Earth and Planetary Science Letters 306 (2011) 229–240

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Earth and Planetary Science Letters

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / e p s l

The timescales of subduction initiation and subsequent evolution of an oceanic

island arc
Osamu Ishizuka a,b,⁎, Kenichiro Tani b, Mark K. Reagan c, Kyoko Kanayama d, Susumu Umino d,
Yumiko Harigane e,a, Izumi Sakamoto f, Yuki Miyajima f,1, Makoto Yuasa a, Daniel J. Dunkley g
a
Institute of Geology and Geoinformation, Geological Survey of Japan/AIST, Central 7, 1-1-1, Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8567, Japan
b
IFREE, JAMSTEC, 2-15 Natsushima, Yokosuka, Kanagawa, 237-0061, Japan
c
Department of Geoscience, 121 Trowbridge Hall, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
d
Department of Earth Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-Machi, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan
e
Frontier Science Organization, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-Machi, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan
f
Department of Marine Mineral Resources, School of Marine Science and Technology, Tokai University, Orido 3-20-1, Shimizu, Shizuoka, 424-8610, Japan
g
National Institute of Polar Research, Tokyo 190-8518, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Bonin Ridge and trench slope preserves the geological record of subduction initiation and subsequent
Received 27 February 2011 evolution of the Izu–Bonin–Mariana (IBM) arc. Diving and dredging in this region has revealed a bottom to top
Received in revised form 6 April 2011 stratigraphy of: 1) mantle peridotite, 2) gabbroic rocks, 3) a sheeted dyke complex, 4) basaltic pillow lavas, 5)
Accepted 7 April 2011
boninites and magnesian andesites, 6) tholeiites and calcalkaline arc lavas. This forearc stratigraphy is
Available online 2 May 2011
remarkably similar to that found in other IBM forearc localities and many ophiolites. Zircon U–Pb ages
Editor: T.M. Harrison obtained here for gabbros are 51.6–51.7 Ma. The overlying basalts have 40Ar/39Ar ages of 48–52 Ma. A forearc
basalt from the Mariana forearc near Guam produced a similar 40Ar/39Ar age of 51.1 Ma. The collective
Keywords: geochronology of igneous rocks from throughout the IBM system now indicates that the first basaltic
Izu–Bonin–Mariana arc magmatism at subduction initiation was produced by decompression melting of the mantle and took place at
subduction initiation 51–52 Ma. The change to flux melting and boninitic volcanism took 2–4 m.y., and the change to flux melting in
forearc stratigraphy counterflowing mantle and “Normal” arc magmatism took 7–8 m.y. This evolution from subduction initiation
40
Ar/39Ar age to arc normalcy occurred nearly simultaneously along the entire length of the IBM subduction system.
zircon U–Pb age
Mesozoic rocks found in the deep Bonin forearc suggest that the overriding plate at subduction initiation
consisted of Mesozoic terranes and subduction preceded the opening of most or all of the Philippine Sea
basins. The contemporaneousness of IBM forearc magmatism with the major change in plate motion in
Western Pacific at ca. 50 Ma suggests that the two events are intimately linked.
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction externally forced compression along a preexisting discontinuity in an

How subduction begins and its consequences for global tectonics and
magma production rates remain essential outstanding problems of plate
tectonics. Two different endmember mechanisms for subduction
initiation have been hypothesized (Stern, 2004): spontaneous (e.g.,
Regenauer-Lieb et al., 2001; Stern, 2004; Stern and Bloomer, 1992;
Turcotte et al., 1977), and induced (or forced; e.g., Gurnis et al., 2004;
McKenzie, 1977; Toth and Gurnis, 1998). Numerical models (e.g., Gurnis
et al., 2004) thus far suggest that subduction initiation is induced by
⁎ Corresponding author at: Institute of Geology and Geoinformation, Geological
Survey of Japan/AIST, Central 7, 1-1-1, Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8567, Japan
E-mail address: o-ishizuka@aist.go.jp (O. Ishizuka).
1
Present address: Marine Work Japan Ltd., 2-16-32-5F Kamariyahigashi, Kanazawa-
ku, Yokohama, 236–0024, Japan.
oceanic plate such as a fracture zone or transform faults (e.g., Hilde et al.,
1977; Uyeda and Ben-Avraham, 1972). Stern (2004), however, has
pointed out that spontaneous subduction must have occurred at some
point in Earth's history to initiate plate tectonics. The difficulty of
understanding this process results from a poor understanding of the
degree to which the force balance depends on initial tectonic setting,
and how the balance changes among the relevant plates and mantle
beneath them during subduction initiation (Gurnis et al., 2004).
The Izu–Bonin–Mariana (IBM) forearc is thought to be an excellent
location for investigating the record of subduction initiation and
subsequent arc evolution (e.g., Bloomer et al., 1995; Meijer, 1980;
Stern and Bloomer, 1992) because of the exposure of early-arc lavas
on the forearc islands (e.g., Reagan and Meijer, 1984; Umino, 1985)
and dredging showing that these early-arc lavas extended to great
depth (Bloomer, 1983). Recent dredging and diving in the IBM forearc
has shown that the trench slope has abundant exposures of early arc
rocks (e.g., Morishita et al., 2011; Reagan et al., 2010).

0012-821X/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.04.006
230 O. Ishizuka et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 306 (2011) 229–240

Here we report the results of research on rocks recently collected
from the Bonin Ridge at 27–29°N in the IBM forearc. It has long been
known that islands of Chichijima, Hahajima, and Mukojima on this
prominent massif have outstanding exposures of relatively fresh early
arc volcanic rocks (e.g., Ishizuka et al., 2006; Kuroda and Shiraki, 1975;
Taylor et al., 1994; Umino, 1985; Umino and Nakano, 2007; Umino et al.,
2009). To complement the island record of volcanism, we extensively
investigated the submarine parts of the ridge and trench slope by dredge
sampling and diving. Here, we report the results of these investigations,
and establish a detailed chronology of compositional change in lavas
associated with subduction initiation and the subsequent evolution of
the arc. We also compare our results with those obtained elsewhere in
the IBM system and other western Pacific island arcs, which allows us to
constrain the length scale and duration of this western Pacific
subduction initiation event. By doing this, we provide constraints for
evaluating models for subduction initiation and evolution.
2. Forearc stratigraphy
The IBM oceanic island arc extends from Honshu, Japan to Guam,
and resulted from subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the eastern
margin of the Philippine Sea Plate (Fig. 1A). It is associated with a
system of remnant arcs, backarcs, and a forearc massif that records
volcanism from the Cretaceous to the present (e.g., Cosca et al., 1998;
Deschamps et al., 2000; Hickey-Vargas, 1998, 2005; Ishizuka et al.,
2006, 2009, 2011; Mizuno et al., 1977; Reagan et al., 2008).
2.1. Bonin Ridge
The Bonin Ridge trends N–S for about 400 km in the Bonin forearc,
with a maximum width of ca. 110 km (Fig. 1B). Some segments of the
Bonin Ridge crest are subaerially exposed as the Bonin Islands,
including Chichijima, Hahajima, and Mukojima. The Bonin Ridge is
separated from Quaternary volcanic front by the Ogasawara Trough,
which has a steep escarpment exceeding 3000 m of relief separating it
from the Bonin Ridge (Bonin Ridge Escarpment (BRE); Ishizuka et al.,
2006). The eastern side of the Bonin Ridge forms a broad slope with
generally increasing steepness eastward to the Izu-Ogasawara Trench.
Chichijima is the type locality for boninites. (e.g., Umino, 1985:
Fig. 1B). These boninites have 40Ar/39Ar ages indicating that they
erupted during in a brief period between 46 and 48 Ma (Ishizuka et al.,
2006). A slightly younger volcanic succession is identified in other
locations on the Bonin Ridge, including 44.74 ± 0.23 Ma high-Mg
andesite from the Mikazukiyama Formation, the youngest volcanic
sequence on Chichijima, and a 44.0 ± 0.3 Ma tholeiitic andesite from
Hahajima (Ishizuka et al., 2006). Four submersible Shinkai 6500 dives
on the BRE mapped an elongate constructional volcanic ridge atop the
escarpment. These dives recovered fresh andesitic clasts from debris

Fig. 1. A. Location of the Bonin Ridge in the Izu–Bonin–Mariana arc. The location of Shinkai 6500 Dive 6K1093 in the Mariana forearc is also shown. B. Bathymetric map of the Bonin
Ridge showing sampling stations. Dredge locations (shown by circles) for the R/V Hakuho-maru cruise (KH07-02), and diving locations (shown by stars) of the submersible Shinkai
6500 and ROV Kaiko are plotted with major rock types recovered at each location. Major rock types exposed on the Bonin Islands are also shown by colored diamonds. Distribution of
each rock type is indicated by colored solid lines. The seismic survey line by Kodaira et al. (2010) is shown with a dotted line. White boxes depict the focused survey areas shown in
C–E, which are detailed bathymetric maps of the focused survey areas. Shinkai 6500 diving tracks are shown with red lines. Kaiko dive 7K418 and dredge locations also are illustrated.
 O. Ishizuka et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 306 (2011) 229–240
flows along the northern segment of the ridge, and high-Mg andesite
lava blocks, whose age range is from 41.8 to 43.9 Ma (Ishizuka et al.,
2006).
2.2. Mariana Forearc
The southern part of the Mariana sector of the IBM arc also has a
prominent forearc high between the Mariana Trench and the volcanic
front (Fig. 1A). This forearc high includes Guam, Rota, Tinian, and
Saipan, where Eocene to Oligocene boninitic and normal arc lavas are
exposed (e.g., Reagan et al., 2008). Dive cruises JAMSTEC YK06-12 and
YK08-08 explored the Mariana fore-arc to the southeast of Guam and
investigated the volcanic stratigraphy of the forearc between depths
of 2000 to 6500 m. One of the principal findings of this diving was the
recognition that tholeiitic basalt (termed “forearc basalt” or FAB) and
related intrusive rocks with chemical compositions that are similar to
those of mid-ocean ridge basalts crop out over large areas of the
forearc trench-ward of boninites and younger arc rocks. This outcrop
pattern, as well as the volcanic stratigraphy drilled at DSDP Site 458
indicates that the FAB underlie, and are therefore older than the
boninites and they are likely the first rocks to erupt after subduction
initiation (Reagan et al., 2010).
3. New results from dredging and diving
The forearc stratigraphy in the Bonin Ridge area was investigated
by one dredging cruise (R/V Hakuho-maru cruise KH07-02), three
diving cruises (R/V Yokosuka YK09-06 cruise and R/V Kairei KR08-07
and KR09-05 cruises), and on-land geological surveys of the Bonin
Islands. Summary of dredge sampling and diving survey results is
listed in Table S1.
Fig. 2. Photos of outcrops in the submarine section of the Bonin Ridge, taken by submersible Shinkai 6500 during the YK09-06 cruise. A. Fractured outcrop of gabbro at 6348 mbsl
(6K1149). B. Pillow lava of FAB at 6053 mbsl (6K1149). C. Jointed outcrop of diabase at 5555 mbsl (6K1154). D. Slabby outcrop of volcanic breccia consisting of boninitic clast at
4420 mbsl (6K1150).
231
3.1. Dredge sampling
Dredge sampling was conducted at 19 stations along the length of
the Bonin Ridge (Fig. 1B). Major dredge targets included: (1) landward
slope of the Izu–Bonin Trench, (2) a chain of small 200–400 m
bathymetric highs 40–50 km east of the Bonin islands, and (3) two
fault scarps with NW–SE and NE–SW trends along the northernmost
part of the Bonin Ridge.
Dredge stations along target (1) recovered gabbroic rocks as well
as peridotite generally deeper than 6000 m (Fig. 1B). This is the first
recovery of ultramafic rocks such as harzburgite and dunite from the
Izu–Bonin arc other than those recovered from serpentine seamounts.
This result indicates that exposures of lower crust and uppermost
mantle might be common deeper than 6000 m on the inner trench
wall.
Basaltic lavas similar to those found in ocean basins, but unlike any
exposed on the Bonin Islands were recovered from the dredge stations
shallower than c. 6300 m (mostly shallower than 6000 m), but deeper
than sites with boninite. In some cases these basalts were found with
diabase and gabbro. These basalts are nearly identical both petrograph-
ically and geochemically to FAB from Mariana forearc (see below).
Dredge sampling at (2) mainly recovered boninite (Fig. 1B). We
conclude from these results that these small highs are remnant
volcanic edifices, and that boninitic magmatism occurred across a
broad swath from the known boninite outcrops on the Bonin Islands,
to 50 km east on the trench slope.
Sampling at (3) recovered more fractionated lavas relative to
dredges to the south (Fig. 1B). Dacitic breccia and lava blocks that
appear to be genetically related to boninite were mainly recovered
from the eastern escarpment, and dacite to rhyolite lava and pumice
deposits were recovered from the western escarpment. These rocks
have chemical characteristics similar to tholeiites from Hahajima
islands and the BRE to the south.
232 O. Ishizuka et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 306 (2011) 229–240

South North
water
depth 27o19’ N 27o36’ N 27o54’ N 28o07’ N 28o20’ N 28o36’ N
7K418 7K452 6K1151 7K419 6K1149 6K1150 6K1153 6K1154 7K#450
3000 m 6K1152 (D42)

4000 m
48.2±1.2 43.94± breccia breccia
diabase 0.14 44.81±0.17
5000 m breccia
breccia
sheeted
(52±4) dyke,
pillow 50.1±2.2pillow dykes,
6000 m lava hyalo- pillow
159.4±0.8 lava clastite lava
159.4±0.8 48.3±1.0 diabase diabase
51.1±1.0 51.63±0.79 diabase
7000 m 49.8±0.7 gabbro
51.72±0.79
diabase

Mesozoic forearc (Age in Ma)

peridotite gabbro boninite sediment cover
basalt basalt

Fig. 3. Summary of the forearc lithologies and ages observed by submersible and ROV dives.

3.2. Diving results and ROV Kaiko dive 7K418 found the same stratigraphic relationship
as other surveyed areas, i.e., gabbro cropping out between 5200 and
Six submersible Shinkai 6500 dives to examine and better establish 4500 m depth, down-slope of diabasic rocks. However, nearby dredge
the igneous forearc stratigraphy were conducted on trench-side slope sampling (D40; Fig. 1E) and Shinkai 6500 dive 6K1152 recovered
of the Bonin Ridge. Four dives in the northernmost survey area near basaltic pillow lavas deeper than 5800 m, which strongly implies that
28°25′N (Fig. 1C; 6K1149, 6K1150, 6K1153, and 6K1154) investigated another basaltic sequence occurs beneath the gabbro in this area, or it
the lower to upper forearc crustal section. The deepest dive (6K1149) is part of a down-faulted or slump block (see discussion later).
sampled gabbro and FAB pillow lava and diabase, and appears to have
traversed the boundary between the two units. The lower slope 4. Petrography of dated samples from the Bonin Ridge
traversed during 6K1149 is composed of fractured gabbro (Fig. 2A),
whereas FAB pillow lava was observed in the uppermost part of this Basalts from submarine section of the Bonin Ridge (FAB) are
dive at c. 6000 m deep (Fig. 2B). 6K1153 and 6K1154 surveyed up- generally aphyric with a groundmass composed of acicular to tabular
slope of 6K1149 (Fig. 1C). These two dives found outcrops of plagioclase, acicular to subhedral augite, and granular magnetite.
numerous diabasic dykes and fractured basaltic lava cut by dykes Textures range from variolitic to subophitic depending on grain sizes.
between water depths of 6000 and 5500 m (Fig. 2C). The shallowest Rare euhedral olivine phenocrysts are present in some glassy rinds of
dive (6K1150) recovered volcanic breccia and conglomerate with pillow lavas and hyaloclastites. Some altered basalts have rare
boninitic and basaltic clasts (Fig. 2D). The boundary between boninite iddingsite pseudomorphs of olivine. Diabase samples typically consist
and FAB is estimated to lie at ca. 4800 m deep, because no basalt was of an ophitic intergrowth of plagioclase, augite, and magnetite.
recovered shallower than this.
In another survey area near 27°54′N (Fig. 1D), the lower slope of a
age approximate
small knoll (probably a boninitic edifice) was surveyed by 6K1151 Lithology
(Ma) depth (m)
(4760–4300 m) with a goal of observing the transition between the
lower FAB and the overlying boninitic section (Fig. 1D). This slope was arc tholeiites
covered with blocks of volcanic breccia mostly containing boninitic and calc- 37-44
clasts, and basaltic clasts were recovered only at the deepest part of alkaline
rocks
the surveyed slope. The expected transition of basaltic and boninitic
magmatism might exist somewhere between 5500 and 4760 m, or it high-Mg subaerially
andesite 44-45 exposed
may be covered with the observed volcaniclastics.
Combined with results from ROV Kaiko dives and dredging, a boninite
andesite
relatively simple forearc crustal igneous stratigraphy can be envisaged (and their 44-48
(Figs. 3, 4). The section from bottom to top consists of: 1) mantle differentiates)
peridotite; 2) gabbroic rocks; 3) a sheeted dyke complex; 4) FAB 5500-4760
pillow lava
pillow lavas; 5) volcanic breccia and conglomerate with boninitic hyaloclastite
basalt (FAB) 50-52
clasts, 6) boninite and tholeiitic andesite lava flows and dykes, 7) high-
sheeted dyke
Mg andesites, and 8) arc tholeiites and calcalkaline rocks. The upper 6300
part of this section (i.e., 6) to 8)) is exposed in the Bonin Islands.
gabbro/ gabbro
Outcrop depths for the various lithologies overlap, partly due to NNW– Mesozoic 50-52
SSE trending normal faults inferred from step-like bathymetric basalt
?
features of the IBM forearc (Fig. 1C). Nevertheless, crosscutting basalt
6780
?
relationships and the regional consistency in stratigraphy shown in
Fig. 3 demonstrate that this stratigraphy is robust. These observations peridotite
indicate that almost all of the forearc crust down to and deeper than
the Moho is preserved and exposed in the inner trench wall of the
Bonin Ridge.
One complication to the above-mentioned stratigraphy was Fig. 4. Schematic columnar section as a summary of observed Bonin Ridge forearc
observed around 27°19′N (Fig. 1E). In this area, dredge sampling section.
 O. Ishizuka et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 306 (2011) 229–240 233

Table 1
Results of stepwise-heating analyses of leached groundmass of volcanic rocks from the Bonin Ridge and Mariana forearc.

Analysis no. Sample Name of Total age (±1σ) Plateau age (± 1σ) MSWD Fraction Latitude Longitude Altitude
no. island 40 of
Integrated age Weighted average Inv. isochron age Ar/36Ar intercept 39 (°N) (°E) (m)
Ar (%)
(Ma) (Ma) (Ma)

Bonin Ridge forearc basalt

U10230 6K1149 R14 57 ± 4 48.4 ± 2.2 48 ± 3 295.6 ± 1.3 1.06 95.9 28.471 142.832 − 6081
U10239 6K1154 R1 55.4 ± 1.3 50.6 ± 0.7 48.1 ± 1.3 316 ± 9 0.55 68.6 28.45 142.822 − 5720
U10173 7K418 R18 45.1 ± 0.9 48.2 ± 1.2 46.8 ± 2.1 299 ± 4 0.78 71.7 27.292 142.951 − 5004
U09454 7K419 R5 50.9 ± 0.6 49.8 ± 0.7 45.5 ± 1.9 313 ± 7 0.89 94.3 28.120 143.127 − 6855
U10001 7K419 R7 54.6 ± 0.7 51.1 ± 1.0 51 ± 6 300 ± 5 0.53 90.2 28.119 143.126 − 6827
U10167 7K419 R15 50.2 ± 0.8 48.3 ± 1.0 49.5 ± 2.4 292 ± 8 0.95 64.2 28.120 143.115 − 6529
U09229 KH07-02D42 69 ± 3 52 ± 4 53 ± 7 295 ± 5 0.85 94.3 28.446 142.858 − 6336
R1

Bonin Ridge submarine boninitic rocks

U10232 6K1150 R6 45.78 ± 0.14 45.13 ± 0.18 44.7 ± 0.3 299.1 ± 1.4 0.94 99.0 28.371 142.716 − 4291
U10213 6K1151 R6 44.58 ± 0.08 43.94 ± 0.14 43.7 ± 0.6 303 ± 15 1.41 58.0 27.905 142.897 − 4669
U10012 KH07-02D43 45.64 ± 0.08 44.78 ± 0.16 44.6 ± 0.4 296 ± 4 0.73 76.1 29.163 142.070 − 3100
R21
U10011 KH07-02D44 45.121 ± 0.017 46.02 ± 0.07 45.9 ± 0.3 329 ± 33 1.43 53.3 29.330 142.109 − 3914
R202

Bonin Ridge submarine younger arc rocks

U10013 KH07-02D46 36.2 ± 0.4 37.2 ± 0.7 35.7 ± 1.3 330 ± 24 0.73 66.4 29.141 141.542 − 3887
R1
U10014 KH07-02D47 33.70 ± 0.04 35.51 ± 0.11 35.3 ± 0.3 360 ± 87 1.36 48.7 29.267 141.591 − 3499
R3

Bonin Ridge subaerial boninitic rocks

U08187 S1-01B Sasayo Island 46.5 ± 0.6 46.7 ± 0.6 52 ± 12 − 3700 ± 29,000 0.16 100.0 27.817 142.124 0
U08190 M1-07CA Mukojima 45.5 ± 0.7 46.6 ± 0.8 51 ± 118 − 33,000 ± 1,100,000 0.01 100.0 27.685 142.124 10
Island
U09233 07111714-1 Nakoudojima 47.84 ± 0.07 48.04 ± 0.17 48.1 ± 0.3 283 ± 12 0.51 94.0 27.631 142.173 98
Island
U09234 07111704-1 Nakoudojima 47.76 ± 0.07 47.81 ± 0.17 47.8 ± 0.3 297 ± 11 1.00 97.4 27.624 142.178 10
Island
U10005 AN04-10A Anijima Island 46.46 ± 0.15 45.8 ± 0.3 46.0 ± 0.5 288 ± 68 0.41 89.7 27.129 142.208 0

Bonin Ridge subaerial high-Mg andesites

U06327 05122602B Otoutojima 43.55 ± 0.12 44.72 ± 0.12 45.5 ± 2.3 270 ± 75 2.36 40.9 27.156 142.194 5
Island
U09259 07111907 Yomejima 44.2 ± 0.3 44.3 ± 0.3 44.2 ± 0.5 297 ± 3 1.16 87.2 27.494 142.212 10
Island

Mesozoic basalt from Bonin Ridge

U10216 6K1152 R5 163.6 ± 0.4 159.4 ± 0.9 156 ± 3 373 ± 53 0.92 54.0 27.330 143.007 − 5764
U10196 6K1152 R7 163.0 ± 0.7 159.4 ± 0.9 158.5 ± 1.9 305 ± 12 1.18 53.5 27.330 143.007 − 5764

Mariana forearc basalt

U10002 6K1093 R1 51.4 ± 1.4 51.1 ± 1.5 49 ± 4 332 ± 79 1.18 71.7 12.670 144.730 − 6408

Inv. isochron age: inverse isochron age.

MSWD: mean square of weighted deviates ((SUMS/(n − 2))0.5) in York (1969).
Integrated ages were calculated using sum of the total gas released.
λb = 4.962 × 10− 10y− 1, λe = 0.581 × 10− 10y− 1, 40K/K = 0.01167% (Steiger and Jäger, 1977).

Gabbros underlying FAB are medium-grained, undeformed noritic
gabbros and are predominantly composed of plagioclase, clinopyroxene,
and orthopyroxene with accessory magnetite, apatite and zircon.
Pillow lava blocks underlying gabbroic outcrop at c. 27°19′N
(Fig. 1E: 6K1152 R5 and R7) are aphyric, with 2–3% olivine
phenocrysts in a groundmass with variolitic fibrous to acicular
plagioclase and pyroxene.
Boninites from submarine section of the Bonin Ridge (Fig. 1C:
6K1150 R6 and 6K1151 R6) are olivine-bearing (1–4%) low-Ca
boninites. Dredged samples from northernmost part of the Bonin
Ridge inner trench wall (Fig. 1B: KH07-02D43 R21 and D44 R202) are
more differentiated. KH07-02D43 R21 is an olivine-bearing andesite
with augite phenocrysts in a glassy groundmass with plagioclase
laths, whereas KH07-02D44 R202 is a rhyolite lava block with only
rare phenocrysts of plagioclase, quartz and altered hornblende and/or
pyroxene.
Andesites from the northernmost part of the Bonin Ridge Escarp-
ment (Fig. 1B: KH07-02D46 R1 and KH07-02D47 R3) are sparsely
plagioclase-phyric, and contain trace amounts of augite± hypersthene
phenocrysts in an intersertal groundmass.
Boninites and their differentiates from the northern Bonin Islands
(Fig. 1B) show some petrographic variations. High-Ca boninites from
Sasayojima Island (S1-01C) and Mukojima Island (M1-07CA) have
phenocrysts of bronzite and augite (and trace amount of clinoenstatite)
in a glassy groundmass.
Andesites from Nakoudojima Island (Fig. 1B: 07111704-1 and
07111714-1) have higher SiO2 content (60–63 wt.%) than boninites
described above. Sample 07111704-1 lacks plagioclase and has a
mineral assemblage similar to that of the above-mentioned boninites.
In contrast, sample 07111714-1 is aphyric and contains abundant
plagioclase laths in its glassy groundmass. Rhyolite lava from Anijima
Island (Fig. 1B: AN04-10A) contains trace amount of phenocrysts of
234 O. Ishizuka et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 306 (2011) 229–240

Fig. 5. 40Ar/39Ar age spectra and Ca/K plots for leached groundmass samples from FAB collected from the submarine section of the Bonin Ridge.
 O. Ishizuka et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 306 (2011) 229–240
plagioclase and augite, and has brown-colored glass-rich groundmass
with abundant plagioclase laths.
High-Mg andesite from Otoutojima and Yomejima Islands (Fig. 1B:
05122602B and 07111907) has phenocrysts of plagioclase, hypersthene
and augite.
5. Age constraints
40
5.1. Ar/39Ar geochronology
Age determinations of volcanic rocks were made using the 40Ar/39Ar
geochronology facility at the Geological Survey of Japan/AIST following
the analytical procedure described in Ishizuka et al. (2009). Details of
dating procedure and results of Ar isotopic analyses are presented in
Supplementary data (Table S2). All errors for 40Ar/39Ar results are
reported at one standard deviation.
Seven FAB samples from the Bonin Ridge gave plateau ages ranging
from 48.2 to 51.1 Ma (Table 1; Fig. 5). The high Ca/K ratios (c. 150–400)
for plateau-forming steps in these basalts indicate that degassing from
fresh anorthitic plagioclase contributed to these steps. FAB from
Mariana forearc south of Guam (6K1093 R1: Reagan et al., 2010) was
also dated and returned a well-defined plateau age of 51.1 Ma (Table 1;
Fig. S1 in Supplementary data).
Four samples of boninite and its differentiates recovered from
submarine sections of the Bonin Ridge gave highly-precise plateau ages
of 43.94–46.02 Ma (Table 1; Fig. S2). 43.94 Ma is the youngest 40Ar/39Ar
age for boninite from the Bonin Ridge area. The andesite samples from
northernmost part of the Bonin Ridge gave the youngest ages of the
Bonin Ridge samples (Table 1; Fig. S3). Sample KH07-02D46 R1
produced a robust plateau at 37.2 Ma. KH07-02D47 R3 gave a partially
disturbed age spectrum, and did not give a “plateau” in a strict sense
(Fig. S3). Low temperature steps show high atmospheric contamination,
probably reflecting degassing from the phases affected by weathering,
while high temperature steps giving younger ages seem to indicate
some 39Ar recoil effect. However, middle temperature steps consistently
show very low atmospheric contamination (b5.3%) and gave consistent
ages comprised of 48.7% of total released gas. Thus, the middle
temperature steps are regarded as plateau-forming steps, and the
weighted average age (35.51 ± 0.11 Ma) from these steps is interpreted
as a reliable eruption age. These lavas are synchronous with ages of
“first-arc” volcanics in the Mariana forearc (Reagan et al., 2008).
New 40Ar/39Ar ages also were obtained from subaerially-exposed
boninites and high-Mg andesites from the northern Bonin Islands
(Table 1; Fig. S4). Boninites from the islands have ages from 46.6 to
48.04 Ma, and an associated rhyolite from the uppermost boninitic
section of Anijima Island (Fig. 1B: AN04-10A) gave a plateau age of
45.8 ± 0.3 Ma. These ages are consistent with previously published ages
for the boninitic sequence of Chichijima Island (Ishizuka et al., 2006).
High-Mg andesites from Otoutojima (05122602B) and Yomejima
(07111907) Islands gave plateau ages of 44.72 and 44.3 Ma (Fig. 1B;
Table 1; Fig. S4). Sample 05122602B shows concave-up age spectrum
similar to KH07-02D47 R3 described previously, and again middle
temperature steps are regarded as plateau-forming steps. The ages of
these andesites are consistent with an age of high-Mg andesite from
Chichijima Island (Ishizuka et al., 2006), and similar lavas from Guam
(Meijer et al., 1983; Reagan et al., 2008).
Two pillow basalt lavas recovered from beneath gabbro at 27°19′N
(6K1152) gave distinct ages from other basalts from the Bonin Ridge
area (Table 1; Fig. 6). Both samples produced identical plateau ages of
159.4 ± 0.9 Ma. The age spectra for these samples are very similar,
including some apparent disturbance for low temperature steps due
to 39Ar recoil in possible secondary phases. The consistent dating
results for these samples as well as their apparent stratigraphic
position beneath and trenchward of Eocene gabbro indicate that these
basalts resulted from Mesozoic magmatic activity.
235
5.2. Zircon U–Pb ages
Zircon U–Pb ages were determined on gabbros underlying FAB
(Fig. 7; Table S3). Zircon crystals and fragments separated from these
gabbros have subhedral to euhedral stubby morphologies, ~40 to
several hundred microns long.
U–Pb age analyses of these zircons were conducted using the
SHRIMP-II (sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe) at the National
Institute of Polar Research, Japan. Reported ages for each sample (with
95% confidence intervals) are weighted means of 207Pb-corrected
206
Pb/238U age data (n = 7–8 analyses per sample). Details of sample
preparation and analytical procedures can be found in the Supple-
mentary data.
Spot age estimates from zircon are well grouped in both of the
analyzed samples. All of the analyzed grains have weak oscillatory and/or
sector magmatic zoning observed with cathodoluminescence (Fig. 7A),
and lack textural evidence for secondary modification, suggesting that
ages obtained in both samples represent the timing of magmatic
crystallization of the zircons. Weighted means of 206Pb/238U ages for 2
gabbros from different locations are almost identical, 51.72± 0.82 and
51.63 ±0.79 Ma.
These ages are identical to the oldest 40Ar/39Ar age for FAB within
2σ error (Fig. 7; Table S3).
6. Geochemistry of basalts
Major and trace element concentrations as well as Sr, Nd and Pb
isotopic composition of basalts and major element composition of other
volcanic rocks from the submarine section of the Bonin Ridge were
determined at Geological Survey of Japan/AIST (Table S4–S7). Analytical
procedures are presented in Supplementary data. Basalts from
submarine section of the Bonin Ridge (i.e., FAB: Fig. 8; Table S4) are
similar in composition to the FAB from the Mariana forearc (cf. Reagan et
al., 2010). That is, they are tholeiitic basalts, and have MORB-like REE
patterns and typically lack the significant enrichments in large-ion-
lithophile elements (LILE: such as Ba, Sr, Pb) and depletions in high-
field-strength elements (HFSE: Nb, Ta, Zr) with respect to REE found in
most arc lavas (Fig. 8A, B). The Bonin Ridge FAB has low LREE and LREE/
HREE compared to Philippine Sea basin MORB (Hickey-Vargas, 1991,
1998; Ishizuka et al., 2009, 2010; Savov et al., 2006). These lavas also
have lower Ti/V (14–16), which distinguishes them from subducting
Pacific MORB (26–32) and Philippine Sea MORB (17–25) (Fig. 8C). Pb
isotopes of the FAB show that like other IBM arc magmas they are
derived from a mantle source with Indian Ocean-MORB isotopic
characteristics (Fig. 8D). However, they are distinct from Philippine
Sea MORB by having high 206Pb/204Pb and 87Sr/86Sr (Table S4) even after
age correction. The Bonin Ridge FAB generally show more radiogenic
isotopic composition from the Mariana FAB (Fig. 8D).
Basalts underlying gabbros at 27°19′N generally share the
geochemical characteristics of FAB; i.e., they are MORB-like basalt
with Indian Ocean-MORB like isotopic characteristics (Fig. 8A–D).
However, these Mesozoic basalts have lower Δ8/4Pb values than for
the other basalts.
7. Discussion
7.1. Similarity to supra-subduction zone ophiolite
The early arc stratigraphy exposed in the Bonin Ridge forearc
(Fig. 4) is nearly identical to that observed more than 1500 km to the
south near Guam (Reagan et al., 2010). Moreover, the basalts reported
by DeBari et al. (1999) from the Izu–Bonin forearc at 32°N have
similar geochemical characteristics to the FAB, even though their age
is unknown. If these basalts are equivalent to the FAB, then the
observed forearc stratigraphy is found along the entire 2600 km
length of the IBM forearc. Rocks characteristic of ophiolites also have
236 O. Ishizuka et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 306 (2011) 229–240

400 400
300 300

Ca/K

Ca/K
200 200
100 100
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100

400 300

300
Age (Ma)

200

Age (Ma)
159.4±0.9 Ma
200 (54.0% of 39Ar released)
159.4±0.9 Ma
100 (53.5% of 39Ar released)
100

6K1152 R5 (U10216) 6K1152 R7 (U10196)

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
39Ar 39Ar
released (cumulative %) released (cumulative %)

40
Fig. 6. Ar/39Ar age spectra and Ca/K plots for leached groundmass samples from basalts underlying gabbroic section.

been found in the Tonga forearc (Bloomer and Fisher, 1987; Bloomer
et al., 1995; Duncan et al., 1985; McDougall, 1994), which permits
speculation that 5200 km or more of the western Pacific could be lined
with ophiolitic forearcs bearing a stratigraphic record of subduction
initiation.
One important characteristic of the common forearc stratigraphy in
the IBM forearc is the association of sheeted dykes with basaltic pillow
lavas (Figs. 2B, 3, 4), which strongly implies that the eruption of FAB was
associated with seafloor spreading. This is supported by the seismic
velocity structure of the Bonin Ridge area (Kodaira et al., 2010: Fig. 1B),
showing it to have a thin ocean-ridge-like crust (b10 km). The
difference in isotopic as well as trace element characteristics between
Bonin Ridge FAB and Philippine Sea MORB strongly implies that, like in
the Mariana forearc (Reagan et al., 2010), the Bonin FAB does not
represent preexisting ocean crust of West Philippine Basin, which
contrasts with the conclusion of DeBari et al. (1999) for MORB-like

Fig. 7. A. Representative cathodoluminescence images of Bonin forearc zircons analyzed by SHRIMP. Areas of spot analyses are marked by white ellipses and are labeled according to
grain number and spot number, as listed in Table S3. Labels in italics indicate that the analysis was excluded when calculating mean age. B. Tera–Wasserburg concordia plots of
SHRIMP analyzed samples. Error ellipses represent 68.3% confidence levels (approximately one standard deviation). Quoted ages are weighted means of 207Pb corrected 206Pb/238U
spot ages (n analyses, errors at 95% confidence intervals, MSWD: mean squares of weighted deviates). Solid ellipses are analyses used in weighted mean age calculations; dotted
ellipses represent excluded analysis. Labels on individual ellipses correspond to analysis spot numbers in Table S3. Dashed lines represent linear projections from weighted mean
ages to common lead compositions estimated using the two-stage common-Pb model of Stacey and Kramers (1975).
 O. Ishizuka et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 306 (2011) 229–240 237

4 10
6K1151 R1
A Mariana
B 6K1153 R9
FAB 7K452 R11
6K1152 R7
3

MORB-normalized
Hahajima
(44 Ma>)
FeO*/MgO

2 1

1
TH
Chichijima
CA boninite
0 0.1
45 50 55 60 65 70 Rb Ba Th U Nb Ta K La Ce Pb Nd SrSm Hf Zr Ti Eu Gd Tb Y Yb Lu
SiO2(wt%)

500 10
C 20
D Forearc basalt
38.5 (48-51 Ma)
400 Mariana Chichijima
FAB boninite D42
(46-48 Ma) 6K1149
Site 1149
Pacific crust Hahajima 6K1151
300 Chichijima
208Pb/204Pb

boninite Philippine (44 Ma>) 6K1153

V (ppm)

50
38.1
Sea
MORB 6K1154
Philippine Mariana
Sea FAB 7K418
200 MORB 7K419
Pacific
MORB 7K450-2
37.7 7K452
100 Site 1149
Pacific crust Mesozoic basalt
Hahajima 6K1152
(44 Ma>) (age corrected)
RL
NH

37.3 KH07-02D40
0 (age corrected)
0 5 10 15 17.7 18.1 18.5 18.9
Ti(ppm)/1000 206Pb/204Pb

Fig. 8. A. SiO2–FeO*(FeOtotal)/MgO plot (Miyashiro, 1974) for FAB and Mesozoic basalt from the submarine Bonin Ridge. Also included are data for boninite from Chichijima Island (Taylor et al.,
1994); tholeiitic and calcalkaline lavas from Hahajima Island: (Taylor and Nesbitt, 1995); and Mariana FAB: (Reagan et al., 2010). B. N-MORB (Sun and McDonough, 1989)-normalized
incompatible trace element patterns for fresh glasses of Bonin Ridge FAB and Mesozoic basalt. C. V–Ti systematics (Shervais, 1982) for volcanic rocks from Izu–Bonin forearc. Data sources for
Philippine Sea MORB with N-MORB-like composition: Hickey-Vargas (1991, 1998); Ishizuka et al. (2009, 2010); Savov et al. (2006); igneous crust of Pacific Plate drilled at ODP Site1149: Kelley
et al. (2003); and Pacific MORB: basalts from the East Pacific Rise adopted from PetDB database (http://www.petdb.org/). Other data sources as A. D. Pb isotopic plot for Bonin Ridge FAB and
Mesozoic basalt. Age corrected data using a 159.4 Ma age for Mesozoic basalts are also shown. Data sources for igneous crust of Pacific Plate drilled at ODP Site1149: Hauff et al. (2003). Other
data sources as C. The Northern Hemisphere Reference Line (NHRL: Hart, 1984) is shown as a reference.

tholeiites recovered from Izu–Bonin forearc at ca. 32°N. Thus, it appears together with a 49 Ma age obtained from a FAB-like lava at DSDP Site
that volcanic rocks produced by sea-floor spreading associated with 458 (Cosca et al., 1998) suggest that that eruption of FAB was nearly
subduction initiation as suggested by the conceptual model of Stern and synchronous along the entire length of the IBM forearc (Fig. 9).
Bloomer (1992) and the numerical model of Hall et al. (2003) are found Furthermore, the U–Pb ages of zircon from gabbros recovered
along the length of the IBM forearc. trenchward and beneath than basalt are consistent with a genetic
The crustal stratigraphy of the IBM forearc can be regarded as an link between the gabbros and basalt.
oceanic crust overlain by boninitic and later arc magmatic product The age range obtained for boninitic samples here confirms that the
(Fig. 4). This stratigraphy has strong similarity to those of supra- main period of boninitic magmatism was 46–48 Ma (Ishizuka et al.,
subduction zone ophiolite and its length scale is similar to those of 2006), but continued until c. 44 Ma (Fig. 9). This result indicates that the
several global ophiolite belts (Dilek and Furnes, 2009). Stern (2004) active period of boninitic magmatism marginally overlaps with eruption
proposed that forearc section of oceanic island arc can be easily of transitional high-Mg andesites (Fig. 9; 44.3–44.78 Ma). Our results
obducted and exposed as an ophiolite compared to other candidates also show that no significant time gap exists between boninitic
for potential sources of ophiolitic crust. The result of this study magmatism and older FAB, nor between boninite, transitional lavas,
provides crucial supporting evidence for the hypothesis that the and the later tholeiitic and calcalkaline andesitic magmatism on
forearc crust section produced at subduction initiation could be an Hahajima Island, the BRE, and the northernmost part of the Bonin
origin of supra-subduction zone ophiolite (e.g., Reagan et al., 2010). Ridge (35.5–44 Ma: Ishizuka et al., 2006; Taylor and Nesbitt, 1995; this
study).
7.2. Timescale of magmatic process at subduction initiation The Bonin Ridge FAB have a very limited contribution of material
from the subducting slab if any, whereas all boninites have significant
The 40Ar/39Ar ages of the FAB from submarine section of the Bonin concentrations of slab-derived components such as water and LIL-
Ridge reveal that this magmatism occurred between 48 and 52 Ma. elements (Dobson et al., 1995; Ishizuka et al., 2006; Pearce et al., 1992;
The identical date obtained here for a FAB from the Mariana forearc Taylor et al., 1994). This implies that about 2–4 m.y. is required for fluid/
238 O. Ishizuka et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 306 (2011) 229–240

South North
Bonin Bonin
DSDP Ridge Omachi Izu
Guam Saipan Site 458 Bonin Islands Ridge smt.
Site 459 Scarp trench forearc
35 Ma slope
35-36b 31.79±0.06e
37.29±0.18e
35.51±0.11
Arc tholeiites and 37.2±0.7
calcalkaline lavas

40 Ma 40.4±0.8e
41-35b 40.6±0.3e
(41.0)c (site 792)
Transitional suites 44.0±0.3 41.84±0.14d 42.3±0.6e
(high-Mg andesite) 42.86±0.18d (Site 793)
(43.1-44.0)a 44.3±0.3 43.88±0.21d
44.72±0.12 43.94±0.14
felsic rocks
45 Ma (44.6-45.3)a
44.74±0.23d 44.78±0.16 45.3±0.7a
45.13±0.18 45.8±0.3a
45.8±0.3 46.7±0.4a
46.0±0.3d 46.02±0.07
Boninite and its 45.7±0.2a
45.1±0.4b 46.6±0.8
differentiates (Site 786)
46.7±0.6 48.2±1.2
47.5±0.4d
>45.1b 47.81±0.17 ? 48.3±1.0
49.8±0.7
50 Ma a
? >46.9 a
49.3±0.4
48.04±0.17 48.4±2.2
Forearc basalts 51.1±1.5 48.2±0.3d
50.6±0.7
51.0±1.0
52±4
? (basalt)
51.63±0.40
55 Ma 51.72±0.41
(U-Pb: gabbro)

Ages (Ma); 40Ar/39Ar age (this study), 40Ar/39Ar age (other studies), (K-Ar age previously published)
zircon U-Pb age (this study)

Fig. 9. Compilation of 40Ar/39Ar, K/Ar, and U–Pb zircon dating results for igneous rocks from the IBM forearc (except Mesozoic basalts), modified after Ishizuka et al. (2006). Errors for
the ages are shown at one standard deviation. The oldest products are 48–52 Ma forearc basalts, followed by c. 44–48 Ma boninite and 43–45 Ma transitional high-Mg andesite. Arc
tholeiites, signifying establishment of a mature magmatic arc begin to erupt by 44 Ma. 40Ar/39Ar ages are calculated using 27.5 Ma for sanidine from Fish Canyon Tuff (FC3). Data
sources other than this study: a: Cosca et al. (1998), b: Reagan et al. (2008), c: Kaneoka et al. (1970), d: Ishizuka et al. (2006), e: Ishizuka et al., 2011. 40Ar/39Ar age of Cosca et al.
(1998) is calculated using an age of 520.4 Ma for MMHB-1. 40Ar/39Ar age of Reagan et al. (2008) is calculated using an age of 27.84 Ma for FC-2 Fish Canyon Tuff.

melt released from subducting slab to start causing flux melting of
depleted harzburgitic mantle. Another about 4 m.y. appears to be
required for normal tholeiitic to calcalkaline arc magmatism to occur
after boninitic magmatism. Thus, about 7–8 m.y. is required after
subduction initiation for mantle flow to cease upwelling and to be
dragged downward by the slab to 100–150 km, the range of depths for
slabs beneath arc fronts, (e.g., Hall et al., 2003; Stern and Bloomer, 1992).
Time scale of processes after subduction initiation revealed by this study
is similar to that predicted by numerical modeling (Gurnis et al., 2004;
Hall et al., 2003).
7.3. Implication to timing of subduction initiation
Published numerical models of subduction initiation require at
least 100 km of convergence before a subduction zone nucleates, with
self-sustaining subduction occurring shortly thereafter (Hall et al.,
2003). During the earliest stage of subduction, rapid trench retreat
causes extension and decompression melting to generate FAB from
asthenospheric mantle. If this is correct, then 51–52 Ma age for onset
of FAB magmatism can be considered as the age of initiation of slab
sinking followed by self-sustaining subduction.
This age nearly coincides with the best estimate of the change in
motion of the Pacific Plate deduced from the age of the Hawaiian–
Emperor bend (c. 50 Ma: Sharp and Clague, 2006). Because the
volcanism appears to be nearly synchronous with (at least not later
than) the change in plate motion, it appears that it was the onset of
subduction that changed the plate motion.
Basin (e.g., Deschamps and Lallemand, 2002; Taylor and Goodliffe, 2004).
This age also is before volcanism that formed the Kyushu–Palau Ridge
(Ishizuka et al., 2011). This places the potential location of subduction
nucleation along the Mesozoic-aged crust that is now found along the
margins of the West Philippine Basin (e.g., Amami Plateau: Hickey-Vargas,
2005; Daito Ridge: Ishizuka et al., 2011; Huatung Basin: Deschamps et al.,
2000; Hickey-Vargas et al., 2008). The Mesozoic oceanic crust from
Huatung Basin has some similarity in isotopic compositions to the
Mesozoic basalt from the Bonin Ridge, even though they have an E-MORB-
like composition which is distinct from the Bonin Ridge FAB. For example,
on 206Pb/204Pb vs. 208Pb/204Pb plot (Fig. 8D) the samples from both regions
form linear trends or plot in the Indian Ocean MORB space near the
boundary between Pacific and Indian Ocean MORB (Hickey-Vargas et al.,
2008). The presence of Mesozoic basalts with an Indian Ocean MORB-type
isotopic signature beneath gabbro at 27°19′N suggest that a sliver of this
Mesozoic crust might be found in the Bonin Ridge forearc. Similarly,
Mesozoic sediments with associated andesitic volcanic clasts at DSDP Sites
460 and 461 (see Hussong et al., 1981) and central Mariana forearc dredge
sites (Johnson et al., 1991) suggest that a similar Mesozoic sliver of crust
might be present in the Mariana forearc. Thus one scenario for subduction
initiation in the Western Pacific was that it was induced by overthrusting
of Mesozoic arc and backarc or forearc terranes bounding the east side of
the Asian Plate over the Pacific Plate followed by failure of the Pacific plate
lithosphere and subduction initiation. Alternatively, subduction could
have begun spontaneously, facilitated by the density contrast between the
arc-bearing Mesozoic Asian crust and the old oceanic Pacific crust to its
west (e.g., Nikolaeva et al., 2010).

8. Summary
7.4. Location of subduction nucleation

The ca. 51–52 Ma age of subduction nucleation in the IBM system 1) Forearc crustal section produced during subduction initiation to
places it before most if not all sea-floor spreading in the West Philippine form the IBM arc is exposed along the Bonin Ridge inner trench
 O. Ishizuka et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 306 (2011) 229–240
wall. The sequence of rocks encountered in this area is from deep to
shallow, and east to west: (a) mantle peridotite, (b) gabbroic rocks,
(c) a sheeted dyke complex, (d) basaltic pillow lavas, (e) boninites
and magnesian andesites, (f) tholeiites and calcalkaline arc lavas.
Mesozoic basalts are present beneath the gabbros and presumably
atop the peridotites in some areas.
2) Forearc basalts (FAB) and associated diabase overlying gabbros can
be regarded as a first magmatic product associated with
subduction initiation. 40Ar/39Ar ages of 48–52 Ma for these basalts
as well as 51.6–51.7 Ma zircon U–Pb ages for the gabbros strongly
imply that subduction initiation took place at 51–52 Ma.
3) FAB from Mariana forearc also produced a nearly identical 40Ar/39Ar
age of 51.1 Ma, which implies that subduction initiation took place
contemporaneously along the length of the IBM arc at 51–52 Ma.
4) The similarity between the IBM forearc stratigraphy and many
ophiolites supports the hypothesis that the forearc crust section that
is produced at subduction initiation and is preserved in the IBM system
represents an in-situ section of supra-subduction zone ophiolite.
5) The change from FAB magmatism to flux melting and boninitic
volcanism took 2–4 m.y., and the change to flux melting in
counterflowing mantle and “normal” arc magmatism took 7–8 m.
y. This evolution from subduction initiation to true subduction and
arc normalcy occurred nearly simultaneously along the entire length
of the IBM subduction system.
6) Subduction initiation for the IBM arc appears to be nearly
synchronous with the change in Pacific Plate motion deduced from
the age of the Hawaiian–Emperor bend (c. 50 Ma). This implies that
it was the onset of subduction that changed the plate motion.
7) The presence of Mesozoic basalts beneath gabbroic layer suggests
that the overlying plate at subduction initiation was Mesozoic arc
and backarc or forearc terranes. Thrusting of this crust over the
Pacific plate due to collisional events further west could have been
the trigger for subduction initiation in the western Pacific.
Supplementary materials related to this article can be found online
at doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.04.006.
Acknowledgements
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC)
and Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo are
appreciated for their support of the research cruises. We thank the officers,
crews and onboard scientists of the R/V Hakuho-maru, Yokosuka and
Kairei, and operation teams of Shinkai 6500, and ROV Kaiko. We would like
to thank K. Yamanobe and N. Honda and for assistance with the ICP-MS
measurements. A. Matsumoto is appreciated for help in GSJ clean
laboratory. We thank M. Narui and M. Yamazaki at the International
Research Center for Nuclear Materials Science, Institute for Materials
Research, Tohoku University for providing opportunities of neutron
irradiation of samples at the JMTR and JRR3 reactors. We also appreciate
Japan Atomic Energy Agency for providing irradiation opportunities at the
JRR4 reactor. We are grateful to R.J. Stern and Y. Ohara for continuous and
constructive discussion. OI greatly appreciate Japan Society for the
Promotion of Science for supporting a Japan–UK joint research program.
This work was supported in part by the JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (C) 22540473 to OI. MKR acknowledges NSF support for IBM
research from grant EAR0840862. The authors acknowledge the
constructive reviews by Mike Gurnis and anonymous reviewer, and
helpful editorial handling by T. Mark Harrison.
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