation of the column, is much less visible. was also typical of eccentric compression, with their values not
350 350
300 300
Ch1 – Level 2 Ch1 – Level 2

250 – angle of rotation 250 – displacement
Load [kN]
Load [kN]
200 200
150 150
100 100
φ(5-6)
50 φ(7-8) 50 v
φ_mean w
0 0
-0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0
Angle of rotation [rad] Displacement [mm]
Fig. 9. Load – displacement curves for the Ch1 model at level 2.

Fig. 10. Load–displacement curves for the Ch2 model at all levels.
300
Ch2 ‒ Header exceeding 60 MPa. This means that the other two cross sections (I and
‒ displacement IV) worked in the elastic range.
250
The stresses determined on the basis of the displacements measured
by the electrical resistance strain gauges are only valid for materials in
200 the elastic range. Therefore, the above graphs of the variation of normal
stress σx in the particular cross sections were plotted before yielding oc-
Load [kN]
150 curred in the places where the strain gauges were attached. Fig. 14,
however, shows the probable distribution of stresses after failure in
100
the three cross sections: II, III and V. The strains were registered in the
specified points. Since it is not fully known which part of the cross sec-
tion yielded, the graphs are drawn with a dashed line. An analysis of
50 v
cross section II shows that a considerable part of this section yielded.
w
Only in the zone of points no. 2 and 6 did the cross section work in
0 the elastic range. As evidenced by the stress jump in points no. 4 and
-1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Displacement [mm] 2 (Fig. 13a), the effect of torsion of the column relative to the imposed
axis of rotation was even more pronounced. In the former, point tension
Fig. 11. Load–displacement curves for the Ch2 model at header level. rapidly increased, while in the latter point the sign of the stresses
300 300
Ch3 ‒ Level 2 Ch3 ‒ Level 2
‒ angle of rotation ‒ displacement
250 250
200 200
Load [kN]
Load [kN]
150 150
100 100
50 φ(5-6) v
50
φ(7-8) w
φ_mean
0 0
-0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0
Fig. 12. Load – displacement curves for the Ch3 model at level 2.
altered. Cross section III did not fail at the same instant as cross section II, The behaviour of column Cb1 in the course of the testing was much
and it was far from yielding. That is why the stress distribution was sim- more surprising than that of the columns of series Ch. The load applied
ilar to that shown in Fig. 13b. The situation was similar in cross section at the bracket level not only generated an axial compressive force, but
V, where the stresses increased (Fig. 13c). also a considerable bending moment. Therefore, the displacements in
Summing up the tests carried out on the series of Ch models, one the columns plane of greater stiffness were much larger than in the ear-
should note the behaviour of the headers of the columns during the lier tests. From the very beginning of the test, the column was deflecting
tests. Despite the adopted design solutions, consisting of restraining from its plane of greater stiffness. Initially, the deflection increased
the header with two channel sections and an angle strut made of a along the positive direction of the adopted system of coordinates, but
square tube (Figs. 4 and 6b), it was not possible to completely eliminate when the load of 80 kN was reached, linear displacement v and torsion
displacements along axis z. This is indicated by the load paths for the angles φ stopped increasing up to the load of 150 kN. This is reflected by
Ch2 model in Fig. 11. Depending on the tested column, the maximum an almost vertical segment in the static equilibrium path. Once the load
displacements w amounted to 2–4 mm. The lower value was registered of 150 kN was exceeded, the linear displacements and the angles of ro-
during the testing of the Ch1 model while the higher value character- tation began to gradually decrease. After the force of about 270 kN was
ized the other two models. Minimally larger displacements were regis- registered, the curves for both types of displacement in the static equi-
tered in the case of the header of column Ch2. Displacements v in the librium path diagram became increasingly flatter until they crossed
plane of lesser stiffness fluctuated around zero and did not exceed ± their initial position and entered the negative side of the adopted sys-
0.5 mm. tem of coordinates. In the course of the test when the load of about
All the three column models of series Ch failed due to spatial buck- 280 kN was reached, a small disturbance, resembling a notch, was ob-
ling in the nonelastic range. The cross section in the place where stiff- served. This slight decrease in the load took place as the bracket began
ness changes stepwise was found, due to it failing first, to be critical. to yield, but the load capacity of the whole member was not exhausted.
Fig. 15 shows photographs of deformed columns taken in the final The test was continued until the maximum load Nmax,Cb1 = 309.2 kN
phase of each test. was registered. Subsequently, the valve maintaining the pressure in
Fig. 15a shows a general front view of the deformed Ch1 model in- the pump was released, and the column was thus unloaded. One should
side the test stand. All the three columns bent and twisted in the same note that the shape of the Cb1 model return path is similar to that of the
direction, which is obviously accidental and depends on such random loading path. Moreover, permanent strains occurred because the trans-
factors as: model execution, support imperfections, or nonaxially ap- ducer readings did not return to the original ones. Since the values of an-
plied load. The other photographs show more detailed views of the gles of rotation φ and linear displacements v changed their sign, their
failed column. They reveal the bracket to be the crucial place, since it analysis is troublesome. Only cambers w in the plane of greater stiffness
was above this cross section that the failure mechanism was initiated. are not surprising, reaching the maximum value of about 12 mm at level
Fig. 15b shows the bracket from the vantage point of the header from 2. Selected test results for level 2 of the Cb1 model, in the form of the
the wall girts side. Fig. 15c shows the bracket from the vantage point static equilibrium paths of the angles of rotation and linear displace-
of the header situated above the bracket. As in the Ch1 series, in the ments, are shown in Fig. 16.
Ch3 series the twist can be seen, especially relative to the location of In order to eliminate the mechanism of failure (yield) of column Cb1,
the displacement transducers. Fig. 15b clearly shows buckling relative which was observed during the tests, both its web and top flange were
to the prescribed axis of rotation, which ran along the column in the strengthened. In the case of the web, this was done by welding slanting
connections with the wall girts. ribs made of square tubes to both its sides. An additional flat bar was
welded to the top flange.
4.2. Series of Cb models The behaviour of model Cb2 and its response to the applied load
were not so surprising, but they were rapid in character. Initially, the
This model test series comprised three models: from Cb1 to Cb3. The load-displacement dependence was nearly rectilinear until the load of
models were tested in the same way as the Ch models. The testing 180 kN was reached. At this instant, a slight, but abrupt disturbance in
consisted of: the static equilibrium path was observed. The disturbance could have
been caused by the “breaking in” of the structure on a joint or a delay
1. Preloading the column up to a low value (about 50 kN) in order to
on the measuring bridge and had no effect on the further analysis of
break in the structure and eliminate any play in the joints, followed
the results. One should note that unlike in the series of Ch tests and in
by unloading (down to about 1 kN).
the initial phase of testing column Cb1, the displacements of column
2. The principle loading of the column until failure.
Cb2 increased in the opposite direction, hence the negative values of
a) 400 – 45,7 – 1,8

Ch3 ‒ Cross-section II – 21,9 4 – 0,2
300 ‒ mean stresses 1 T12, T23 – 9,0 3,7
3
2 T13, T14 0,9 6 17,2 Load level:
– 41,4
– 29,9
– 16,9
– 4,6
200 3 T19, T20 50 kN
4 T18, T17 100 kN
100 150 kN
Stress [MPa]
5 T15, T22
T16, T21 200 kN
– 312,0
– 141,1
– 95,7
– 47,3
6
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-100 5
2
– 53,2
1
-200 – 103,4
– 65,6 – 146,9
-300 – 134,0 – 167,6
– 202,2
– 295,2 [MPa]
-400
Load [kN]
b) 60 – 72,6 – 22,5
Ch3 ‒ Cross-section III – 41,0 – 20,1
40 ‒ mean stresses – 28,6 3 4 – 16,9
– 17,5 6 – 10,5
– 56,9
– 39,8
– 28,7
– 17,8
20 Load level:
100 kN
0
Stress [MPa]
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 150 kN

-20 200 kN
1 T24, T35 [MPa] 246 kN
-40 2 T25, T26
3 T31, T32
– 24,5
– 22,0
– 16,3
– 10,4
-60 4 T30, T29
5 T27, T34
-80 – 12,9 5 40,9
6 T28, T33
– 21,1 1 – 2,6
-100 – 30,8 – 3,3
Load [kN] – 80,7 2 – 4,4
c)
– 171,8 – 1,3
100 – 51,6 4 0,5
Ch3 ‒ Cross-section V – 28,9 3 3,9
50 ‒ mean stresses – 14,0
6
48,1
Load level:
– 29,2
– 15,1
– 8,6
– 3,8
0 100 kN
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 150 kN
Stress [MPa]
-50 200 kN
246 kN
1 T48, T59 [MPa]
-100
2 T49, T50
3 T55, T56
– 52,7
– 49,8
– 38,8
– 25,9
-150
4 T53, T54
5 T51, T58
-200 5
6 T52, T57
1 2
23,4 – 55,7
-250 – 44,8 – 81,3
Load [kN]
– 62,3 – 109,2
– 72,8 – 195,9
Fig. 13. Values of normal stresses σx [MPa] regarding the external load N [kN] in cross-section II (a), III (b) and V (c).
rotation angles φ and linear displacements v in the plane of lesser stiff- the earlier model, amounting to 13 mm. The largest linear displacement
ness. After the load of about 200 was exceeded, the graph gradually be- v in the plane of lesser stiffness was registered at level 2, and at the in-
came curvilinear, and above 250 kN the tangents inclination became stant of buckling it amounted to 10 mm. The largest angle of rotation
almost flat. The highest load, tantamount to the limit load, registered amounted to −0.06 rad. All the test results for the Cb2 model for all
by the dynamometer amounted to Nmax,Cb2 = 272.5 kN. Unlike in the the levels are presented in Figs. 17–18.
preceding tests, the failure of the column, i.e. the loss of spatial stability The last (third) column model in the series was denoted as Cb3. In
relative to the prescribed axis of rotation, occurred very rapidly. their shape and displacement values, the obtained static equilibrium
Even though the measuring devices were recording transducer read- paths resembled the ones obtained in the earlier test. Hookes law was
ings at every 0.2 s, no intermediate values were registered after the fall valid up to about 230 kN. A little earlier, i.e. at the force of 160 kN, a sim-
in load. The buckling was so abrupt that it caused material losses and ilar disturbance as in the case of column Cb2 was observed. The reoccur-
damaged the cores of two displacement transducers. The maximum rence of this effect suggests that its most probable cause was the
camber w in the columns plane of greater stiffness was close to that of “breaking in” of the structure or the elimination of clearance in any of
Fig. 14. Values of normal stress σx [MPa] in column Ch3 under limit load.
Fig. 15. General view of column Ch1 (a), close-up of the bracket of column Ch2 (b) and column Ch3 (c) after spatial buckling.
350 350
Cb1 ‒ Level 2 Cb1 ‒ Level 2
300 300
250 250
Load [kN]
Load [kN]
200 200
150 150
100 100
ϕ(5-6) v
ϕ(7-8) 50 50
w
ϕ_mean
0 0
-0.02 -0.02 -0.01 -0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 -5.0 -3.0 -1.0 1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0
Fig. 16. Load–displacement curves for the Cb1 model at level 2.
the joints. A sudden jump was observed, but it was so small that it had the displacements. The largest camber, amounting to about 13 mm, was
practically no effect on the obtained critical load values. Above the load registered at level 2. The other displacement values were almost the
of 230 kN, the slope of the curve became gentler. The highest registered same as in the case of column Cb2, and they amounted to a maximum
load, tantamount to the limit load, amounted to Nmax,Cb3 = 292.5 kN. Ex- of 12 mm for the linear displacements from the plane of greater stiffness
ceptionally good agreement with the previous test was also obtained for and to −0.06 rad for the angles of rotation. The buckling itself was as
300 300
250 250

‒ angle of rotation 200 ‒ displacement 200
Load [kN]
Load [kN]
150 150
100 100
ϕ(1-2) 50 v
50
ϕ(3-4) w
ϕ_mean
0 0
-0.08 -0.07 -0.06 -0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.01 -20.0 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
300 300
250 250

‒ angle of rotation 200 ‒ displacement 200
Load [kN]
Load [kN]
150 150
100 100
ϕ(5-6) 50 v
50
ϕ(7-8) w
ϕ_mean
0 0
-0.10 -0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 -25.0 -20.0 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
300 300
250 250
Cb2 ‒ Level 3 200

Cb2 ‒ Level 3
‒ displacement 200
‒ angle of rotation
Load [kN]
Load [kN]
150 150
100 100
ϕ(9-10) 50 v 50
ϕ(11-12)
w
ϕ_mean
0 0
-0.08 -0.07 -0.06 -0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.01 -20.0 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0
Fig. 17. Load–displacement curves for the Cb2 model at all levels.
300
Cb2 ‒ Header rapid as in the case of the previous model. Moreover, the losses were
‒ displacement similar, but this time only one displacement transducer core was dam-
250
aged. The shape of the deformed model and the abrupt failure indicate
that the highly probable mechanism of the failure of the transversely
200
braced column was spatial elastic buckling along the prescribed axis of
Load [kN]
rotation. The static equilibrium paths of the angular displacements at

150 level 2 of the Cb3 model are presented in Fig. 19.
Similarly as in the case of the Cb3 model, the state of strain and (after
100 appropriate transformations) the state of normal stress were also
analysed in the Ch3 model. The places where measurements were
taken and the way in which the results were obtained are described in
50 v
w Section 3.2. The results relating to the analysis of stresses are extensive
and therefore their graphical interpretation was limited here to the
0 three most interesting cross sections: II – above the bracket, III –
-2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Displacement [mm] below the bracket and V – above the columns base.
Fig. 20 shows normal stress σx in the selected cross sections, which
Fig. 18. Load–displacement curves for the Cb2 model at header level. was determined on the basis of the measured strains. The figure is
350 350
300 300
250 250
Load [kN]
Load [kN]
200 200
150 150
100 100
ϕ(5-6)
v
ϕ(7-8) 50 50
w
ϕ_mean
0 0
-0.08 -0.07 -0.06 -0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.01 -20.0 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
Fig. 19. Load – displacement curves for the Cb3 model at level 2.
based on the same design as Fig. 13 for column Ch3. The distribution of drawn in this case (Fig. 21). The diagrams represent the previously
normal stress in cross section II (Fig. 20a) is completely different than analysed cross sections II, III and V. By comparing the stresses in cross
that for the previous test series. From almost the very beginning of the section II before and after buckling, one can trace their redistribution.
test it was apparent that the distribution of normal stress was affected Evidently, the latter was the result of the abrupt unloading, bending
by the bending moment resulting solely from the bending of the col- and flexural deformation of the column. The top flange, and points 3
umns upper part. The steel in this cross section probably yielded in and 4 on it, were still subjected to compressive stress, but in point 3
point no. 1. In this case, however, this was caused by tensile stresses. the stress value sharply decreased, while yielding took place in point
The yield point of the lower part of the column was determined in 4. The bottom flange behaved in a similar way. The tensile stress values
Section 4.4.1 and it amounted to Re,SU = 312 MPa. Points 1, 2 and 5 in point 1 decreased, while in point 2 they changed their sign. The char-
were subject to tension, while points 3, 4 and 6 were subject to com- acteristic distribution of stresses in cross section III, considering that in
pression. The values increased proportionally, and it is evident that points 1 and 3 the stresses changed their sign, clearly indicates torsional
after the load of 250 kN was reached the cross section began to be buckling relative to the prescribed axis of rotation. Tension appeared in
torsioned. the former, while compression appeared in the latter. The situation in
Fig. 20b illustrates the stress variation in cross section III. It is equally support cross section V was almost a mirror image of the conditions in
interesting as in cross section II, but different because the cross section cross section III. This tendency was already observed under the load of
was located below the bracket to which the load was applied. Since 280 kN (Fig. 20c). After buckling, the stress values in the top flange
this part of the column was compressed, it partially yielded, despite its rose considerably, while in point 2 on the bottom flange the stresses
larger cross-sectional characteristics. In this case, the most stressed changed their sign, reversing to tension.
was point no. 2, and the mean yield point value in the columns lower As when testing the series of Ch models, it also here was extremely
part amounted to Re,SL = 326.8 MPa. The stress increment was propor- important to ensure proper header support conditions. The behaviour
tional up to 200 kN, and only after 250 kN did the stresses in the partic- of the header for column Cb2 is shown in Fig. 18. When examining dis-
ular points abruptly diversify. The twist of the cross section relative to placements w in the plane of greater stiffness, it was found that the
the columns prescribed axis of rotation is clearly evident at 280 kN. maximum displacement did not exceed 4 mm. In the other two models,
The distribution of stress was more interesting in support cross sec- this value was even lower, amounting to 2.8 mm in Cb1 and 3.3 mm in
tion no. V. The method of fixing the base affected the redistribution of Cb3. Thus, despite the stronger horizontal reactions than in the previous
stress. Tension in the top flange was considerably lower, with the series, the values were similar. The displacement v from the plane of
stresses in points 3 and 4 ranging from −55 to 36 MPa. This means greater stiffness was considerably smaller, reaching the maximum
that the vertical reaction was transferred exclusively by the nonuniform value of 0.5 mm.
pressure of the base plate against the foundation that was functioning as All the three Cb series column models failed due to spatial buckling
a rigid diaphragm. The bottom flange of the cross section was com- relative to the prescribed axis of rotation. Even though some of the fi-
pressed and the stress registered in point no. 1 at the instant of buckling bres above and below the bracket yielded, the violent character of the
amounted to about −254 MPa. The stress in point no. 2 reached about failure indicates that it was actually elastic buckling. Fig. 22 shows the
−110 MPa. The variation of normal stress in cross section V, with an in- models after buckling.
creasing load, is shown in Fig. 20c. The course of the experiment carried out on column Cb1 differed
The stress in the other cross sections of column Cb3 was lower than from that of the other two experiments in this series. The column did
the one shown in Fig. 20. Regarding its shape, the stress distribution in not fail abruptly, and it was observed that the bracket had begun
cross section I resembled a typical distribution for a member under deflecting excessively and after a while a decision was taken to remove
bending. The maximum compressive stress amounted to −150 MPa the load. A general view of the Cb1 model tested in this series is shown
and the maximum tensile stress to 170 MPa. The stresses in cross sec- in Fig. 22a.
tion IV were also proportionally lower than in cross section III, reaching The behaviour and mode of failure of the next two (but this time re-
−220 MPa in the case of compression and 75 MPa in the case of tension. inforced) models were very similar. Linear displacements v and w, and
All the Cb models buckled violently. Therefore, one can conclude also rotation angles φ, increased proportionally and the slope of the
that even though some of the cross sections of the models yielded par- curves decreased. The displacements increased in this way until they
tially, they actually buckled elastically along the prescribed axis of rota- suddenly began to increase very rapidly. A horizontal force, resulting
tion. Hence, similarly as for the Cb3 model (Fig. 14 14), diagrams of from the twist of the bracket, then appeared and intensified this effect.
probable normal stress σx immediately after failure (when a sudden General front views of the buckled columns Cb1 and Cb2 are shown in
fall in load was registered on the static equilibrium path) were also Figs. 22a and b. Moreover, large deformations of the tested models is
Fig. 20. Values of normal stresses σx [MPa] regarding the external load N [kN] in cross-sections II (a), III (b) and V (c).
also indicated by the position of the round tube, which transferred the and the girts. Fig. 22b shows the deformed upper part of column Cb2
load from the actuator to the bracket. This is particularly visible in Fig. and the considerable deflection of the latter from its plane of greater
22b. The initially vertical tube has inclined. One should also note the stiffness.
way in which the load was transferred. For this purpose, a ball-and-
socket joint was used. Thanks to the use of the same element on the 4.3. Series of Chb models
top of the tube-dynamometer-actuator set, any additional horizontal
loads were eliminated. The buckled Cb3 columns, seen from the vantage This test series comprised three models: from Chb1 to Chb3. As men-
of the header, are shown in Fig. 22c. Another indication of the violent tioned earlier (Section 3), they were not new models, but the ones left
character of the failure is the fact that some of the wall girts were over after the series of Ch tests. One should note that the Chb columns
pushed out of the guideways. The prescribed axis of rotation is clearly were numbered differently than the Ch columns, i.e. Ch3 → Chb1, Ch1
visible, running along the axes of the connectors between the column → Chb2, Ch2 → Chb3. Since this test series had not been initially
Fig. 21. Values of normal stress σx [MPa] in column Cb3 under limit load.
planned, its range was somewhat reduced. While displacements were The slope of the paths then became gentler and the displacements
registered at all the levels in the course of the first test on column began increasing disproportionally to the load. It should be noted that
Chb1, during the testing of the next two columns the measurements the linear displacements v and the rotation angles φ registered in the
were only carried out at level 2 and at the header level. This was due course of the experiment increased towards the negative values of the
to the reduced access to the laboratory and its personnel. adopted system of coordinates, i.e. in the opposite direction than in
The course of the testing of the additional three models of series Chb the test of column Ch3. This means that the permanent deformations
was similar as for the series Ch and Cb (Sections 4.1 and 4.2). Similarly had no significant influence on the columns behaviour. As the limit
as in the case of columns Cb, prior to testing their brackets were load Nmax,Chb1 = 272.5 kN was reached, the column failed as a result
strengthened by welding slanting ribs made of square tubes to the of spatial buckling. Selected static equilibrium paths at levels 2 and 3
web, and flat bars to the top flange. of the Chb1 model are presented in Fig. 23.
The response of column Chb1 to the applied load was similar to that The behaviour of the next (second) model of series Chb was excep-
of the Cb2 and Cb3 models. As the force increased, camber w appeared tionally consistent with that of the three previous columns. It was esti-
in the columns plane of greater stiffness. The largest camber registered mated that in this case the initial linear-elastic segment of Hookes law
by the measuring instruments amounted to 13 mm, which agrees with applicability extended to 240 kN. Above this value, displacements φ
the earlier experimental results and the theoretical ones. When and v increased disproportionally to the forced load. The column failed
analysing the static equilibrium paths, one can notice that almost no lin- unexpectedly and violently, but as previously, no equipment was dam-
ear displacements v were registered in the initial phase of the experi- aged. Linear displacements w in the plane of greater stiffness were
ment up to 50 kN, whereas rotation angles φ increased from the very slightly smaller since they did not exceed 10 mm at the culminating
beginning. Above 50 kN, both the displacements increased proportion- point. Limit load Nmax,Chb2 = 282.4 kN was found to be slightly greater.
ally to the load until the latter exceeded 240 kN. In comparison with the The static equilibrium paths of the rotation angles and linear displace-
previous two models, they were exceptionally consistent with the load. ments at level 2 of column Chb2 are shown in Fig. 24.
Fig. 22. General view of column Cb1 (a) and Cb2 (b) and the view of column Cb3 from the vantage of the header (c), after spatial buckling.
300 300
250 250
Chb1 ‒ Level 2 200 Chb1 ‒ Level 2 200

Load [kN]
Load [kN]
150 150
100 100
ϕ(5-6)
50 50 v
ϕ(7-8)
w
ϕ_mean
0 0
-0.08 -0.07 -0.06 -0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.01 -20.0 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
300 300
250 250
Chb1 ‒ Level 3
‒ angle of rotation Chb1 ‒ Level 3
200 200
‒ displacement
Load [kN]
Load [kN]
150 150
100 100
ϕ(9-10)
ϕ(11-12) 50 50 v
ϕ_mean w
0 0
-0.08 -0.07 -0.06 -0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.01 -20.0 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
Fig. 23. Load–displacement curves for the Chb1 model at levels 2 and 3.
The response of the last Chb3 model was surprising. The static equi- more surprising. They clearly indicate the “vacillation” of the col-
librium paths for level 2, plotted on the basis of the displacement trans- umn during the tests. At the beginning of the test, displacements as-
ducer readings, are shown in Fig. 25. Most surprising is camber w in the sumed negative values, reaching 0.03 mm at the load of 25 kN, then
plane of greater stiffness. It is apparent that at the very beginning of the they changed their sense and at 50 kN they returned to their original
test, up to 10 kN the load was increasing with no noticeable increase in position. A similar situation occurred two more times. First at 110
displacements. It was only above this value that displacements kN and 0.25 mm, and then at the load of 250 kN and linear displace-
slightly increased, but in the opposite direction than one would ex- ment v of 0.03 mm. Above these load values, displacements began to
pect. The maximum negative value of w amounted to merely −0.35 increase, initially almost imperceptibly, and then very rapidly at
mm, and after the load of 60 kN was exceeded, the trend turned pos- about 280. The maximum limit load then amounted to Nmax,Chb3 =
itive. After 86 kN was reached, deflections w of the column at level 2 314.8 kN. The angles of rotation showed similar behaviour. This is
were at the initial point and kept increasing, reaching 12 mm at the obviously a matter of randomness, but it is worth noting that col-
instant of failure. The graphs of the other displacements, especially umn Chb3 bent in the opposite direction than the previous models
linear displacements v from the plane of greater stiffness, are even of series Cb and Chb.
300 300
250 250
Chb2 ‒ Level 2 Chb2 ‒ Level 2
200 200
Load [kN]
Load [kN]
150 150
100 100
ϕ(5-6) 50 v
50
ϕ(7-8) w
ϕ_mean
0 0
-0.08 -0.07 -0.06 -0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.01 -20.0 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
Fig. 24. Load–displacement curves for the Chb2 model at level 2.

350 350
300 300
Chb3 ‒ Level 2
250 ‒ angle of rotation 250 Chb3 ‒ Level 2
‒ displacement
Load [kN]
Load [kN]
200 200
150 150
100 100
ϕ(5-6) v
50 ϕ(7-8) 50
w
ϕ_mean
0 0
-0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 -2.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0
Fig. 25. Load–displacement curves for the Chb3 model at level 2.
It is also worth noting the header support conditions. This time full bracings. As a result of the violent character of the buckling, the wall
agreement with the previous results was also obtained, since the maxi- girt at level 2 was pushed out of the guideways, but for the other wall
mum header displacements w in the plane of greater stiffness of the col- girts the twist of the cross section relative to the prescribed axis of rota-
umns at the instant of failure did not exceed 4 mm. The shapes of the tion is perfectly visible. One can also notice that this axis runs along the
curves also indicated that the character of the support was nearly axis of the bolts joining the girts to the column. A photograph of column
linear-elastic. The static equilibrium path for column Chb3 is slightly dif- Chb2, taken from the vantage of level 1, is shown in Fig. 27b. It is worth
ferent, as shown in Fig. 26. It can be seen that it has a double linear- noting the transducers on the column, which register linear displace-
elastic character, since its slope changes at 200 kN. Similarly as in the ments v from the plane of greater stiffness. One can see that the impetus
previous models, this time proper conditions of support from the of the bracket turned transducer no. 6 by 90 degrees. Ultimately, the
plane of greater stiffness were also ensured – linear displacements v Chb3 model deformed in the opposite direction, and so this time the
were limited to 0.5 mm. While in the case of Chb1 and Chb2 models dis- measurements were performed only up to the maximum core protru-
placements increased assuming negative values, in the Chb3 series the sion of transducer no. 6. The photograph in Fig. 27c shows the Chb3
values changed sign. At the load of 230 kN, they passed through zero model from a different vantage point. i.e. from the base of the test
and from then on increased in a positive direction. stand. The photographs provide more proof that the failure was due to
Both the form of buckling of the Chb series models and the course of flexural-torsional buckling relative to the prescribed axis of rotation.
the tests themselves were qualitatively very similar to those for the Cb The axis was formed by the point transverse bracings, whose operating
series. All the three models failed due to spatial instability in the principle is clearly apparent in the photographs. In this figure one can
elastic-plastic range, which was reflected in their sudden and violent also see the previously described anti-torsional bracings of the header
buckling. Photographs of the deformed columns taken in the final and the considerable deflection of the tube topped with the actuator.
phase of each test are shown in Fig. 27.
One should note that in the case of the Chb1 and Chb2 models, dis- 4.4. Material testing
placements would assume negative values relative to the adopted sys-
tem of coordinates, even though, because of the predeformations After testing the models, the steel was subjected to strength and
based on the Ch series tests, they were expected to behave differently. chemical composition tests. Their aim was to comprehensively evaluate
Only in column Chb3 were the displacements at the instant of failure in- the material characteristics of the steel of which the models were made
creasing in the positive direction. The photograph in Fig. 27a shows col- and to assign it to a particular grade of constructional steel.
umn Chb1 from the vantage of the header between its anti-torsional
4.4.1. Tensile tests
Static tensile tests were carried out in the Building Structures Labo-
350 ratory at Wrocław University of Science and Technology. An UTF 400
Chb3 ‒ Header strength testing machine upgraded by Zwick was used for this purpose.
‒ displacement
300 Twelve test specimens were cut out in accordance with the EN ISO
377:200 guidelines. The specimens were taken from the flanges, ran-
250 domly from the places which had worked in the elastic range during
the test. According to the adopted nomenclature, specimens labelled
Load [kN]
200 “SU” were taken from the upper part of the selected columns, while
those labelled “SL” were taken from their lower part. The test was car-
150 ried out and the test results processed according to the recommenda-
tions of standard EN ISO 6892-1:2010. The tensile test results are
100 presented in Fig. 28.
v
All the tested specimens failed within the measuring base. Fig. 29a
50 shows a SL series specimen in the grips of the strength testing machine
w
during the static tensile test. All the SL specimens after failure are shown
0 in Fig. 29b.
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Displacement [m]] The mean values and standard deviations of the characteristic steel
parameters, such as the modulus of elasticity E, yield point Re, tensile
Fig. 26. Load–displacement curves for the Chb3 model at header level. strength Rm and the elongation at failure on the original gauge length
Fig. 27. Views of the Chb1 (a), Chb2 (b) and Chb3 (c) models after spatial buckling.
Tensile test
500
400
300
σ [MPa]
200
SU1 SU2 SU3
SU4 SU5 SU6
100
SL1 SL2 SL3
SL4 SL5 SL6
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
ε [−]
Fig. 28. Results of steel strength tests.
Fig. 29. Specimens for the column's lower part (SL) material tests: a) during testing, b) after their failure.
A5.65 were determined on the basis of the strength test results. The re- EN 1993-1-1:2006. A considerable divergence between the test results
spective values are shown in the Table 1 – separately for the six- for the particular specimens was noticed, which is reflected in the
member sets of specimens SU and SL, as well as for all the specimens high standard deviation. The slope of the elastic part of the σ − ε
altogether. curve indicates a considerable difference between the test results for
The test results conform to the requirements for constructional the specimens taken from the upper part of the columns and the ones
steels. The only exception is the modulus of elasticity, whose mean taken from the lower part. The mean values of Youngs modulus for
value amounts to 194 GPa. This value is below the values recommended the two series amount to: ESU = 205 GPa and ESL = 183 GPa,
by the old Polish standard PN-B-03200:1990 and the European standard respectively.
Table 1 C3D20R finite solid elements, available in the software library, were
Mean values and standard deviations of quantities yielded by material tests. used to build the model. The elastic behaviour of the material is de-
E sE Re sRe Rm sRm A5, 65 sA5.65 scribed by using Hooks isotropic relationship with Youngs elastic
[GPa] [GPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [%] [%] modulus E equal to 194 kN/mm2 and Poissons ratio equal to 0.3.
SU 205.49 12.38 311.99 5.07 431.54 5.57 26.61 1.34 The plastic material characteristics come from tensile tests of speci-
SL 182.67 13.73 326.83 3.24 455.83 3.39 25.22 1.54 mens taken from physical models (see Section 4.4.1). The
All 194.08 17.35 319.41 8.55 443.69 12.99 25.92 1.60 eigenforms (equivalent imperfections) for particular loadcase (ex-
ternal load applied to the header and to the bracket) were obtained
by using linear buckling analysis (LBA). The computations were car-
ried out by the Standard module in Abaqus FEA software. Two series
4.4.2. Chemical composition tests of numerical analyses were performed Ch and Cb which differ slightly
In order to conclusively determine the parameters of the tested col- in the way the load is applied. In the first series there was a load con-
umns, tests of their chemical composition were commissioned. Two trolled analysis. Its initial vale was assumed as 10 kN. As parameters
square samples, randomly taken from the upper (CU) and lower part of the arc length method (using the Riks algorithm) the following
(CL) of the columns, were prepared for this purpose. The tests were car- parameters were assumed: maximum number of increments – 600,
ried out in Alucast Wrocław Ltd. using a BAIRD-DV4 emission spectrom- initial value of increment – 0.2, average next increment – 1.0, mini-
eter. The results of the chemical composition tests and the maximum mum next increment – 0.0001 and the maximum allowed size of
percentages of the particular elements allowable by the European stan- the next increment – 1.0. Besides specifying the maximum number
dard EN 10025–2:2007 and the historical Polish standard PN-H- of increments, the additional criterion was defined to interrupt the
84020:1988 are presented in Table 2. analysis. The calculations were stopped when the axis of the upper
When comparing the chemical composition of the tested samples column in Section 2 deflects more than 50 mm in the plane of its
with the maximum values allowable by standards EN 10025- weaker plane. However, in most cases, the model behaviour was
2:2007 and PN-H-84020:1988, one can notice that most of the ele- analysed on an ongoing basis and after reaching the limit load, the
ments meet the requirements set by the two standards. Only the calculations were interrupted manually.
nickel percentage slightly exceeds the one allowed by standard EN The second series proved to be more complex, because the calcu-
10025-2:2007. Therefore, on the basis of the metallurgical standard lations in which the load on the bracket was controlled ended at
PN-H-84020:1988, and after the analysis of the content of the par- some point in a lack of convergence and ultimately failed. The solu-
ticular elements in the chemical composition of the steel, the steel tion to this was a displacement control. Instead of the initial load
of the samples was classified as constructional steel grade St3S value, a 1 mm displacement was defined on the bracket level. Com-
(now S235JR). pared to the first series, the parameters of the Riks method imple-
mented in Abaqus differed only in the maximum number of
increments, because it was set at 400 and the maximum size of the
5. Numerical investigation next increment was set to 2.
The aim of the numerical analysis was to reproduce the real behav-
The numerical analysis was supposed to describe the real behaviour iour of the examined element. Moreover, such a structure is very sensi-
of the examined element. It has been done with the usage of Abaqus FEA tive to any changes of boundary conditions, which is why the support
software. The results were obtained by geometrically and materially conditions in physical and numerical models should be equivalent.
nonlinear analyses (GMNA) and analyses with imperfections These are defined in a similar way for the whole set of numerical
(GMNIA). The initial curvature of columns (imperfection) was adopted models. The bottom surface of the physical model base plate is rounded
form the eigenmodes achived by linear buckling analysis (LBA). Due to (to map a roller bearing) and anchored to the foundation by two M20
lack of measurements of real imperfections the concept of equivalent bolts (to map a completely fixed support). The main reason for such a
geometric imperfections was applied. Also the sensitivity to the initial solution was to obtain a hinge in a weaker axis and a fixed support in
equivalent imperfections was presented. a stronger axis of the cross-section. Its numerical equivalent is shown
in Fig. 30b. Fig. 30a presents the header of the column. In the real ele-
5.1. The basic assumptions ment, it was impossible to construct the ideal joint, which is why we
can treat this junction as a semi-rigid connection. For this purpose,
The numerical investigation was conducted on a set of computa- two M16 bolts were used. The bolts in the header were modelled as ki-
tional models made of two I-sections. The dimensions and shapes of nematic constraints defined in a local cylindrical coordinate system lo-
the cross-sections were presented in Section 3.1. Numerical computa- cated in the middle of the bolt's hole that blocks displacements along
tions were carried out with the use of the Abaqus FEA package software its polar coordinates. A similar approach was applied to lateral re-
commonly used in scientific simulations. Access to both the software straints, which can be observed in Fig. 31a, and also to the lower surface
and High Performance Computing Services is supported by Wrocław of the base plate (see Fig. 30b). Additionally, in this case, to model the
Centre for Networking and Supercomputing. vertical support of the whole structure, the local cylindrical coordinate
Table 2
Percentages of particular elements in tested steel.
C Mn Si P S Cr Ni Mo V Cu Ti Al
Results of analyses
CU 0.133 0.572 0.181 0.024 0.008 <0.000 0.016 0.004 0.001 0.026 0.003 <0.001
CL 0.164 0.563 0.164 0.013 0.013 <0.000 0.018 0.003 0.001 0.037 0.003 <0.001
Requirements
S235JRa 0.17 1.4 – 0.035 0.035 – 0.012 – – 0.55 – –
St3Sb 0.22 1.1 0.35 0.050 0.050 0.3 0.300 – – 0.30 – –
a
Acc. to EN 10025-2:2007,
b
Acc. to PN-H-84020:1988.
Fig. 30. Details of the header (a) and the base of the investigated model (b).
R
Z
R
Z
Fig. 31. Details of the application of loads to the model in the case of bracket NCb (a) and header NCh (b).
system was covered with the centre of the cylinder from which the base 5.2. Results of numerical simulations
plate was made.
Actions were applied to the structure on its surfaces, which in the Results of geometrically and materially nonlinear analyses were pre-
case of the bracket can be observed in Fig. 31a (NCb), and in the case of sented as limit loads observed on load – displacement curves. Table 4
the header, in Fig. 31b (NCh). presents the compartment between limit load obtained from the exper-
The size of the numerical issue, which is the number of nodes and fi- iments and the loads form the numerical simulations. The analysis of the
nite elements, was around 52 thousand, and around 124 thousand in results of Ch series allows to notice, that particular values are approxi-
the case of the nodes. mate. The biggest difference can be observed between the model with
Table 3 presents the values of equivalent initial imperfection of
shapes applied in the cross-section III - III. Zero means that geometri-
cally and materially nonlinear analysis (GMNA) was performed. The as-
sumption of the specific values v0 means that in those cases Table 4
geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis with imperfections Numerical and experimental limit loads [kN].
(GMNIA) were performed. The numerical simulations of Ch models v0 [mm] 0,00 0,39 1,00 5,00 10,00 15,43
were run on six and Cb models on five sets. The biggest, considered in Ch series [kN]
sross-section III - III, value of equivalent imperfection was adopted GMNA 324,5 – – – – –
from EC3 standard as v0 = l/350 = 5400/350 = 15.43 mm. The paper GMNIA – 308,5 298,7 284,3 274,7 268,0
does not present the results of numerical investigation for higher values Ch1 305,6
Ch2 252,9
than those shown in Table 3 because they were to divergent from the
Ch3 246,6
results of experimental load–displacement curves.
Cb series [kN]
GMNA 300,6 – – – –
GMNIA – 297,9 296,3 287,8 279,1
Cb1 311,5
Table 3 Cb2 272,5
Values of analysed equivalent imperfections. Cb3 292,5
Chb1 272,5
Model Ch v0 [mm] 0.0 0.385 1.0 5.0 10.0 15.43 Chb2 282,4
Model Cb v0 [mm] 0.0 0.392 1.0 5.0 10.0 Chb3 314,8
Fig. 32. Numerical and experimental load displacement curves for the Ch models at level 2.
Fig. 33. Numerical and experimental load displacement curves for the Cb models at level 2.
Fig. 34. Numerical and experimental load displacement curves for the Chb models at level 2.
initial equivalent imperfection v0 = 15.43 mm and the Ch3 column, presented because the shape of the load – displacement curves was un-
which is 8.6%. The smallest difference was between model with imper- like the shape form the experiments.
fection v0 = 0.39 mm and Sh1 column. The relative difference in this During the experimental investigation the most representative, in
case is less than 1%. Cb series is very similar in that matter. The compar- terms of displacements measurements, was level 2, which was also
ison of limit load values when the external action is applied to the identical as II – II cross-section (see Fig. 8). Therefore, the respective nu-
bracket is equally beneficial. The biggest difference equals 4.5% and merical load – displacement curves were plotted. Both linear displace-
was observed between model without imperfection and Chb column. ment and angle of rotation were presented in Figs. 32–34. They
The smallest though was between numerical model with imperfection respectively depict numerical and experimental response of the struc-
set as v0 = 1.0 mm and Cb3, because it was 1.3%. Numerical limit ture which was loaded in the header (Ch), the bracket (Cb and Chb).
loads for columns with bigger equivalent imperfections were not The exact limit load values are presented in Table 4. The differences
Table 5 with perfect geometry. In both cases, until reaching 290 kN, the load in-
Statistically processed results of tests carried out on the column models. creases without a clear increase in displacements. Only above this value
Column model 1 [kN] 2 [kN] 3 [kN] Smax [kN] sN [kN] VN [%] in both models, physical and numerical, there is torsion of the cross-
section and linear displacement in the plane of weaker plane of the col-
Ch 306 253 247 269 26.5 9.87
Cb 312 272 292 292 16.3 5.59 umn. It can therefore be concluded that the I-beam column model built
Chb 272 282 315 290 18.4 6.34 of solid finite elements in the Abaqus FEA program with a stepwise,
non-axially variable cross-section very well describes the phenomenon
of exceeding its load capacity.
The load – displacement paths presented in this subsection showed
that the proposed numerical models of the Ch series quite well describe
between their extreme values reach 17% at header load and 7% at the phenomenon of exceeding their load capacity, while the numerical
bracket load. This indicates that the first scheme of the load is more sen- models of the Cb series, in relation to some experimental models of
sitive to any kind of imperfection. the Cb and Chb series, almost perfectly. Also the observation of failure
The comparison of the models of Ch series models drawn on the modes of numerical models indicates its correctness.
basis of numerical simulations load – displacements curves with the
paths of identical models determined from experimental studies is
6. Conclusion
shown in Fig. 32. These graphs describe both angle of rotation (φ) and
linear displacement (v). Analysing plots, it can be seen that the best nu-
Extensive results of tests carried out on I-shaped steel columns with
merical representation is the Sg1 model. Static equilibrium paths deter-
segmentally prismatic and nonaxial variation in stiffness, transversely
mined during GMNIA analyzes for models with initial imperfections of
braced with discrete support restraints, have been presented. Table 5
v0 = 0.39 mm and v0 = 1.0 mm are almost the envelope of the experi-
shows an overall comparison of the limit loads, the average values of
mentally developed path Sg1 in level 2. This applies to both angle of ro-
tation and linear displacement. It can therefore be concluded that the each series Smax , the standard deviations and the coefficients of variation
intermediate value between these two values more accurately describe corresponding to the particular test series. According to the data, the Cb
the behaviour of the tested model. The curves plotted on the basis of ex- and Chb series were characterized by a lower variation of the test re-
perimental studies of the other two columns Ch2 and Ch3, compared to sults, fluctuating at around 6%. The average limit load is equal to
the curves plotted on the basis of numerical simulations are slightly S max ,Cb−Chb ¼ 291 kN. In the case of the Ch series tests, this coefficient
worse. This means that in other cases the correct eigenform or initial im- did not exceed 10%, while the average from the tests amounts to
perfection value has not been determined. Its actual value is probably a S max ,Ch ¼ 269 kN. This means that the particular tests in a given test se-
quantity between the values presented in the Fig. 32. In the Ch2 model it ries were characterized by quite good repeatability.
will be a value in the range of 5–10 mm, while in the Ch3 model it will The paper also presents the results of a set of numerical investiga-
be slightly less, because it should be between 1 and 5 mm. However, the tions on the ultimate load capacity of steel I-columns with single
question of appropriate limit loads remains. The load – displacement stepped asymmetric change in their cross-section. The appropriate fi-
curves of the Ch2 and Ch3 columns have a characteristic course, because nite element method models were developed to evaluate the numerical
around the load of about 200 kN, a certain break occurs, which makes its behaviour of such structural element. The analysis revealed very good
slope smaller. This indicates the appearance of an additional factor that compliance with experimental results.
was not included in the numerical simulation. There can be many of The tests showed that columns of this kind fail as a result of elasto-
such factors, and the additional difficulty makes them hard and some- plastic or plastic torsional buckling relative to the axis of rotation fixed
times impossible to determine. along the line of bracings. The tests were divided into two basic series,
The comparison of the load – displacement curves of the models differing in their way of load application. The Ch columns were loaded
loaded on the bracket was divided into two groups. Fig. 33 presents at the header level, whereas the Cb (Chb) series were loaded at the
the numerical results compared with the results of the Cb series, while bracket level. Therefore, the only difference was in the loading method,
Fig. 34 — with columns of the Sgd series. The analysis of the first figure with the support conditions being the same.
shows that experimental paths for Ch2 and Ch3 columns have the best A common feature of the tested column series, regardless of the load
agreement with the numerical results obtained with v0 = 5 mm equiv- application method, was the spatial form of buckling, relative to the pre-
alent numerical imperfection. Against this background stands out the scribed axis of rotation, running along the connections of the column
behaviour of Sb1 model. It should also be assigned to a 5 mm equivalent with the wall girts. This proves that in the case of the steel columns of
imperfection, but only on a certain path range, because after exceeding properly braced industrial hall buildings in which the wall girts are sit-
approx. 250 kN in the physical model, the load increases further until it uated beyond the axis of the column's cross section, especially beyond
reaches 311 kN. The behaviour of numerical models is slightly different, the outline of the latter, the mechanism of a potential failure will be sim-
because such a level of load was not obtained, even in the case of the ilar. This fact should be taken into account when designing structures of
model with perfect geometry. this type. In order to eliminate this form of failure, additional horizontal
The experimental load – displacement curves of the Chb series were column bracings are required.
map with very good agreement. Fig. 34, shows the comparison of exper-
imental paths for Chb series and numerical Sd series of GMNA and Acknowledgments
GMNIA analyses. The best compatibility were obtained for Sgd2 column.
Both angle of rotation and linear displacement from the numerical Calculations have been carried out using resources provided by
model with defined equivalent imperfection v0 = 5 mm perfectly Wroclaw Centre for Networking and Supercomputing (http://wcss.pl),
match each other. The Sgd1 column also presents very good displace- grant No. 228.
ment compliance, because the experimental paths are close to the nu-
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Effort and Bearing Capacity Testing of Laterally R

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Journal of Constructional Steel Research 172 (2020) 106181

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Constructional Steel Research

Effort and bearing capacity testing of laterally restrained asymmetrical

1. Introduction depending on the design of the connections, the rotational movements

Fig. 3. Tested steel I-column.

Fig. 5. General view of the constructed test stand.

Strain gauges +2.36 - Level 3

Ch1 – Level 2 Ch1 – Level 2

Fig. 9. Load – displacement curves for the Ch1 model at level 2.

a) 400 – 45,7 – 1,8

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 150 kN

Fig. 16. Load–displacement curves for the Cb1 model at level 2.

Cb2 ‒ Level 1 Cb2 ‒ Level 1

Cb2 ‒ Level 2 Cb2 ‒ Level 2

Cb2 ‒ Level 3 200

rotation. The static equilibrium paths of the angular displacements at

Chb1 ‒ Level 2 200 Chb1 ‒ Level 2 200

Fig. 24. Load–displacement curves for the Chb2 model at level 2.

Fig. 25. Load–displacement curves for the Chb3 model at level 2.

Fig. 28. Results of steel strength tests.

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