PH 110 Chapters 1 To 4

CHAPTER 1 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Measureable features or properties of objects are often called physical quantities. The area of
football field, the mass of a bag of wheat and speed of motor car are all examples of physical
quantities. Some non-physical, difficult-to-measure are hatred, love, fear and hope. Physical
quantities are expressed in terms of a numerical value and a unit.
MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS

Each of the quantities used by scientists and non-scientists alike is measured in a particular
unit. Seven physical quantities were selected as base quantities at the 14th General
Conference on Weights and Measurements, held in France in 1971. These quantities form the
basis of the International System of Units, abbreviated SI SYSTEM (from the French name
for Systéme International d’unités) which is commonly used around the world and popularly
known as the metric system. It is based on the old MKS (meter, kilogram, second). It is a
decimal system in which units are divided or multiplied by 10 to give smaller or bigger units.
BASE OR FUNDAMENTAL UNITS

A base unit is a unit defined by some physical property and not in terms of other units. There
are seven basic SI units of which three (the units of length, time and mass) are widely used in
science and mathematics. The definitions of the units of these three quantities are under
constant review and are changed from time to time.
The latest definitions of those quantities are:
The unit of time (T), a second (s), is now defined as
One second is the time taken for the cesium atom 13355 Cs to perform
9 192 631 770 oscillations to emit radiation of a specific wavelength.
The unit of length (L), a meter (m), is now defined as
One meter is the distance traveled by light in vacuum during the time interval of
1/299 792 458 of a second.
NB. This time interval number was chosen so that the speed of light in vacuum c will be
exactly given by:
c = 299 792 458 m/s
and for educational purposes we usually consider the value c = 3×108 m/s.
The unit of mass (M), kilogram (kg), is defined as the mass of a specific platinum–iridium
alloy cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres,
France.
Table 1: Basic SI units
1
UNIT SYMBOL MEASUREMENT
metre m length
kilogram kg mass
second s time
Ampere A electric current
Kelvin K temperature
mole mol amount of substance
candela Cd luminous intensity
Nearly all physical measurements can be expressed in terms of the three fundamental units of
length, mass and time.
DERIVED UNITS
A derived unit is a unit which can be defined in terms of some other units. For example the
units of velocity are defined by units of length divided by units of time.
Some physical quantities have derived units which become rather complicated, and so are
replaced with simple units created specifically to represent the physical quantity. For
example, force is mass multiplied by acceleration, which is logically kg.m/s 2 (kilogram metre
per second per second), but this is replaced by the Newton (N).
Table 2 depicts these quantities, their unit names, and their unit symbols.
Table 2: Derived units

Physical Quantity Derived Symbol In terms of base units
unit
Electrical charge Coulomb C As
Force Newton N kgm/s2 or kgms-2
Power Watt W kgm2/s3 or kgm2s-3
Frequency Hertz Hz 1/s or s-1
Pressure, stress Pascal Pa kg/ms2 or kgm-1s-2
Work, energy, heat Joule J kgm2/s2 or kgm2s-2
Example 1
Given that the definition of area is , determine the basic or

fundamental unit form of the unit of area.
Solution
Units of (area) = Units of (length×width)

= metre×metre = metre2 or m2.
2
Example 2
The momentum of an object can be determined from the formula , where p is the
momentum, m is the mass and v is the velocity. Determine the SI units of momentum.
Solution
Momentum = mass×velocity
Units of (momentum) = Units of (mass×velocity) = kgm/s or kgms-1.
Self test
Determine the basic units of the following quantities
(a) Density = mass/volume (b) Force = mass×acceleration (c) Work = force×distance
(d) Power = work/time
When dealing with very large or very small numbers in physics, we use the so-called
scientific notation which employs powers of 10, such as:
(i) (Mean) Distance between the Earth and the Sun
150 000 000 000 m = 1.5×1011m
(ii) Typical diameter of a nucleus of an atom
0.000 000 000 000 005 m = 5×10-15 m
Another convenient way to deal with very large or very small numbers in physics is to use the
prefixes each of which represents a certain power of 10 as listed in Table 3.
Table 3: Prefixes for SI units
Power or multiple Prefix Symbol

10-24 = 0.000000000000000000000001 yopto y
10-21 = 0.000000000000000000001 zepto z
10-18 = 0.000000000000000001 atto a
10-15 = 0.000000000000001 femto f
10-12 = 0.000000000001 pico p
10-9 = 0.000000001 nano n
10-6 = 0.000001 micro µ
10-3 = 0.001 milli m
10-2 = 0.01 centi c*
10-1 = 0.1 deci d*
101 = 10 deka da*
102 = 100 hecto h*
103 = 1000 kilo k
106 = 1000000 mega M
109 = 1000000000 giga G
3
1012 = 1000000000000 tera T
1015 = 1000000000000000 peta P
1018 = 1000000000000000000 exa E
1021 = 1000000000000000000000 zetta Z
1024 = 1000000000000000000000000 yotta Y
* Except for the centimeter these prefixes are not often now used.
Thus we can express
(i) (Mean) Distance between the Earth and the Sun
150 000 000 000 m = 1.5×1011 m
= 150 000 000×103 m = 150 000 000 km (in kilometers)
= 150 00×106 m = 150 000 Mm (in megameters)
= 150×109 m = 150 Gm (in gigameters)
= 0.15×1012 m = 0.15 Tm (in terameters)
(ii) Typical diameter of a nucleus of an atom
0.000 000 000 000 005 m = 5×10-15 m
= 0.000 000 000 005×10-3m = 0.000 000 000 005 mm (in millimeters)
= 0.000 000 005×10-6 m = 0.000 000 005 µm (in micrometers)
= 0.000 005×10-9 m = 0.000 005 nm (in nanometers)
= 0.005×10-12 m = 0.005 pm (in picometers)
= 5×10-15 m = 5 fm (in femtometers)
EXAMPLE 1
The mass of a parasitic wasp can be as small as 5×10-6 kg. What is this mass in (i) grams (g),
(ii) milligrams (mg), and (iii) micrograms (µg).
SOLUTION
(i) 5×10-6 kg = 5×10-6 ×103 g = 5×10-3 g (from the law of indices).
(ii) 5×10-6 kg = 5×10-6 ×103 g = 5×10-3 g = 5 mg (  the prefix 10-3 means milli).
(iii) 5×10-6 kg = 5×10-6 ×103 g = 5×103 µg (  the prefix 10-6 means micro).
4
DIMENSIONS
The dimension of a quantity is the physical property that the quantity describes. The
dimensions of a quantity are placed in square brackets [ ]. For example, the dimensions of the
standard quantities time, length and mass are simply time [T], length [L] and mass [M]. The
dimensions of other quantities are combinations of these and other standard quantities. For
example, the dimension of speed v is length divided by time, or
[v] = [L]/[T] = [LT-1]
and the dimension of acceleration a is length divided by time squared or
[a] = [L]/[T]2 = [L]/[T2] = [LT-2].
Some quantities have a small number of symbols that represent them. For example, the
symbol for time is almost always t. Other quantities might have various symbols depending
on the usage. Length may be described with symbols such as x, y,and z (for position); r (for
radius); a,b, and c (for the legs of a right triangle); l (for the length of an object); d (for a
distance); h (for a height);
and so forth.
A procedure called dimensional analysis can be used to
(a) check the results arrived at i.e., to check the correctness of an equation or formula,
(b) derive a correct relationship between different physical quantities or suggest the form an
equation may take and
(c) convert one system of units into another.
IMPORTANT NOTE
Dimensional analysis is based on the fact only quantities with the same dimensions can be
equal to one another. For example, a length cannot be equal to a time. This implies that only
quantities with the same dimensions can be added to one another or subtracted from one
another.
The rules for dimensional analysis are
(1) Assign a dimension to each symbol in an equation according to the physical property it
describes.
(2) Multiply and divide the dimensions using the rules of algebra.
(3) Any quantity contained in the argument of a transcendental function must be
dimensionless, that is, both exponents and the arguments of trigonometric functions must be
dimensionless. For example, the exponent of , , and the argument of , ,
must be dimensionless. Note that is meaningless if x represents a distance. However,
is meaningful if x and d have the same dimension.
(4) Check the resulting dimension of each term for agreement.
Note that dimensional analysis cannot be used to confirm or deny the presence of any pure
numbers (such as 2 or π) in an equation.
5
TYPES OF QUANTITIES
There are two types of quantities, namely, variables and constants, which may both be
dimensional or non-dimensional (i.e., dimensionless). Thus, we have
(i) Dimensional variables. These are quantities such as acceleration, velocity, force and so
on.
(ii) Dimensional constants. These are quantities which have a constant value and yet have
dimensions. Examples of such quantities include the universal gravitational constant G =
6.67×10-11 Nm2kg-2 whose dimensions are [G] = [ML/T2][L2]/[M2] = [M-1L3T-2] and the
velocity of light in vacuum v = 3×108ms-1 whose dimensions are [v] = [M0][L2]/[T] =
[M0L2T-1] or simply [L2T-1].
(iii) Non-dimensional variables. These are quantitie which are variables and yet have no
dimensions such as specific gravity, strain, an angle, and so on.
(iv) Non-dimensional constants. These are mere numbers like 3, 7, π, and so on. Thus,
numerics, pure numbers and quantities like heat, electricity, temperature, etc have dimensions
no in MLT.
NO QUANTITY SI UNIT SYMBOL DIMENSION

1 Displacement metre m [L]
2 Velocity metre per second m/s (ms-1) [LT-1]
3 Acceleration metre per second squared m/s2 [LT-2]
4 Angular displacement radian rad No dimension
5 Angular velocity radian per second rad/s (rads-1) [T-1]
6 Angular acceleration radian per second squared rad/s2 (rads-2) [T-2]
7 Angular momentum kgm2s-1 [ML2T-1]
8 Force Newton N (kgms-2) [MLT-2]
9 Work, Energy, Heat Joule J (kgm2s-2) [ML2T-2]
10 Power Watt W (kgm2s-3) [ML2T-3]
11 Frequency Hertz Hz (s-1) [T-1]
12 Gravitational potential Jkg-1 [L2T-2]
13 Linear momentum kilogram metre per second kgms-1 [MLT-1]
14 Period second s [T]
15 Pressure Pascal Pa (Nm-2) [ML-1T-2]
16 Moment of inertia kgm2 [ML2]
17 Area m2 [L2]
18 Volume m3 [L3]
19 Density kg/ m3 [MT-3]
20 Torque Nm (kgm2s-2) [ML2T-2]
21 Temperature Kelvin K [K]
22 Specific heat Jkg-1K-1 [L2T-2K-1]
23 Latent heat Jkg-1 [L2T-2]
24 Entropy JK-1 [ML2T-2K-1]
25 Wavelength metre m [L]
26 Electric charge Coulomb C [Q]
27 Capacitance Farad F [M-1L-2T-2Q2]
28 Electric current Ampere A [T-1Q]
29 Current density Am-2 [L-2T-1Q]
30 Electric potential Volt V [ML2T-2Q-1]
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31 Electric dipole moment Cm [LQ]
32 Electric field strength Vm-1 [MLT-2Q-1]
33 Electric flux Vm [ML3T-2Q-1]
34 Electromotive force V [ML2T-2Q-1]
35 Inductance Henry H [ML2Q-2]
36 Magnetic dipole moment Am2 [L2T-1Q]
37 Magnetic field strength Am-1 [L-1T-1Q]
38 Magnetic flux Weber Wb [ML2T-1Q-1]
39 Magnetic induction Tesla T (Wbm-2) [MT-1Q-1]
40 Magnetization Am-1 [L-1T-1Q]
41 Permeability Hm-1 [MLQ-2]
42 Permittivity Fm-1 [M-1L-3T-2Q2]
43 Electric resistance Ohm Ω [ML2T-1Q-2]
44 Resistivity Ωm [ML3T-1Q-2]
45 Radioactivity Curie Ci [T-1]
Example 3
Show that the equation where v = final velocity, u = initial velocity, a =
acceleration and s = distance, is dimensionally correct.
Solution
[v2] = [u2] = [LT-1]2 or [L2T-2]
[a] = [LT-2]
[s] = [L]
LHS = [L2T-2]
RHS = [L2T-2] + [LT-2]×[L] = [L2T-2] + [L2T-2] = [L2T-2]
Since LHS = RHS the equation is dimensionally
NB. 1. We could have concluded that the equation is dimensionally correct from the fact that
the
all terms on each side of the equation have the same dimensions.
2. Since 2 is dimesionless [L2T-2] + [L2T-2] is simply equal to [L2T-2].
Example 4
In the equation,
the distance x is in meters, the time t is in seconds, and the velocity v is in meters per second.
What are the dimensions and SI units of the constants A, B, C, D, and E?
Solution
I. Since exponents must be dimensionless, the dimensions of E must be the same as those for
x.
[E] = [L] and the units of E are m.
NB. Because x has units of meters, m, so does the quantity E.
7
2. Since arguments of trigonometric functions must be dimensionless, the dimensions of C
must cancel the dimensions of t.
[C] = [1/T] = [T-1] and the units are 1/s or s-1.
3. The three terms added together on the right must each have the same dimensions as x, or
they couldn't be added together to equal x.
Since vt has dimensions of [L] already, i.e., [vt] = [L/T][T] = [L], so A must be
dimensionless.
4. Trigonometric functions are dimensionless, so B must have dimensions of [L], and units of
m.
5. Constants are dimensionless, and t1/2 has dimensions of [T1/2]. As a result, D must have
dimensions of [LT-1/2], which in this problem corresponds to units of m / s1/2 or ms-1/2.
Example 5
Suppose we are told that the acceleration a of a particle moving with uniform speed v in a
circle of radius r is proportional to some power of r, say rn, and some power of v, say vm.
Determine the values of n and m and write the simplest form of an equation for the
acceleration.
Solution
Write an expression for a with a dimensionless constant of proportionality k:
Substitute the dimensions of a, r, and v:
L  
T   
Ln  m
m
L
 L   
 
n
T 
2
Tm
Equate the exponents of L and T so that the dimensional equation is balanced:

and
Solve the two equations for n:
Therefore
.
The value of k, a dimensionless constant cannot be obtained by dimensional analysis.
Example 6
In the gas Equation
8
 a
 p  2 v  b   RT
 v 
where p is the pressure, v is the volume, R is the universal gas constant and T is the
temperature, what are the dimensions of a and b?
Solution
The solution to this problem is based on the fact that only quantities with the same
dimensions can be added to or subtracted from one another.
Since pressure is the force per unit area, we have

 MLT 2   MT 2 
 p   2    
 L   L 

a   MT 2  a   MT
 6  MT 2 L6 
2
L    
 ML5T  2 
L 
6  L 
 
or 
 L   L 

//y (similarly)
b  v or b  L3  

Example 7
The law of radioactive decay is N (t )  N0et where N0 is the number of radioactive nuclei at t
= 0, N(t) is the number remaining at time t, and  is a quantity known as the decay constant.
What are the dimensions of  ?
Solution
Since arguments of trigonometric and exponential functions must be dimensionless, we have
 t   t    t    T 
from which
    1   T 1  .
Note that –λt can be written as (-1) λt so that (-1) which is a
T 
dimensionless constant does not appear in the dimensional equation.
Example 8
Obtain by the method of dimensional analysis an expression for the surface tension of a
liquid rising in a capillary tube. Assume that the surface tension depends on mass, pressure
and radius of the tube. The constant k  1 2 .
Solution
9
We have the relation
surface tension  ma pb r c  km a pb r c (i)
Writing in dimensional form, we get

b
 MLT  2  a  MLT
2 
   M   2  L
c
 L   L 
MT   M L T   M
2 1 0 2 a b
L b  c T 2b 
From the principle of homogeneity, we have
a b  1 ; b  c  0 ; 2b   2
 b  1 ; c  1; a  0.
Thus Eq. (i) becomes
surface tension  kpr
Since k  1 2 and p  hg , we have
hgr
surface tension 
2
Example 9
A planet moves round the sun in circular orbit. The time period of revolution t of the planet
depends on (i) Radius of the orbit R, (ii) Mass of the sun M and (iii) Gravitational constant G.
Show dimensionally that t 2  R3 .
Solution
We are given
t  kR a M bG c (i)
Writing in dimensional form gives
M L T   L M  M
0 0 1 a b 1 3  2 c
LT   M b  c a  3c
L T  2c 
The principle of homogeneity gives
b  c  0; a  3c  0 ; 2c  1
1 1 3
 c ; b ; a ;
2 2 2
From Eq. (i)
10
t  kR 3 2 M 1 2G 1 2
Squaring both sides gives
t 2  R3 QED
Example 10
If the units of length, mass and force are chosen as fundamental units, what will be the
dimensions of time in terms of the dimensions of these units?
Solution
Let the dimensions of length, mass, force and time be [L], [M], [F] and [T] respectively.
Then
Force = mass × acceleration
unit of velocity unit of dist ance

 unit of mass   unit of mass 
unit of time unit of time  unit of time
 F    ML2 
T 
 T    ML
2
F 

 MLF  1
 
or [T ]  [ M 1 2 L1 2 F 1 2 ] .
Example 11
A gas bubble from an explosion under water oscillates with a period t and is proportional to
P a  b E c where P is hydrostatic pressure, ρ is the density of water and E is the energy of the
explosion. Find the values of a, b and c.
Solution
Let t  kP a  b E c where k is a dimensionless constant.
In dimensional form we have
[ M 0 L0T ]  [ ML1T 2 ]a [ ML3 ]b [ ML2T 2 ]c  [ M a  b  c La 3b  2c T 2a 2c ]
Equating powers on both sides of the equation i.e. the principle of homogeneity gives
a  b  c  0; a  3b  2c  0 ; 2a  2c  1
Solving for a, b and c, we get
11
1  2c
a
2
  1  2c  1  2c  2c 1
b  a  c   c 
 2  2 2
a  3b 1 3 1   1  2c  3 1 1 1 3 1 1
c  a b     c   c
2 2 2 2 2  2 2 4 2 4 2 2
2c  1  c
1
c
3
1  1  1  3 2  1  5  5
 a   1  2             
2   
3 2  3 3  2  3  6
Example 12
The wavelength λ of associated with a moving particle depends on its mass m, velocity of
h
motion v and Planck’s constant h. Show dimensionally, that   .
mv
Solution
Let
  ma v bh c
where a, b and c are constants.
Then
  km a v b h c (1)
where k is a dimensionless constant. Writing Eq. 1 in dimensional form, we get
[ L]  [ M ]a [ LT 1 ]b [ ML2T 1 ]c or [ M 0 LT 0 ]  [ M a  c Lb  2cT b c ]
From principle of homogeneity, we obtain
a  c  0; b  2c  1 ; b  c  0
Solving for a, b and c we get
c  1; b  1; and a   1
Substituting into Eq. 1we get
h h
  km 1v 1h1  k or 
mv mv
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LIMITATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
1. The value of the proportionality constant k cannot be determined by dimensional analysis.

It has to be found by experiment.
2. It cannot be used to derive a relation among physical quantities if there are more than 3
unknown variables on which a given physical quantity depends. Equations with above three
variables cannot be solved with dimensional analysis. In other words the number of
parameters cannot exceed the number of fundamental dimensions ([M], [L] and [T]).
3. A dimensionally correct equation may not always be the correct relation because there are
more than one physical quantity having the same dimensions. For example, we are unable to
differentiate between quantities like torque with has dimensions [ML2T-2] and work which
has the same dimensions [ML2T-2].
4. It does not tell us whether a given Physical quantity is a scalar or a vector.
5. It cannot be used for deriving logarithmic, trigonometric or exponential relations.
7. It does not always tell us the exact FORM of a relation
CONVERSION OF UNITS
A unit is the scale with which a dimension is measured. For example, a unit of length can be
a metre, or a foot, or a mile. Sometimes it is necessary to convert units from one
measurement system to another or convert within a system (for example, from kilometers to
meters). When we often need to change units in which a physical quantity is expressed. We
do that by using a method called chain-link conversion, in which we multiply by a
conversion factor that equals unity. A conversion factor is the number one written such that it
converts a unit from one set to another.
Suppose you are given a length of 4.29 feet (ft) and you want to know this length in metres
(m). Given that
1 ft = 0.305 m
you can construct a conversion factor with this information. In this case,
Multiplying the length of 4.29 ft by this form of the number 1 gives
Notice that the units in the numerator and denominator cancel each other out. That is, like
dimensions, units can be treated as algebraic quantities that can cancel each other.
Suppose you want to convert a length of 2.85 m to a length in feet. A conversion factor for
this process is
so that
13
An alternative procedure for this conversion is to divide by the conversion factor
Therefore, a quantity to be converted may be either multiplied or divided by a conversion

factor, depending on which procedure gives the quantity the desired units.
Example 8.
What is the mass of 600 litres of fuel oil if one cubic centimeter of of fuel oil has mass of
0.82 g? Take 1 litre = 1000 cm3.
Solution
Mass of 600 litres of fuel oil =
Example 9
The consumption of natural gas by a company satisfies the empirical equation
v  1.50t  0.00800t 2
where v is the volume in millions of cubic feet and t is the time in months. Express this
equation in units of cubic feet and seconds. Put the proper units on the coefficients. Assume a
month is 30 days.
Solution
Write the million in the equation explicitly.
v  1.50 106 t  0.00800 106 t 2  1.5 106 t  8.0 103 t 2
Convert months to seconds
 24 hr   60 min   60s 
1month  30days  30 days         2592000 s
 day   hr   min 
Therefore,
   
v  1.5 106  2592000 ft 3 s t  8.0 103  2592000 ft 3 s 2 t 2
or
   
v  3.888 1012 ft 3 s t  0.020736 1012 ft 3 s 2 t 2
MEASUREMENTS
Example 1
A solid cube of aluminum (density 2.70 g/cm3) has a volume of 0.20 cm3. It is known that
27.0 g of aluminum contains 6.02×1023 atoms. How many atoms are contained in the cube?
Solution
14
From  mV; mcube  V  
 2.70 g 
3 
 
0.20 cm3  0.54 g
 cm 
Mass of a sample m is proportional to the number of atoms in the sample N.
m  N or m  kN
where k is a constant of proportionality.
 mcube  kNcube (i)

mgiven  kNgiven (ii)
Divide Eqn. (i) by Eqn. (ii)
mcube kNcube N
  cube
mgiven kNgiven N given
mcube 0.54 g
 Ncube   N given   6.02  1023 atoms  1.20  1023 atoms
mgiven 27.0 g
Example 2
A flat circular plate of copper has a radius 0.243 m. Its mass is 62 kg. Find the thickness of
the plate. [The density of copper is known be 8.93 g/cm3].
Solution
Volume of cylinder is
V  Ah  r 2h ….(i)
From   m V we have
62000 g 62000 3
V m  3
 cm  6942.89 cm3 ….(ii)
8.93 g cm 8.93
Combining Eqns. (i) and (ii) gives
V 6942.89 cm3
h   3.74 cm  0.0374 m
r 2   24.3  24.3 cm 2
Example 3
A high fountain of water is located at the centre of a circular pool and can throw water to a
height h. A student walks around the pool and estimates its circumference to be 150 m. Next
the student stands at the edge of the pool and uses a protractor to gauge the angle of elevation
of the height h and finds it to be 55o. Find h.
Solution
15
Circumference of a circle is given by
C  2r .
C 150
r   m  23.87m
2 2
Thus
h
tan 55o  .
r
 h  r tan 55o  34.0 m  34.1m  34 m ( 2 s.f.)
ESTIMATES AND ORDER-OF-MAGNITUDE

It is often useful to calculate an approximate answer to a given physical problem even when
little information is available. Such an approximation is usually based on certain assumptions,
which must be modified if greater precision is needed.
An order of magnitude of a certain quantity is the power of ten of the number that describes
the quantity.
If a quantity increases in value by three orders of magnitude, it means its value increases by a
factor of about 103 = 1000.
The symbol ~ is to denote “is on the order of”.
Example 1
86 100 1
(a) 0.0086 = ~ ~ ~ 10- 2
10000 10000 100
21 10 1
(b) 0.0021 = ~ ~ ~ 10-3
10000 10000 1000
(c) 720 ~1000 ~ 103
Example 2
Estimate the number of breath taken during an average life span of a person.
Solution
Guess typical life span
70 years
16
Estimate the number of breaths a person takes in 1 min. (NB. This number depends on
whether a person is exercising, sleeping, angry, serene, etc).
10 breaths/min
Approximate number of minutes in 1 year

 400 day  25 h  60 min 
1 yr      6  105 min
 1 yr  1day  1h 
(NB.: It is simpler to multiply 400×25 than to work with the more accurate 365×24).
In 70 yrs we have
 6  105 min 
70 yr    4  107 min
 1 yr 
 10 breaths 
   
 4  107 min  4  108 breaths ~ 109 breaths
 1 min 
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The concept of significant figures arises from the fact that measured values can only be
known to within the limits of experimental uncertainty or experimental error. Therefore, all
measurements are approximation since no measuring device can give perfect measurements
without experimental uncertainty. The uncertainty depends on factors such the quality of
apparatus, the skill of the experimenter and the number of times the measurements is
repeated.
What is a "significant figure"?
The number of significant figures in a result is simply the number of figures that are known
with some degree of reliability. In general a significant figure in a measurement is a reliably
known digit (other than a zero used to locate the decimal point) or the first estimated digit.
The number 13.2 is said to have 3 significant figures. The number 13.20 is said to have 4
significant figures.
Rules for deciding the number of significant figures in a measured quantity:
(1) All nonzero digits are significant:

1.234 g has 4 significant figures,
1.2 g has 2 significant figures.
(2) Zeroes between nonzero digits are significant:
1002 kg has 4 significant figures,

3.07 mL has 3 significant figures.
(3) Leading zeros to the left of the first nonzero digits are not significant; such zeroes merely
indicate the position of the decimal point:
17
0.001 oC has only 1 significant figure,
(4) Trailing zeroes that are also to the right of a decimal point in a number are significant:
0.0230 mL has 3 significant figures,

(5) When a number ends in zeroes that are not to the right of a decimal point, the zeroes are
not necessarily significant:
190 miles may be 2 or 3 significant figures,

50,600 calories may be 3, 4, or 5 significant figures.
The potential ambiguity in the last rule can be avoided by the use of standard exponential, or
"scientific," notation. For example, depending on whether the number of significant figures is
3, 4, or 5, we would write 50,600 calories as:
5.06 × 104 calories (3 significant figures)

5.060 × 104 calories (4 significant figures), or
5.0600 × 104 calories (5 significant figures).
By writing a number in scientific notation, the number of significant figures is clearly

indicated by the number of numerical figures in the 'digit' term as shown by these examples.
This approach is a reasonable convention to follow.
NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN A MULTIPLICATION OR A DIVISION

A good rule of thumb to use in determining the number of significant figures that can be
claimed in a multiplication or a division is:
When multiplying (or dividing) several quantities, the number of significant figures in
the final answer is the same as the number of significant figures in the quantity having
the lowest number of significant figures.
NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN AN ADDITION OR A SUBTRACTION

For addition and subtraction, you must consider the number of decimal places when you are
determining how many significant figures to report:
When numbers are added or subtracted, the number of decimal places in the result
should equal the smallest number of decimal places of any term in the sum.
18
Example 1
Let a rectangular plate (shown in the Figure below) be measured using a meter rule. Assume
that each side can only be measured to within ±0.1cm.
16.3cm
4.5cm
The length can only be known to be between 16.2cm and 16.4cm or 16.3±0.1cm while the
breadth can only be known to be between 4.4cm and 4.6cm or 4.5±0.1cm.
The length, 16.3cm, has three (3) significant figures while the number of significant figures
for the breadth, 4.5cm, is two (2).
The area of the rectangle can be found
Area = (16.3cm)(4.5cm) = 73.35cm2
Since the lowest number of significant figures in the being multiplied is two (2) the area must
be reported as
Area = (16.3cm)(4.5cm) = 73cm2
The value for the area ranges between (16.2cm)(4.4cm) = 71cm2 and (16.4cm)(4.6cm) =
75cm2. We can also say that the area is 73±2cm2.
Example 2
The sum of 123 and 5.35 is
123 + 5.35 = 128
and not
123 + 5.35 = 128.35
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
We need a coordinate system in order to graphically describe the position of a point in space.
For example, the mathematical description of the motion of an object requires a method for
specifying the object’s position.
A point on a line can be located with one coordinate, a point in a plane is located with two
coordinates, and three coordinates are required to locate a point in space.
A coordinate system used to specify locations in space consists of

19
1. A fixed reference point O, called the origin
2. A set of specified axes or directions with an appropriate scale and labels on the
axes
3. Instructions that tell us how to label a point in space relative to the origin and axes
One convenient coordinate system that we will use frequently is the Cartesian coordinate
system, sometimes called the rectangular coordinate system. Such a system in two
dimensions is illustrated in Figure 1.1. An arbitrary point in this system is labeled with the
coordinates (x, y). Positive x is taken to the right of the origin, and positive y is upward from
the origin. Negative x is to the left of the origin, and negative y is downward from the origin.
For example, the point P, which has coordinates (5, 6), may be reached by going first 5 m to
the right of the origin and then 6 m above the origin (or by going 6 m above the origin and
then 5 m to the right).
Figure 1.1
Sometimes it is more convenient to represent a point in a plane by its plane polar coordinates
(r, θ), as Figure 1.2. In this coordinate system, r is the length of the line from the origin to the
point, and θ is the angle between that line and a fixed axis, usually the positive x axis, with θ
measured counterclockwise.
Figure 1.2
From the right triangle in Figure 1..3, we find that sinθ = y/r and cosθ = x/r.
20
Figure 1..3
Therefore, starting with plane polar coordinates, one can obtain the Cartesian coordinates
through the equations
x  r cos
y  r sin 
Furthermore, if we know the Cartesian coordinates, the definitions of trigonometry tell us that
tan _ 5
y
tan  and r  x2  y2
x
Note that these expressions relating the coordinates (x, y) to the coordinates (r, θ) apply only
when θ is defined as in Figure 1..2, where positive θ is an angle measured counterclockwise
from the positive x axis.
Example 1
The polar coordinates of a point are r = 5m and θ = 240o. What are the Cartesian coordinates
of this point?
Solution
The point is in the third quadrant at an angle of θ = 60o below the –ve x axis (see diagram
below).
Therefore
x  r cos  5mcos 60o   2.5m
y  r sin   5msin 60o   4.3m
21
2 VECTORS AND SCALARS
2.1 SCALAR QUANTITY
A scalar quantity is a quantity is which has magnitude but no direction (or a quantity that
only requires a magnitude to fully specify it). These physical quantities such as length,
density, mass, time, etc. can be expressed in terms of magnitude alone (together with a unit).
For example, consider a bag of beans which has a mass of 60 kg. The “60 kg” tells us
everything about the bag’s mass.
2.2 VECTOR QUANTITY

A vector quantity is a quantity is which has both magnitude and direction (or a quantity that
requires both magnitude and direction to fully specify it). Vectors are represented graphically
by a directed line segment and symbolically by a bold letter or an arrow the symbol i.e., A or
. Examples of vectors include velocity, acceleration, momentum, etc.
2.3 VECTOR ADDITION

2.3.1 GRAPHICAL METHOD
The sum of two scalars, assuming that the two scalars have the same units, is simply the sum
of their two magnitudes. For example, adding 40 cm3 of water to 20 cm3 of water gives 60
cm3 of water. Scalar quantities add algebraically or numerically.
However, vector quantities do not add in this way. Consider an object that undergoes two
displacements. Note that
The displacement from a point A to a point B is a vector quantity. Its magnitude is the
straight-line distance from point A to B; its direction is that of an arrow that points
from A to B.
Now let the two displacements be 30 km from A to B eastward and then 10 km from B to C
northward. The two vectors are drawn to the same scale and the tail of one vector is joined to
head of the other vector (the vectors are said to be added head-to-tail). The total
displacement resulting from these two displacements is the displacement from A to C.
Figure 2.1

This displacement, represented by the arrow labeled R , is the sum of the two displacement

vectors and is called the resultant displacement. The magnitude of R , written or R, can
be measured with a rule and its direction is the angle θ which can be measured with a
protractor. In this case = 32 km and θ = 18o. Therefore, we can state the resultant
displacement as 32 km at 18o north of east or 32 km 18o above the +ve x-axis. The angles are
22
measured relative to the east or the positive (+ve) x-axis. Note that the magnitude of the
resultant is not 30 km + 10 km = 40 km.
If there are more than two vectors to be added, place the tail of the second vector at the head
of the first vector then place the tail of the third vector at the head of the second vector and so
on. The resultant points from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector.
Example 1
Add the following displacements graphically.
Displacement (cm) 25 10 30
Angle (degrees) 30 90 120
SOLUTION
The displacements are joined head-to-tail as shown in Figure 2.2. Measurements on the
diagram show that R = 49 cm and θ = 82o.
Figure 2.2
Note that the result of adding vectors does not depend on the order in which the vectors
added.
Another method of vector addition which is equivalent to the head-to-tail method is the
parallelogram method. In this method the tails of the two vectors are joined together so that
the two vectors have a common origin and then a parallelogram is completed to obtain the
resultant vector.
Figure 2.3
2.3.2 ANALYTICAL METHOD

The graphical method of vector addition is simple and straightforward and is also useful for
visualizing a problem involving vectors, but it is not convenient whenever high accuracy is
23
required or when three-dimensional problems are involved. The analytical method of adding
vectors makes use of the projections of vectors along coordinate axes.
These projections are called the components of the vector. Any vector can be completely

described by its components. Consider a vector A lying in the xy plane and making an
arbitrary angle θ with the positive x axis, as shown in Figure 2.4. This vector can be
expressed as the sum of two other vectors Ax and Ay.
Figure 2.4
The vector Ax is obtained from the projection A along the x axis, and similarly, the vector Ay
is obtained from the projection A along the y axis. Separating a vector into its components
along the coordinate axes is called resolving the vector. The vector A is said to be resolved
into two vectors, one along the x axis and the other along the y axis.
The components of a vector can be positive or negative. The component Ax is positive if Ax
points in the positive x direction and is negative if Ax points in the negative x direction. The
same is true for the component Ay.
UNIT VECTOR
A unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is one (1). Therefore, a unit vector is a
mathematical device that specifies a direction only. A unit vector can be obtained by dividing
a vector by its magnitude.
The unit vector in the direction of the x axis is iˆ and the unit vector in the direction of the y

axis is ĵ . In terms of unit vectors, the vector A in Figure 2.4 can be represented as
Figure 2.5
From the definition of sine and cosine, we see from Figure 2.4 or Figure 2.5 that
Ax Ay
cos   and sin  
A A
24
So that the magnitudes of the components
and
Using components vector A can be written as

    
A  Ax  Ay or A  Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj or A  A cos  iˆ  Asin ˆj

Since Ax iˆ and Ay ˆj are perpendicular, they form the sides of a right triangle with A as the

hypotenuse. Therefore the Pythagorean theorem gives the magnitude of A in terms of its
components as

A A  Ax2  Ay2 .
Also, since the tangent of an angle is defined as the ratio of the opposite to the adjacent sides
of a right triangle, for the direction of vector A in terms of its components we have
tan   Ay Ax or   tan 1 Ay Ax 


where θ is the angle between A and the x axis.
The Table below gives the sign of the x and y components of a vector A in each of the four
quadrants.
Example 2
Add the vector displacements given in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6
25
Solution

Let R be the resultant displacement.

Ax = +1.0 m and Ay = 0 m (vector A is entirely along the positive x axis and has no
component in the y direction)

Bx = 0 m and By = +3.0 m (vector B is entirely along the positive y axis and has no
component in the x direction)
Cx = -(5.0 m)(cos37.0o) = -4.0 m and By = (5.0 m)(sin37.0o) = +3.0 m
Dx = -(6.0 m)(cos53.0o) = -3.6 m and Dy = -(5.0 m)(sin53.0o) = -4.8 m
The x and y components of the resultant displacement Rx and Ry are the algebraic sums of the
x and y components of the A, B, C, and D respectively.
Rx = 1.0 + 0 - 4.0 – 3.6 = 1.0 – 7.6 = -6.6 m
Ry = 0 + 3.0 + 3.0 – 4.8 = +1.2 m
 
We can use the components to sketch R . Since Rx is –ve and Ry is +ve, R is in the second
quadrant as shown in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7

The magnitude of R is
R  6.62  1.22  45  6.7 m

The direction of R is
tan   1.2 (6.6)   0.182 from which   tan 1  0.182   10o .
Then from Figure 2.7   180o  10o  170o .
Therefore
R = 6.7 m 10o above the –ve x axis or R = 6.7 m 170o (from the +ve x axis)
    
We can alternatively list the x and y components of A , B , C , D and R as shown in the table

below and then calculate the magnitude and direction of R as above.
vector x component y component


A 1.0 0

B 0 3.0

C -4.0 3.0

D -3.6 -4.8

R -6.6 1.2
26
EXTENSION TO THREE DIMENSIONS

In three dimensions a vector A can be written in component form as

A  Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ
where iˆ , ĵ , and k̂ are unit vectors in the direction of the x, y, and z axis and points in the
direction of increasing z, y, and z respectively.
The magnitude of the vector is given by

A A  Ax2  Ay2  Az2 .
The direction of the vector can be expressed in terms of the angles relative to the coordinate
axes.
Example 3
Three vectors are shown in Figure 2.8. Their magnitudes are given in arbitrary units.
Determine the sum of the three vectors. Give the resultant in terms of:
(a) components
(b) magnitude and angle with the x-axis.
Figure 2.8
Solution
    
Let R be the resultant vector. The x and y components of A , B , C , and R are shown in the
table below.


A 38.85 20.66

B -17.03 20.30

C 0 -31.00

R 21.82 9.96
(a) From the above Table
Rx = 21.82 and Ry = 9.96 or Rx = 21.8 and Ry = 10 (1 d.p)
Therefore

R  21.8 iˆ  10 ˆj
(b)
27
R 21.82  102  575.24  24.0
and
  tan 1 (10 21.8)  tan 1 (0.459)  25o
Therefore
R = 24.0 units at an angle of 25o above +ve x axis.
2.4 VECTOR SUBTRACTION

 
Given a vector A , we define the negative of this vector (- A ) to be a vector with the same

magnitude as A but opposite in direction as shown in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9

Now let us consider the product of a scalar s and a vector A . We define the combination as a
   
vector, B = s A , such that if s is positive then B is parallel to A and has magnitude B = sA.
  
If the scalar s is negative, then B is antiparallel to A or is opposite in direction to A and has
magnitude B = |sA| = |s|A.
It is important to remember that the magnitude of a vector can never negative (i.e., the
magnitude of every vector is positive). However, a minus sign tells us that the direction of a
vector is reversed.
  
To subtract vector B from vector A reverse the direction of vector B and then add the two
vectors.
Mathematically,
   
A – B = A + (– B )
 
where – B is simply vector B with its direction reversed.
Example 4
For the vectors given in Figure 2.8, determine:
  
(a) A – B + C
  
(b) A + B – C
  
(c) C – B – A
Solution
28
   
(a) A – B + C is shown graphically in Figure 2.10. Let R be the resultant vector. The x and
   
y components of A , - B , C , and R are shown in the table below.


A 38.85 20.66

-B 17.03 -20.30

C 0 -31.00

R 55.9 -30.6
From the above Table
Rx = 55.9 and Ry = -30.6 (1 d.p)
Therefore

R  55.9 iˆ  30.6 ˆj
or
R 55.92   30.62  4061.17  63.7
and
  tan 1 (30.6 55.9)  tan 1 (0.547)  28.7 o
Therefore
R = 63.7 units at an angle of 28.7o below +ve x axis. (Since Rx is +ve and Ry is

–ve, R is in the fourth quadrant.)
Figure 2.10
   
(b) A + B – C is shown graphically in Figure 2.11. Let R be the resultant vector. The x and
   
y components of A , B , - C , and R are shown in the table below.
Figure 2.11
29

A 38.85 20.66

B -17.03 20.30

-C 0 31.00

R 21.8 82.0
Rx = 21.8 and Ry = 82.0 (1 d.p)
Therefore

R  21.8 iˆ  82.0 ˆj
or
R 21.82  82.02  7199.24  84.8
and
  tan 1 (82.0 21.8)  tan 1 (3.761)  75o
Therefore
R = 84.8 units at an angle of 75o above +ve x axis. (Since Rx is +ve and Ry is

+ve, R is in the first quadrant.)
   
(c) C – B – A is shown graphically in Figure 2.12. Let R be the resultant vector. The x and
   
y components of - A , - B , C , and R are shown in the table below.
Figure 2.12


-A -38.85 -20.66

-B 17.03 -20.30

C 0 -31.00

R -21.8 -82.0
Rx = -21.8 and Ry = -82.0 (1 d.p)
Therefore

R   21.8 iˆ  82.0 ˆj
or
R  21.82   82.02  7199.24  84.8
and
30
  tan 1 (82.0 21.8)  tan 1 (3.761)  75o
Therefore
R = 84.8 units at an angle of 75o below -ve x axis. (Since Rx is -ve and Ry is -

ve, R is in the third quadrant.)
Example 5
What is the y-component of a vector (in the x-y plane) whose magnitude is 88.5 and whose x-
component is 75.4? What is the direction of this vector?
Solution

Let this vector be A . Then from
A Ax2  Ay2
We have
Ay  A2  Ax2  88.52  75.4 2   46.3 .

When Ay is +ve, A is in the 1st quadrant and
  tan 1 (46.3 75.4)  tan 1 (0.614)  31.6o above the +ve x axis

When Ay is -ve, A is in the 4th quadrant and
  tan 1 (46.3 75.4)  tan 1 (0.614)  31.6o below the +ve x axis.
Example 6
  
When displacement B is added to displacement A the result is a displacement C that has
 
components Cx = -3.70 cm, Cy = +2.25 cm and Cz = +4.00 cm. Displacements A and B are
 
in the same direction, but the magnitude of A is only one third that of B . Find the

components of A .
Solution

C   3.70iˆ  2.25 ˆj  4.60kˆ (i)
and
  
C  A  B  ( Axiˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ)  ( Bx iˆ  B y ˆj  Bz kˆ)  ( Ax  Bx )iˆ  ( Ay  B y ) ˆj  ( Az  Bz )kˆ
 ( Ax  Bx )iˆ  ( Ay  B y ) ˆj  ( Az  Bz )kˆ   3.70iˆ  2.25 ˆj  4.60kˆ (ii)

Now
A 1

B 3
A Ay A 1
 x   z  from which Bx  3Ax ; B y  3Ay and Bz  3Az
Bx By Bz 3
Substituting into (ii) yields
( Ax  3Ax )iˆ  ( Ay  3Ay ) ˆj  ( Az  3Az )kˆ  (4 Ax iˆ  4 Ay ˆj  4 Az kˆ)   3.70iˆ  2.25 ˆj  4.60kˆ
31
which gives
3.70 2.25 4.60
Ax    0.925 ; Ay   0.563 ; and Az   1.15 .
4 4 4
Example 7
Three players on reality TV show are brought to the centre of a large flat field. Each player is
given a tape measure, a compass, a calculator, a shovel, and (in a different order for each
contestant) the following displacements:
72.4 m, 32o east of north
57.3 m, 36o south of west
17.8 m, straight south
The three displacements lead to the point where the keys to a new Mercedes Benz are buried.
Two players start measuring immediately, but the winner first calculates where to go. What
does she calculate?
Solution
  
Let the 72.4 m, 57.3 m and 17.8 m displacements be represented by the vectors A , B , and C
respectively as shown in Figure 2.13. Let R be the resultant.
Figure 2.13
   
The x and y components of A , B , C , and R are shown in the table below.
vector E component N component


A 38.4 61.4

B -46.4 -33.7

C 0 -17.8

R -8 9.9
R  82  9.92  162.01  12.7 m

  tan 1(9.9 8)  tan 1(1.238)  51o
Therefore

R = 12.7 m, 51o north of west. (Since RE is -ve and RN is +ve, R is in the
second quadrant.)
32
Example 8
 
If vector B is added to vector A , the resultant has x- and y- components 6 and 1 respectively.
 
When vector A is subtracted from vector B , the resultant has x and y components -4 and 7

respectively. What is the magnitude and direction of A ?
Solution
 
B  A  6iˆ  ˆj (i)
 
B  A   4iˆ  7 ˆj (ii)
Subtracting Eqn (ii) from Eqn (i) gives
 
B  A  6iˆ  ˆj
 
-( B  A   4iˆ  7 ˆj )

2 A  10iˆ  6 ˆj
Therefore

A  5iˆ  3 ˆj
and


A  5 2   32   34  5.83
3
tan      tan 1 (0.6)   31o or 31o below +ve x axis.
5
2.5 CONDITION FOR VECTORS TO BE PARALLEL

Two vectors are parallel if one vector is a scalar multiple of the other vector.
   
If vector A  8iˆ  4 ˆj  2kˆ and vector B  4iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ , then vector A and B are parallel

because vector A can be written as
   1
A  8iˆ  4 ˆj  2kˆ  2(4iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ)  2B or B  A .
2
   
If vector A   16iˆ  8 ˆj  4kˆ and vector B  4iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ , then vectors A and B are anti-
 
parallel (i.e., vectors A and B are parallel but they point in opposite directions) because

vector A can be written as
   1
A   16iˆ  8 ˆj  4kˆ   4(4iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ)   4B or B   A .
4
Note that in both cases the vectors only differ by some scalar.
2.6 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS

There are two different types of products of vectors. One results in a scalar, and the other
results in a vector.
33
2.6.1 SCALR OR DOT PRODUCT
     
The dot product of two vectors A and B , denoted by A  B (read as A dot B ), produces a
scalar. There are two definitions of the dot product. The most easily visualized is
   
A  B  A B cos
 
where θ is the angle between vectors A and B satisfying 0    180 . Note that we have
   
defined the dot product of vectors A and B as the product of magnitudes of A and B and the
 
cosine of the angle between them. This definition can be viewed as the projection of A on B
  
or the component of A in the direction of B times the magnitude of B as shown in Figure
2.14.
 
The above definition allows the angle between vectors A and B to be calculated from
 
A B
cos     .
AB
Figure 2.14
The second definition fits with the unit vector notation. The unit vectors in the x, y, and z
directions of a three dimensional rectangular (Cartesian) coordinate system is shown Figure
2.15.
   
Following A  B  A B cos we have from Figure 2.15
iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  11cos 0o  1
and
iˆ  ˆj  iˆ  kˆ  ˆj  kˆ  11cos 90o  0
Figure 2.15
34
 
Given two vectors A  Axiˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ and B  Bxiˆ  By ˆj  Bz kˆ their dot product is
 
A  B  ( Axiˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ )  ( Bxiˆ  B y ˆj  Bz kˆ)
 Ax Bxiˆ  iˆ  Ay B y ˆj  ˆj  Az Bz kˆ  kˆ  Ax Bx  Ay B y  Az Bz
.

The magnitude of a vector A defined earlier is simply obtained by taking the dot product of

A with itself and making use of both definitions of the dot product.

Since the angle between A and itself is 0o, the first definition of the scalar product gives
    2
A  A  A A cos 0o  A
and the second definition gives

 
A A  Ax Ax  Ay Ay  Az Az  Ax2  A2 2
y  Az .
Therefore
2
A  Ax2  A2y  Az2
so that

A A  Ax2  A2y  Az2 .
Example 9
 
Find the angle between A  2iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ and B  6iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ .
Solution
   
A  B  A B cos ,
 
A  (2) 2  (2) 2  (1) 2  3 and B  (6) 2  (3) 2  (2) 2  7
 
A  B  (2)(6)  (2)(3)  (1)(2)  12  6  2  4
Then
 
A B 4 4
cos        0.1905 and   cos 1 (0.1905)  79o .
A B (3)(7) 21
Example 10
A cube is placed so that one corner is at the origin and three edges are along the x, y, and z
axes of a coordinate system as shown in Figure 2.16. Use vectors to compute:
(a) the angle between the edge along the z-axis (line ab) and the diagonal from the origin to
the opposite corner (line ad),
35
(b) the angle between line ac (the diagonal of the face) and the line ad.
Figure 2.16
Solution
(a) Let l be length of side of cube and θ be angle between lines ab and ad. Then
ab  lkˆ and ad  liˆ  lˆj  lkˆ
ab  l and ad  l 2  l 2  l 2  3l 2  l 3
  
ab  ad  0iˆ  0 ˆj  lkˆ  liˆ  lˆj  lkˆ  l 2
Therefore
ab  ad l2 l2 1
cos     2   0.5774
ab ad l l 3  
l 3 3
and
  cos1(0.5774)  57.7 o  55o .
(b) Let l be length of side of cube and  be angle between lines ac and ad. Then
ac  lˆj  lkˆ and ad  liˆ  lˆj  lkˆ
ac  l 2  l 2  2l 2  l 2 ,
ad  l 2  l 2  l 2  3l 2  l 3
And
ac  ad  (0iˆ  lˆj  lkˆ)  (liˆ  lˆj  lkˆ)  2l 2

36
Therefore
ac  ad 2l 2 2l 2 2
cos     2
  0.8165
ac ad (l 2 )(l 3 ) ( 6 )l 6
and
  cos 1 (0.8165)  35.3o .
2.6.2 VECTOR OR CROSS PRODUCT

     
The cross product of vector A and vector B , written A B and read as A cross B produces a
vector. As with the dot product there are two definitions of the cross product. The simplest
 
definition to understand is that the cross product of A and B produces a vector of magnitude
 
AB sin  in a direction normal (perpendicular) to the plane of A and B with  the angle
    
between A and B . The specific direction is obtained by rotating A into B (crossing A into
   
B or A cross B ) again using the fingers of the right hand naturally curling (closing) from A

to B with the thumb pointing in the direction of the new (product) vector. This is the same
procedure as for finding the z direction in an x-y-z right-handed coordinate system. A right-
handed coordinate system with the three unit vectors is shown in Fig. 2.15.
The following laws are valid
   
(i) A  B   B  A (ii) iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0 (iii) iˆ  ˆj  kˆ ; ˆj  kˆ  iˆ and kˆ  iˆ  ˆj .
Note the cyclic nature of the cross products.
   
If A  Axiˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ and B  Bxiˆ  By ˆj  Bz kˆ then A  B an easily be evaluated using
determinants.
iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
A  B  Ax Ay Az  Ay Bz  By Az iˆ   Ax Bz  Bx Az  ˆj  Ax By  Bx Ay kˆ
Bx By Bz
Example 11
 
Two vectors are given by A  3iˆ  2 ˆj and B  2iˆ  ˆj .
  
(i) Find vector C , the vector product of A and B .

(ii) What is the magnitude of C ?
 
(iii) determine the angle between vectors A and B .
Solution
(i) Since the given vectors have component in the z direction, they can be written as
 
A  3iˆ  2 ˆj  0kˆ and B  2iˆ  ˆj  0kˆ .
37
Then
iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
C  AB  3 2 0  0  0iˆ  0  0 ˆj   3  4kˆ  7kˆ
2 1 0

(ii) The magnitude of C is
C=7
   
(iii) A  B  6  2  4 ; A  32  22  11  3.32 ; B  22  (1)2  5  2.24
 
A B 4 4
cos       0.54
AB 3.32  2.24 7.44
   cos 1 0.54  57.3o
MECHANICS
Mechanics is the study of motion.
Mechanics encompasses a broad range of topics such as Motion in One Dimension, Motion
in Two Dimensions, Force and Motion, Work, Energy, and Power, Linear Momentum,
Collisions, and Center of Mass, Rotational Motion, Angular Momentum, and Mechanical
Properties of Matter.
An example of the kind of questions addressed by mechanics is the prediction of the path of a
satellite orbiting the earth and the time it will reach each point on its path from the knowledge
of the satellite’s present position, its speed and the direction it is traveling.
Mechanics is divided into two parts, namely kinematics and dynamics.
Kinematics is the study of motion without regard to the forces that influence the motion. In
kinematics we define quantities such as velocity and acceleration that are used in mechanics
and then, using the definitions, establish relationships among these quantities.
Dynamics encompasses the laws of motion and allows us to predict an object’s motion from
information about the object and its environment. In addition to kinematical quantities
(position, velocity, and acceleration), dynamics deals with concepts such as force and mass.
POSITION VECTOR AND FRAME OF REFERENCE
The discussion of the motion of an object is usually simplified by treating the object as a
particle.
38
A particle is an idealized entity with no size or internal structure.
Treating an extended object as a particle is a valid approximation if the object’s size is

irrelevant to the problem at hand. For example, if you flip a coin in the air and wish to
determine the maximum height it reaches or the amount time it stays in the air, then you may
treat the coin as a particle. However, if you wish to know whether the coin will land heads up
or tails up, then you may not treat it as a particle since you must take account of the rotation
of the coin.
To describe the motion of an object, the first step is to establish a coordinate frame, or a
frame of reference. For motion along a straight line, this entails first selecting an origin at
some point along the line and then a positive direction. Measurements are then made relative
to this frame of reference.
A position vector locates an object relative to a frame of reference.
KINEMATICS
In this component of mechanics we will study the following subtopics:
(Distance, Velocity, Acceleration, Graphs of Motion component of Kinematics)
(Free fall component of Kinematics)
(Projectile Motion component of Kinematics)
(Relative Motion, Riverboat Problems component of Kinematics)
MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION
VELOCITY AND DISPLACEMENT


A displacement r occurs with a change in position. It is the difference between a final
 
position vector rf and an initial position vector ri .
The position of an object moving along the x axis is described by it x coordinate. The change
in the object’s position is its displacement ∆x. Thus, if the object is at position x1 at time t1
and at x2 at time t2 then ∆x is x2 – x1. If we connect the initial position P1 with the final
position P2 by a straight line, we get the displacement of the particle. The magnitude of the
displacement is the length of the straight line joining the initial and the final position. The
direction is from the initial to the final position. The displacement has both the magnitude as
well as the direction. Displacement, being the distance moved in a stated direction, is a vector
quantity. Note that displacement is the direct distance starting point P1 to the end (finishing)
point P2.
39
However, for motion in one dimension we can specify the displacement simply in terms of
the x coordinate of the particle. If the particle is to the right of the origin, its coordinate is
positive but if it is to the left of the origin, its coordinate is negative.
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with time. We define the average velocity as
x2  x1 x
v   [1]
t 2  t1 t
If we choose our originsuch that x1 = 0 and t1 = 0, then the position x at a later time t is
x  vt [2]
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
If an object experiences a displacement x in a time t, it instantaneous velocity is
lim x dx
v 
t  0 t dt
[3]
Velocity is a vector quanty, but in one dimension its direction is indicated by merely giving
the sign of the velocity. Speed is the magnitude of the velocity and is always positive. A car’s
speedometer measures speed. Both speed and velocity are measured in m/s.
Velocity is the slope of a graph of x versus t, as illustrated in Figure 1. When the slope is
positive, the object is moving to the right. When the slope is negative, the object is moving to
the left. When the slope is zero, the object is stationary i.e. it has stopped moving.
Figure 1
40
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time. Thus if an object has velocity v1 at
time t1 and velocity v2 at time t2, its average accleration is
v2  v1 v
a  
t 2  t1 t
[4]
and its instantaneous acceleration is
lim v dv
a 
t  0 t dt
[5]
The units for acceleration are (m/s)/s or m/s2. In order to make clear the idea that acceleration
is a measure of how velocity is changing each second, always say the units of acceleration as
“metres per second (pause) per second” and not “metres per square second”.
It is better to avoid using the common word “decceleration”. Simply describe acceleration
either as positive or negative. Note that negative acceleration does not necessarily mean
“slowing down”. When velocity and acceleration have opposite signs, an object is slowing
down.
Figure 2 shows illustrative graphs of displacement, velocity and acceleration versus time for a
moving object. The velocity v can be deduced from the x versus t graph as the slope of x
versus t graph while acceleration a can be deduced from the v versus t graph as the slope of v
versus t graph.
Figure 2
41
Acceleration is the second derivative of displacement. Thus
dv d  dx  d 2 x
a    2
dt dt  dt  dt
[6]
UNIFORM OR CONSTANT ACCELERATION
Many interesting phenomena involve motion with constant acceleration. In this case it is easy
to obtain expressions for velocity and displacement by integrating acceleration. Thus if
dv
a  consant
dt
[7]
Then
v   adt  at  c1
[8]
where c1 is a constant of integration. We cavn determine c1 by observing that if at t = 0 the

velocity has an initial value vi, then v0 = 0 + c1, so c1 = v0 and
v  v0  at [9]
We can integrate the velocity to obtain the displacement x.
dx
v [10]
dt
 at  v dt  2 at
1
so x   vdt  0
2
v0t  c2
If at t = 0, the value of x is x0 (the initial position), then x0 = c2 and
1 2
x  x0  v0t  at . [11]
2
In most problems it is convenient to choose the origin at the position of the object at t = 0 so
that x0 = 0. With this choice of the origin, Eq. becomes
1 2
x  v0t  at [12]
2
We can explicitly write the the final velocity v as vf.
The average velocity v is given by
42
displacement x
v  
time t
from which
x  vt [13]
By de inition of acceleration we can write
v f  v0
a [14]
t
from which
v f  v0  at [15]
For an object undergoing uniform acceleration, its veocity changes linearly with time form v0
to vf. In this case the objects average velocity is simply the average of the two values. Thus
v0  v f
v  [16]
2
We can obtain Eq. 12 by first substituting vf from Eq. 15 into Eq. 16 and then substitute the
resulting equation into Eq. 13. This gives
v0  v0  at  2v t  at 2 1
x  vt  t 0  v0t  at 2 [17]
2 2 2
Now if we solve for t from Eq. 15 and substitute this value together with Eq. 16 into Eq. 13
we obtain
 v0  v f  v f  v0 
x    
 2  a 
which simplifies to
v 2f  v02  2ax [18]
v f  v0
We could have obtained Eq. 18 by substituting t  into Eq. 12 to obtain
a
x  v0
v f  v0  1 v  v 
 a f 2 0
2
a 2 a
2ax  2v f v0  2v02  v2f  2v f v0  v02
which reduces to
43
v 2f  v02  2ax . [18]
The above equation are so important that it is worthwhile to place them all together and
memorize them.
If a = constant, then
v f  v0  at
1 2 1
x  xo  v0t  at or x  v0t  at 2 (if x0 = 0)
2 2
v 2f  v02  2ax
The case of zero acceleration (constant velocity) is important and results in simple equations.
Thus if a = 0, then
v f  v0 (constant) [19]
(a)
x  v0t [19]
(b)
PROBLEM 1
A ball dropped from a bridge strikes the water in 5 s. Calculate
(a) the speed with which it strikes and (b) the height of the bridge.
SOLUTION
(a) Choose y downward as positive. Then a = g = 9.8 m/s2. From the problem v0 = 0 and t = 5
s.
vf = v0 + gt = 0 + (9.8 m/s2)(5 s) = 49 m/s.
1 2 1
(b) y  v0t  at  0  (9.8 m/s 2 )(5 s)2  123 m
2 2
PROBLEM 2
A ball is thrown vertically downward from the edge of a cliff with an initial speed of 8 m/s.
(a) How fast is it moving after 1.5 s?
(b) How far has it moved after 1.5 s?
44
SOLUTION
(a) Taking downward positive we have
 
v f  v0  gt  8 m s  9.8 m s 2 1.5 s   22.7 m s
(b) Since acceleration is constant
vavg 
1
v f  v0   1 8  22.7  15.4 m / s
2 2
and
y  vavgt  15.4 m s 1.5 s  23.1 m  23 m
or
1 2 1
y  v0t  at  (8 m s)(1.5 s)  (9.8 m/s 2 )(1.5 s)2  23 m
2 2
PROBLEM 3
A stone is thrown downward with an initial speed of 8 m/s from a height of 25 m. Find
(a) the time it takes to reach the ground and
(b) the speed with which it strikes.
SOLUTION
(a) Taking downward positive with a  g  9.8 m s 2 and v0  26 m we have
1 2
y  v0t  at
2
Inserting numerical values gives
25  8t  4.9t 2
4.9t 2  8t  25  0
The quadratic formula gives
 8  82  44.9 25  8  554  8  23.54

t    1.58 s (taking the
2  4.9 9.8 9.8
positive root)
(b) It is infact easier to first find the final velocity
45
 
v 2f  v02  2 gy  8 m s   2 9.8 m s 2 25 m  554 m2 s 2
2
or
v f  23.5 m s
(b) and then find the time from
v f  v0  gt which yields 23.5 m s  8 m s  (23.5 m s 2 )t or t  1.58 s
NB. The danger with this method is getting both t and vf wrong if you got vf wrong in the first
place.
PROBLEM 4
A ball thrown vertically upward returns to its starting point in 4 s. Find its initial speed.
SOLUTION
Take up as +ve. For the trip from beginning to end, y = 0.
From
y  v0t 
1 2
2
at we have 0  v0 4 s  
1
2
 
 9.8 m s 2 4 s 
2
4,9 m  16
which gives v0   19.6 m s
4s
PROBLEM 5
An antiaircraft shell is fired vertically upward with an initial velocity of 500 m/s. Neglecting
friction, compute
(a) the maximum height it can reach,
(b) the time taken to reach that height, and
(c) the instantaneous velocity at the end of 60 s.
(d) When will its height be 10 km?
SOLUTION
(a) Take up +ve. At the maximum height vf = 0. From
46
v 2f  v02  2 gy
we have
 
v  v02  2 gy  8 m s   2 9.8 m s 2 25 m  554 m2 s 2
2
We now use average velocity to define the concept of velocity. The average velocity
characterizes an object’s motion during a time interval, whereas the velocity the characterizes
its motion at an instant of time. To emphasize that the velocity pertains to an instant of time,
it is sometimes called the instantaneous velocity.
A motorist traveling 31 m/s passes a stationary motorcycle police officer. 2.5 s after the
motorist passes, the police officer starts to move and accelerates in pursuit of the speeding
motorist. The motorcycle has constant acceleration of 3.6 m/s2.
(a) How fast will the police officer be traveling when he overtakes the car? Draw curves of x
versus t for both the motorcycle and the car, taking t = 0 at the moment the car passes the
stationary police officer.
(b) Suppose that for reasons of safety the police officer does not exceed a maximum speed of
45 m/s. How long will it take him to overtake the car, and how far will he have traveled?
Solution
(a) The car has constant velocity and travels a distance xc in time t:
xc  vc t
The motorcycle starts from rest (v0 = 0) and moves a distance xm in time t – 2.5 s with
constant
acceleration:
xm  at  2.5
1 2
2
The curves are sketched below.
47
When the motorcycle overtakes the car, both will have traveled the same distance. Thus
at  2.5  vc t
1 2
2
Substitute numerical values and solve the resulting quadratic equation for t:
(3.6)t  2.5  31t
1 2
2
1.8t 2  9t  11.25  31t or 1.8t 2  42t  11.25  0
Therefore
42  (42) 2  4(1.8)(11.25)
t
(2)(1.8)
which gives
t = 0.27 s or 23 s.
Now the motorcycle did not start until t = 2.5 s, so the solution we want is t = 23 s.
This is the motorist has been traveling before he is overtaken by the police officer. So the
time it takes the police officer to overtake the speeding motorist is
(23 – 2.5) s = 20.5 s
At this time the velocity of the motorcycle is

vm  v0  at  0  (3.6 m s 2 )(23 s)  83 m s
(b) Let the motorcycle accelerate for time t1 over a distance x1 to a maximum speed v = 45
m/s and then continue at this speed v for a time t2 and a distance x2 until it catches the car.
The variables are then related as follows:
xc  vc (t1  t 2  2.5) (i)
1 2
x1  at1 (ii)
2
x2  vm t 2 (iii)
xc  x1  x2 (iv)
vm  at1 (v)
We have five equations in five unknowns: x1, x2, t1, t2, and xc which can be solved
simultaneously. The values of vm and a are known, so Eq. v gives t1 immediately. Substitute
this
value for t1 in Eq. ii to obtain x1. Now we use Eqn. i, iii, and iv to solve for the remaining
three
variables x2, t2, and vc. The results are t1 = 12,5 s, x1 = 281 m, t2 = 13.1 s, x2 = 591 m, xc =
872 m
, and t = t1 + t2 = 25.6 s.
48
UNIFORM MOTION
Uniform motion is motion in which a body moves equal distances in equal time intervals.
Opposite: non-uniform motion.
PROBLEM 1
1. A cheetah is the fastest land mammal, and it can run at speeds of about 101 km/h for a
period of perhaps 20 s. The next fastest land animal is an antelope, which can run at about 88
km/h for a much longer time. Suppose a cheetah is chasing an antelope, and both are running
at top speed.
(a) If the antelope has a 40-m head start, how long will it take the cheetah to catch him, and
how far will the cheetah travel in this time?
(b) What is the maximum head start the antelope can have if the cheetah is to catch him
within 20 s (at which time the cheetah runs out of breath)?
SOLUTION
The speeds are constant, so we use
x  vt
Both animals run for the same time, but the cheetah must run an extra 40 m. Therefore.
xC  vC t  x A  40 (i)
and
x A  v At (ii)
Substituting (ii) into (i) and solving for t gives
vC t  v At  40
40  vC  vA t
40
or t
vC  v A 
 1609 m 
where the speeds are xC  101km h  101   45.1m s and
 3600 s 
 1609 m 
xC  101km h  88   39.3 m s
 3600 s 
40 m
t  6.9 s
45.1 39.3m s
49
(b) Let h = head start distance and t = 20 s for both animals. If the cheetah is to catch the
antelope, then
xC  x A  h
where
xC  vC t and x A  v At
 vC t  v At  h so that h  vC  v A t  45.1  39.320  116 m
PROBLEM 2
A typical jet fighter plane launched from an aircraft carrier reaches a takeoff speed of 175
mi/h in a launch distance of 310 ft.
(a) Assuming constant acceleration, calculate the acceleration in meters per second per
second.
(b) How long does it take to launch the fighter?
SOLUTION
(a) The plane starts from rest, so vi = 0.
vf = 175 mi/h = (175)(0.447 m/s) = 78.2 m/s
x = 310 ft = (310)(0.306 m) = 94.6 m
v 2f  vi2  2ax  0  2ax
Therefore
a 

v 2f78.2 m s 
2
 32,3 m s 2
2x 294.6 m
(b) From
v f  vi  at  0  at
we have
v 78.2 m s
t    2.4 s
a 32.3 m s 2
Units and Measurements
50
Scalar and Vector Quantities
Kinematics
DYNAMICS
NEWTON’S LAWS
Three fundamental principles, called Newton’s Laws of Motion, form the basis of mechanics.
In this chapter we will discuss the weight of an object and the procedures for finding the
motion of an object.
FORCE AND MASS
Newton’s laws are expressed in terms of force and mass. It is therefore helpful to have some
understanding of these two concepts before introducing Newton’s laws.
MASS
The mass of an object is measure of the object’s resistance to a change in its velocity
(including v = 0) or mass is that property of an object that causes it to resist any change in its
velocity (including v = 0).
INERTIA
Inertia is the tendency of an object at rest to remain at rest and of an object in motion to
remain in motion with its original velocity. Since inertia means resistance to a change, the
mass is sometimes called the inertial mass.
Force
A force is a pull or a push. Force, in general, is the agency of change. In mechanics is that
which causes an object to accelerate i.e. that which changes the velocity of an object.
An external force is a force whose source lies outside the system being considered.
Forces cam be classified either as contact forces or non-contact forces. Contact force are
forces where one object exerts a force on another object when they touch each other.
Examples of contact forces are

(i) Tension; which is the force exerted by materials that can be stretched (e.g. ropes, strings,
springs, fibres, cables, rubber bands, e.t.c.). The more the material is stretched , the greater
the tension in the material.
(ii) Frictional forces such as the force exerted by your feet on the floor.
(iii) The force exerted by gas molecules on the walls of a container.
(iv) When a ball is kicked, it is both deformed and set into motion.
e.t.c.
Non-contact forces are forces where two objects need not touch to exert a force on each
other. Non-contact forces are also called action-at-a-distance forces or field forces.
Examples of non-contact forces include
(i) Gravitational force, i.e. the force objects of mass m1 and m2 exert on each other. This
force is always attractive.
(ii) Electrostatic forces i.e. the force stationary charged objects exert on each other.
51
(iii) Magnetic forces
e.t.c.
A force can cause an object to accelerate, deform or stabilize. The property that a force can
cause an object to deform is the principle used in a spring (scale) balance.
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW

Newton’s first law of motion relates to situations in which there is zero resultant force acting
on a body; it states tha t
Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line unless
it is acted upon by a net external force.
This is often called the law of inertia, because inertia means resistance to change and it states
that an object naturally tends to maintain whatever it happens to have (including zero
velocity).

The net force  F exerted on an object is the vector sum of all the individual forces exerted
on it by other objects.
   
F  F1  F2  F3   1
 
where F1 , F2 , e.t.c. represent individual forces exerted by other objects.
The net force is sometimes called the resultant force or the total force or the unbalanced
force.
Newton’s first law can be re-stated as


If the net force acting on an object is zero F  0 , then the object’s acceleration is

Zero a  0.
Inertial reference frame

An inertia reference frame is a frame in which Newton’s first law is valid or a frame relative
 
to which a  0 for any object for which  F  0 .
Any frame that accelerates relative to an inertial frame is a noninertial frame. Any frame that
moves with constant velocity relative to an inertial frame is itself an inertial frame.
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

Newton’s second law of motion deals with situations when the resultant force acting on an
object is not zero; it states that
The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it, and
is inversely proportional to its mass. The direction of the acceleration is the same as
the direction of the net force acting on the object.
Newton’s second law can be summarized by the following mathematical statement which
relates mass, acceleration and force:
52
  
F  FNet  ma 2
Note that there may be many forces acting on an object but there is only one acceleration. We
can write Eqn. 2 in component form as
 
( FNet ) x  F
x  ma x
 
( FNet ) y  F y  ma y 3
 
( FNet ) z  F
z  ma z
 
Since the momentum P of an object of mass m moving with velocity v is
 
P  mv
we can cast Eqn. 2 in the form

dP
 F  dt 4
If we assume that the object’s mass is independent of the time t, then we can write
  
dP d (mv ) dv 
 m  ma 5
dt dt dt
Therefore Eqn. 2 can be written as


 dP 
 F  dt  ma 6
From Eqn. 6 we can restate Newton’s second law as
The net force acting on an object is directly proportional to the rate of change of the
object’s momentum.
The SI unit of force is the Newton (N).

A net force of one Newton is that force that causes an acceleration of 1 m/s2 on a 1 kg mass.
Therefore
1 N = (1 kg)(1 m/s2) = 1 kgms-2.
Example 1
A 900 kg car is accelerated from rest to 12.0 m/s in 8.0 s along a straight road. How large is
the force?
53
Solution
 v f  vi   12.0  0 
F  ma  m   900   1350 N
 t   8.0 
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW: ACTION AND REACTION

Newton’s first and second laws are statements about a single object, whereas the third law is
a statement about two objects.
Newton’s third law states that
To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
Expressed in a different way Newton’s 3rd law states that

   
If object A exerts a force FAB ( F ) on object B, then object B exerts a force FBA (  F
) on object A, equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
Mathematically, we can write

 
FAB   FBA 7
 
where FAB denotes the force object A exerts on object B and FBA the force object B exerts on
object A.
FREE – BODY DIAGRAMS
A convenient way to analyze situations involving forces is to use diagrams.

A free-body diagram (FBD) is a diagram of a single object that shows only forces acting on
that object; no other objects are shown in the FBD.
The object itself can be represented by a dot or drawn as a small sketch. The directions and
approximate magnitudes of the forces are drawn on the diagram as arrows (facing) pointing
away from the object.
A coordinate is shown in the FBD, with the +x and +y directions indicated. In solving word
problems, especially complex ones, it is sometimes helpful to sketch a diagram of the system,
called a system diagram (SD), before drawing a FBD.
Example 2
You toss a ball vertically upward. Draw a FBD of the ball just before it leaves your hand.
Solution
54
Example 3
A child is pushing with a horizontal force against a chair that remains stationary. Draw a
system diagram of the overall situation and a FBD.
Solution
SD
FBD
55
Example 4
The Figure below shows three masses connected by wires and hung vertically. Draw a free
body diagram for each mass, and determine the tensions in the three wires.
Solution
Let the masses and tensions be designated as shown below.
56
To solve the problem we start with the bottom most mass, M1.
FBD for M1
From Newton’s 2nd law (N2L)
T1 = M1g = 13 kg × 9.8 ms-2 = 127.4 N ≈ 1.3×102 N
FBD for M2
From N2L
T2 = T1 + M2g = 127.4 + 7 × 9.8 N = 196 N ≈ 2.0×102 N
FBD for M1
57
From N2L
T3 – T2 – M3g = 0
Therefore
T3 = T2 + M3g = 196 + 15 × 9.8 = 343 N ≈ 3.4×102 N
Example 5
The Figure below shows an Atwood’s machine. If the masses are accelerating as indicated,
draw a FBD for each mass.
Solution
58
Example 6
For the situation shown in the Figure below, with what force must the 600 N man pull
downward on the rope to support himself free from the floor? Assume the pulleys have
negligible friction and weight (i.e. the pulleys are frictionless and massless).
Solution
Let T be tension in the rope the man is holding. Since the pulleys are weightless and
frictionless, T is the same throughout the single piece of rope.
T2 = T3 = T
59
FBD for man
T1 + T = W ….. (1)
FBD for the bottom pulley
T1 = T2 + T3 = T + T = 2T …. (2)
Substituting Eqn. 2 into Eqn. 1 gives
2T + T = W
W 600 N
3T = W or T   200 N .
3 3
CONTACT FORCES: THE NORMAL FORCE AND THE FRICTIONAL FORCE
One (important) effect of contact forces is to prevent objects from interpenetrating. A

convenient way to describe contact forces between flat surfaces of two solid objects involves
resolving a contact force into two forces, one parallel to the surface of contact and the other
perpendicular, and then treating each of these as a separate force.
The force parallel to the surface is called the frictional force and the force perpendicular to
the surface is called the normal force.
The normal force
Consider a block of mass m at rest on a horizontal surface.
60
The forces acting on the block are:
1. The weight w = mg directed vertically downward.
2. The contact force exerted by the surface. This contact force is the normal force FN because
it is directed perpendicular or normal to the surface.
N2L gives
F y 0
FN  mg  0 or FN  mg
If another block of the same mass m is placed on top of the original block forming a
composite block of mass 2m, the weight doubles and to support the composite block, the
normal force also doubles.
61
N2L gives
F y 0
FN  2mg  0 or FN  2mg
The normal force adjusts itself to keep the block from accelerating perpendicular to the
surface.
THE KINETIC FRICTIONAL FORCE

Consider a block of mass m being pulled at constant velocity by an applied force Fa along a
horizontal surface.
Fc is the contact force by the surface.

FBD for block
62
The contact force Fc is resolved into the normal force FN and the kinetic frictional force Fk.
The subscript k stands for kinetic, a Greek term that means motion and thus refers to the
motion between the two surfaces.
N2L gives
F y 0 and F x 0 [ a = 0]
FN  mg  0 Fa  Fk  0
or or
FN  mg Fk  Fa
Experiments show that, to a good approximation, Fk is proportional to FN or

Fk   k FN ….8
where the proportionality constant  k is a dimensionless number and is called the coefficient
of kinetic friction.
Experiments further show that
1. Fk depends on the nature and condition of the two surfaces.
2. Fk (or  k ) is nearly independent of speed for low relative speeds of the surfaces
decreasing slightly as the speeds increases.
3. Fk (or  k ) is nearly independent of the area contact for a wide range of areas.
THE STATIC FRICTION FORCE

A friction force can also exist between two objects when there is no relative motion. Such a
force is called a static frictional force Fs.
63
Experiments show that, to a good approximation, Fs , max is proportional FN, or
Fs , max   s FN 9
where Fs , max is the static frictional force just as an object is about to slide and  s is the
proportionality constant called the coefficient of static friction.
Therefore, up to a limit, the static frictional force adjusts to keep one surface from sliding
across the other.
Fs   s FN 10
Similar to  k , the coefficient  s depends on the condition and nature of the two surfaces
and is nearly independent of the area of contact.
APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAWS

Example 1
Two blocks with masses m1 = 3.2 kg and m2 = 4.1 kg are touching each other on a frictionless
table as shown in the Figure below. If the force shown acting on m1 is 6.8 N,
(a) What is the acceleration of the two blocks?
 
(b) What the magnitude and direction of the of each of the interaction forces F12 and F21 ?

(c) Now repeat (a) and (b) if F is in the reverse direction and pushes on m2 rather than
on m1.
(d) Explain why the magnitude of the interaction forces is different in the two cases.
Solution
(a) From Newton’s 2nd law we have
F x  ma
F  (m1  m2 )a
F 6.8 6.8
a    0.932 m s 2 .
m1  m2 3.2  4.1 7.3
64
(b) FBD for m1 and m2
Applying Newton’s 2nd law to m2 gives
F x  m2 a

F12  m2 a  4.1 0.932  3.81iˆ
From N3L we have

F21   3.81iˆ
or
Applying Newton’s 2nd law to m1 gives
F x  m1a
  
F  F12  m1a
  
 F21  F  m1a  (6.8  3.2  0.932 iˆ   3.81 N iˆ
(c) The acceleration remains the same in magnitude [ F and (m1 + m2) have not changed]
but points in the opposite direction.
FBD for m1 and m2
F x  m1a

F21  m1a  3.2  (0.932)   2.98 N iˆ
For m2 N2L gives
F x  m2 a
  
F12  F  m2 a
or
  
F12  F  m2 a  [6.8  4.1  (0.932)] iˆ  2.98 N iˆ
65
(d)
Example 2
In the Figure below, the tension in the rope pulling the two blocks is 58 N. Find the
acceleration of the blocks and the tension in the connecting cord if the friction force on the
blocks is negligible. Repeat if the coefficient of friction between the blocks and the surface is
0.33.
Solution
(a) Assuming the connecting cord is inextensible, Newton’s 2nd law gives
 F  m  m a
x 1 2
 T  m  m a
1 2
or
T 58 58
a    5.27 m s 2
m1  m2 3  8 11
FBD for m1
66
N2L gives
F x  m1a
T1  m1a  3  5.27  15.8 N

(b)
f1 and f2 are frictional forces on m1 and m2 respectively.

N2L gives
 F  m
x 1  m2 a
T   f1  f 2   m1  m2 a
T  m1 g  m2 g   g m1  m2   m1  m2 a

T  g m1  m2  58  0.33  9.8  (3  8) 58  0.33  9.8 11 22.426

a    2.04 m s 2
m1  m2  38 11 11
67
68
Static Equilibrium
Circular Motion
Work, Energy and Power
Linear Momentum and Collisions
Simple Machines
Gravitation
ROTATIONAL MOTION
ROTATION OF RIGID BODIES
A rigid body is an object that is non-deformable (i.e. it is an idealized extended solid whose size
and shape are definitely fixed and remain unaltered when forces are applied).
69
.
 The separations between all pairs of particles remain constant.
 All real objects are deformable to some extent, but the rigid object model is very useful in
many situations where the deformation is negligible
We frequently encounter objects that rotate.

Examples:
 A door rotating on its hinges
 A pulley rotating on its axle
 A compact disk in a disk player
 The Earth has two rotational motions
 It spins on its axis once a day
 It orbits the sun once a year
 At atomic and molecular levels, both spin and orbital motions play important roles in
the behavior of matter.
ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS
This is a description of the rotational motion in terms of angular variables and time without regard to cause of
rotation.
A rigid body undergoes translational motion when each particle of the body has the same displacement in the
same time interval.
A rigid body undergoes rotational motion when each particle of the body travels in a circle, except those
particles on the axis of rotation.
The axis of rotation is a straight line that extends through the centers of the circles described by the motion of
the particles.
Angular Position
The rotational motion of a rigid body (or a particle) about an axis is completely specified by an angle θ that a
fixed line in the rigid body (or the particle) makes with some reference fixed line in the space, usually chosen as
the x-axis.
Every particle on the undergoes circular motion about a fixed axis of origin O, perpendicular to the plane
Consider a point P located at (r, θ) where r is the distance from the origin to P and θis the measured
counterclockwise from the reference line.
As the particle moves through θit moves though an arc length s.
 The arc length and r are related by
 s  r
 The angular coordinate is
s
 
r
  is in radians
70
One radian (1 rad) is the angle subtended at the center of a circle of radius r by an arc of length s equal to the
radius of the circle, i.e. s = r
1o   180o rad  0.02 rad

1 rad 180o   57.3o
1o   180o rad  0.02 rad
2  rad  360o
ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT
The angular displacement is defined as the angle the object rotates through during some time
interval
   f  i
71
The angular displacement ∆θ = θ2 − θ1 of a rigid body that occurs during the time interval ∆t = t2 − t1
ANGULAR VELOCITY
The average angular speed, ω, of a rotating rigid object is the ratio of the angular displacement to the
time interval
  f   i
 
t t f  ti
 SI unit = rad s and can be written as second−1 (s−1) because radians are not dimensional quantities.
The instantaneous angular velocity ω is defined as the limiting value of the ratio ∆θ/∆t when ∆t
approaches zero.
 d
   lim
t  0 
t dt
tf
  f  i  ti
 dt
 All points of the rigid body rotate through the same angular displacement in the same time.
 ω is taken to be positive if θ increases (in a counterclockwise sense) and negative if θ decreases (in a
clockwise sense).
 Direction: Right hand rule
NOTE
72
ω is directed along the axis of rotation although none of the particles that compose the object
moves along the axis but they all move in circles contained in planes that are perpendicular to
the axis. However, no direction in the plane of motion of a particle can be used for ω because
during one rotation the particle’s velocity sweeps through all directions in the plane.
Therefore no single direction in this plane is characteristic of the motion. But the axis of
rotation provides a line in space that can be uniquely associated with the rotation. For this
reason ω is taken to be parallel to the axis and the right-hand rule is used to decide which
direction along the axis corresponds to which sense for the rotation.
ANGULAR ACCELERATION
 Now suppose that ωcan change as a function of time.
 The average angular acceleration, α, of an object is defined as the ratio of the change in the
angular speed to the time it takes for the object to undergo the change:
  f  i
 
t t f  ti
The instantaneous angular acceleration α is defined as the limiting value of the ratio ∆θ/∆t when ∆t
approaches zero.
 d
  lim
t  0 
t dt
tf
  f  i  ti
 dt
 Direction
EXAMPLE
Two kids sit on a merry-go-round. Beauty sits on the outer rim of a merry-go-round, and Cleopatra sits
midway between the center and the rim. The merry-goround makes one complete revolution every
two seconds. Which kid has a higher angular velocity?
Solution
The angular velocity ωof any point on a solid object rotating about a fixed axis is the same.
NB
When a rigid object rotates about a fixed axis in a given time interval, every portion on the object
rotates through the same angle in a given time interval and has the same angular speed
and the same angular acceleration.
 So θωαall characterize the motion of the entire rigid object as well as the individual
particles in the object.
73
Example
A reference line in a spinning disk has an angular position given by   3t  12t  9 , where θ is in radians
2
and t is in seconds.
(a) Find ω and α as a function of time.
(b) Find the times when the angular position θ and the angular velocity ω become zero.
(c) Describe the rotational motion of the disk for t ≥ 0.
Solution
(a) To find ω, we differentiate θ with respect to time:
d d
  (3t 2  12t  9)  (6t  12) rad / s
dt dt
Thus, ω could be negative or positive depending on t.
To find the angular acceleration α, we differentiate ω with respect to time:

d d
  (6t  12)  6 rad / s 2
dt dt
(b) Setting θ = 0, we get:
3t 2  12t  9  0
12  12 2  4  3  9
 t
23
 t 1 s and t  3 s
Thus, θ reaches zero at both t = 1 s and t = 3 s.
Setting ω = 0 gives:
 6t  12  0
 t  2 s (when ω = 0)
(c) We can describe the rotation as follows:
 At t = 0 the reference line is at θ = 9 rad and the disk’s initial angular velocity is ω = −12 rad/s.
 As time increases during the interval 0 < t < 2 s, we have ω < 0. That is, the disk is rotating in the
clockwise sense, but with a decreasing angular speed, since α > 0. In addition, θ reaches the value θ =
0 at t = 1 s, and then attains negative values.
 At t = 2 s, the disk stops momentarily when θ = −3 rad.
 As time increases during the interval t > 2 s, we have ω > 0. In addition, θ goes back to zero again
when t = 3 s. Afterward, both ω and θ will increase indefinitely.
CONSTANT ANGULAR ACCELERATION

Under constant angular acceleration, we can describe the motion of the rigid object using a set of
kinematic equations
 These are similar to the kinematic equations for linear motion
 The rotational equations have the same mathematical form as the linear equations
Comparison of linear and angular motion with constant acceleration
Angular linear
  const a  const
 f  i   t v f  vi  a t
1 1
 f  i  i t   t 2 x f  xi  vi t  a t 2
2 2
74
 2f  i2  2 ( f  i ) v 2f  vi2  2a ( x f  xi )
(  i ) (v f  vi )
 f  i  f t x f  xi  t
2 2
Relationship between linear and angular kinematics
 Rotation of rigid body about a fixed axis:

 Every particle in the body moves in a circular path with same angular velocity
 Point P moves in a circle of radius r
 At any time the angle ө and the arc length s are related by
 s  r where θ is in radians
 Take time derivative and take absolute value (r is a constant for any specific particle)
ds d
r
dt dt
 v  r
 Acceleration of a moving particle

 Tangential component
 Centripetal component
 Tangential component of the acceleration
 component parallel to the instantaneous velocity
 causes the change in the speed of the particle
dv d
at  r
dt dt
 at  r
 Centripetal component of the acceleration or radial acceleration
 component directed toward the rotation axis
 Arises from the change in direction of the velocity vector
Recall from circular motion that
75
v2
ar   2r
r
Therefore
a  at2  ar2
Example
A wheel accelerates uniformly from rest to an angular speed of 25 rad/s in 10 s.
(a) Find the angular acceleration of the wheel.
(b) Find the tangential and radial acceleration of a point 10cm from the wheel’s center.
(c) How many revolutions has the wheel turned during this time interval?
(d) Then, find the wheel’s angular deceleration if it comes to a full stop after 5 rev.
Solution
(a)We are given ωi = 0, ωf = 25 rad/s, and t = 10 s. To find the angular acceleration α, we can
use  f  i   t as follows:
 f  i 25 rad s  0
   2.5 rad s 2
t 10 s
(b) From Eqns , we get:
at  r   (10 102 m) (2.5 rad s 2 )  0.25 m s 2
ar  r  2  (10 102 m) (25 rad s)2  62.5 m s 2
(c) If we assume that the wheel starts from i  0 , then we are given i  0 ,  f  25 rad s , i  0 ,
and t =10 s. To find θ, which in this case equals the angle traveled by a certain reference line in the wheel, we
1
use  f  i  ( f  i ) t as follows:
2
1 1
 f  i  ( f  i ) t  0  (0  25 rad s) 10 s  125 rad
2 2
 1 rev 
Thus:  f  125 rad     20 rev
 2 rad 
(d) We are given i  25 rad s ,  f  0 , and  f  i  5 rev  10 rad . To find the angular
deceleration α, we use  2f  i2  2 ( f  i ) to get:
 2f  i2 0  (25 rad s ) 2

    9.95 rad s 2
2( f  i ) 2 10  rad
Example
A rotating wheel requires 3.00 s to rotate through 37.0 revolutions. Its angular speed at the end of the
3.00-s interval is 98.0 rad/s. What is the constant angular acceleration of the wheel?
76
Example
A flywheel with a radius of 0.300 m starts from rest and accelerates with a constant angular
acceleration of 0.600 rad/s2. Compute the magnitude of the tangential acceleration, the radial
acceleration and the resultant acceleration of a point on its rim
(a) at the start
(b) after it has turned through 60o.
Solution
r = 0.3 m
α = 0.6 rad/s
Starts from rest, so i  0
Recall that
v2
at  r ; ar   2r ; a  at2  ar2
r
(a) At point A,
at  r  0.3 m  0.6 rad s  0.18 m s 2
To calculate a r we need to calculate ω:
From  2f  i2  2 ( f  i ) with  f  i  0 we obtain
  0  2  0  0
2
f
 ar   2 r  0  a  at2  ar2  at  0.18 m s 2
(b) At point B,  f  i  60o   3 rad

at  r  0.3 m  0.6 rad s  0.18 m s 2
 2f  0  2  0.6 rad s 2  3 rad  1.26 rad 2 s 2
 ar   2 r  1.26 rad 2 s 2  0.3 m  0.377 m s 2
 a  at2  ar2  (0.180)2  0.377  0.418 m s 2

2
Example
A car accelerates uniformly from rest and reaches a speed of 22.0 m/s in 9.00 s. If the diameter of a
tire is 58.0 cm, find
(a) the number of revolutions the tire makes during this motion, assuming that no slipping occurs.
(b) What is the final angular speed of a tire in revolutions per second?
77
Energy in rotational motion
 Consider the rotating rigid body is made up of a large number of particles, with
masses m1, m2, …at distances r1, r2, … from the axis of rotation.
 The mass of the ith particle is mi and distance from the axis of rotation is ri (ri is the
perpendicular distance from the axis to the ith particle).
 The speed vi of the ith particle is

vi  ri
(Note: ω is same for all the particles)
 The kinetic energy of the ith particle is
1 1
mi vi2  mi ri2 2
2 2
 The total kinetic energy of the system is the sum of the kinetic energies of all its particles
1 1 1 1
K 
2
m1r12 2  m2 r22 2    mi ri2 2 
2 2
2m r 
i
i i
2 2
1
K (m1r12  m2 r22 2    mi ri2 ) 2
2
1 
K    mi ri2   2
2 i 
which can be written as
1
K  I 2
2
where I   mi ri 2 is the moment of inertia about the axis of rotation.
i
 SI units of I = kgm2
Definition
The moment of inertia of a body about an axis of rotation is defined as the sum of the
products of the mass and square of the distance of the different particles of the body from the
axis of rotation.
ROTATION AND KINETICS ENERGY
 The kinetic energy of a rotating system looks similar to that of a point particle:
78
Point particle rotating system
1 1
K  m2 K  I 2
2 2
v is the linear velocity ω is the angular velocity
m is the mass I is the moment of inertia about the
rotation axis
I   mi ri 2
i
MOMENT OF INERTIA
1
 So K 
2
I 2 where I  m r
i
i i
2
 Notice that the moment of inertia I depends on the distribution of mass in the system.
 The further the mass is from the rotation axis, the bigger the moment of inertia.
 For a given object, the moment of inertia will depend on where we choose the rotation
axis (unlike the center of mass).
 In rotational dynamics, the moment of inertia I appears in the same way that mass m
does when we study linear dynamics!
Calculating moment of inertia

 We have shown that for N discrete point masses distributed about a fixed axis, the moment of
inertia is:
I  m r
i
i i
2

where r is the distance from the mass to the axis of rotation.
Example
Calculate the moment of inertia of four point masses (m) on the corners of a square whose
sides have length L, about a perpendicular axis through the center of the square:
Solution
 The squared distance from each point mass to the axis is:
Using the Pythagorean Theorem
79
2
 L L2
r 2  2  
2 2
4
L2 L2 L2 L2 L2
So I   mi ri2  m
i 1 2
m
2
m
2
m
2
 4m
2
 2mL2
Now calculate I for the same object about an axis through the center, parallel to the plane (as shown
below):
4
L2 L2 L2 L2 L2
I   mi ri  m 2
m m m  4m  mL2
i 1 4 4 4 4 4
Finally, calculate I for the same object about an axis along one side (as shown below):
4
I  m r
i 1
i i
2
 mL2  mL2  m02  m02  2mL2
80
Example
 A rotating rigid body consists of mass in motion, so it has kinetic energy
 Two spheres have the same radius and equal masses rotating with same angular velocity
about an axis through its center. One is made of solid aluminum, and the other is made from
a hollow shell of gold. Which one has the biggest kinetic energy?
ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS
Here we shall answer the question “what makes it rotate?”
Rigid-body Dynamics
 The study of the motions of a rigid body under the influence of forces and
torques.
Suppose a force acts on a mass constrained to move in a circle. Consider its acceleration in the
direction at some instant:
 a   r
81
 Application of Now use Newton’s 2nd Law in the ˆ direction gives:
F  ma  m r
 Multiply by r :
rF  mr 2
 Substitute
I  mr 2
 rF  I
 Defination of torque:
  rF 
It is the tangential force F times the lever arm r.
 In general
  
  rF 
or
   rF sin    and F  F sin 
   I
 Direction of torque
+ z if it tries to make the system spin CCW.
- z if it tries to make the system spin CW.
Here +z is perpendicular to the plane of the page directed outwards.
82
Recall the definition of torque
   rF sin   r sin  F  rp F
rp = “moment arm (or lever arm) of F”
So if  = 0o, then τ = 0
And if  = 90o, then τ = maximum
 So for a collection of many particles arranged in a rigid configuration
r F   m r 
i
i i,
i
i i
2
i
Now ri Fi ,   i and mi ri2  I

 Since the particles are connected rigidly, they all have the same α.
  i  I
i
  NET  I
83
 This is the rotational analogue of
FNET = ma
 Torque is the rotational analogue of force
 The amount of “twist” provided by a force.
 The moment of inertia I is the rotational analogue of mass
 If I is big, more torque is required to achieve a given
angular acceleration.
 SI units of torque = kg m2/s2 = (kg m/s2) m = Nm.


 The right hand rule can tell you the direction of torque:
 Point your hand along the direction from the axis to the
point where the force is applied.
 Curl your fingers in the direction of the force.
 Your thumb will point in the direction of the torque.
Example
To loosen a stuck nut, a (stupid) man pulls at an angle of 45o on the end of a 50 cm wrench
with a force of 200 N.
(a) What is the magnitude of the torque on the nut?
(b) If the nut suddenly turns freely, what is the angular acceleration of the wrench? (The
wrench has a mass of 3 kg, and its shape is that of a thin rod).
Solution
(a)   rF sin   0.5  200  sin 45o  70.7 Nm 
1
b) I  mL2
3
From   I we get
 3 3  70.7 kgm2 s 2
     141.4 rad s 2
I (1 3)mL2
mL 2
3kg  (0.5 m) 2
Example
A grinding wheel is in the form of a uniform solid disk of radius 7.00 cm and mass 2.00 kg. It
starts from rest and accelerates uniformly under the action of the constant torque of 0.6 N.m
that the motor exerts on the wheel.
84
(a) How long does the wheel take to reach its final operating speed of 1200 rev/min?
(b) Through how many revolutions does it turn while accelerating?
Solution
1   2 2  0.6 kgm2 s 2
(a) I  mr 2       8.57 rad s 2
2 I (1 2)mr 2
mr 2
2  (0.07 m) 2
1200 rev  1200 rev   2 rad 

      125.7 rad s
min  min   rev  60 s 
From  f  i   t we obtain
 f 125.7 rad s
t   14.7 s
 8.57 rad s 2
(b) From  2f  i2  2  we obtain
 2f (125.7 rad s) 2  1 rev 

    1843.7 rad  1843.7 rad    293.43 rev
2 8.57 rad s 2
 2 rad 
Work and Power in Rotational Motion

 Consider the work done by a force F acting on an object constrained to move around
a fixed axis.
 For an infinitesimal angular displacement dθ:

dW  F  ds  ( F sin  ) rd  ( Fr sin  ) d
 dW   d
 This is the analogue of dW  F  dr
 The rate at which work is being done in a time interval dt is
dW d
P   
dt dt
 This is analogous to P = Fv in a linear system
Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem in Rotational Motion


85
The work-kinetic energy theorem for rotational motion states that the net work done by
external forces in rotating a symmetrical rigid object about a fixed axis equals the change in
the object’s rotational kinetic energy
dW   d
d d d d
But   I  I I  I
dt d dt d
d
 dW   d  I d  I d
d
f 1 1
 W   dW   I d  I 2f  Ii2
i 2 2
Net work done = change in rotational kinetic energy.
In general,
Net work done = change in total kinetic energy
(translational + rotational kinetic energies)
Summary of useful equations
Rotation Motion about a Fixed Axis Linear Motion

Angular speed   d dt Linear speed v  dx dt
Angular acceleration   d dt Linear acceleration a  dv dt
Net torque   I Net force  F  ma
If If
 f  i   t v f  vi  a t
 
 1  1
  const  f   i  i t   t 2 a  const  x f  xi  vi t  a t 2
 2  2
 f  i  2 ( f   i )
2 2

v f  vi  2a ( x f  xi )
2 2
f xf
Work W   i
 d Work W  xi
Fx dx
1 2 1 2
Rotational kinetic energy K R  I Kinetic energy K  mv
2 2
Power P   Power P  Fv
Angular momentum Power L  I Linear momentum Power p  mv
Net torque   dL dt Net force  F  dp dt
Example
A massless string is wrapped 10 times around a disk of mass M = 40 g and radius R = 10 cm.
The disk is constrained to rotate without friction about a fixed axis though its center. The
string is pulled with a force F = 10 N until it has unwound. (Assume the string does not slip,
and that the disk is initially not spinning). How fast is the disk spinning after the string has
unwound?
86
Solution
The work done is

W=τθ
The torque is
τ = RF (since  = 90o)
The angular displacement θ is
2π rad/rev x 10 rev.
So W = (0.1 m)(10 N)(20π rad) = 62.8 J

1 2
WNET  W  62.8 J  K  I
2
The moment of inertia I for a disk about its central axis is given by
1
I  MR 2
2
11 
So K   MR 2   2  W
22 
4W 4(62.8 J )
     792.5 rad s
MR 2 (0.04 kg) (0.1 m) 2
Rolling Object
In pure rolling motion, an object rolls without slipping.
 The velocity of the center of mass is

ds d
vCM  R  R
dt dt
 The acceleration of the center of mass is
87
dvCM d
aCM  R  R
dt dt
 Rolling motion can be modeled as a combination of pure translational motion and

pure rotational motion.
 The total kinetic energy of a rolling object is the sum of the translational energy of its
center of mass and the rotational kinetic energy about its center of mass.
1 1
K I CM  2  MvCM
2
2 2
 Objects of different I rolling down an inclined plane
88
i  0 ; vi  0 ; U i  Mgh ; Ki  0 ;
1 2 1
Kf  I f  Mv 2f ; U f  0; vf  f R
2 2
2
1 vf 1 1 I 
 Kf  I 2  Mv 2f   2  M  v 2
2 R 2 2R 
 Conservation of energy gives
K f  U f  Ki  Ui
1 I  2
  2  M  v  0  0  Mgh
2R 
( I  R2M ) v2
or  Mgh
2R 2
 2 MR 2 gh 
So v   
2 
 I  MR 
Example
A sphere and a cylinder, having the same mass and radius, start from rest and roll down the
same incline without slipping. Which body gets to the bottom first?
89
Solution
For a sphere I CM  2 MR 2
5
Using the dynamical method we get
Translation of CM gives
Mg sin   f s  Ma (i)
Rotation about CM gives
2  a  2
f s R  I CM   MR 2     MRa
5  R  5
2
 fs  Ma (ii)
5
 From Eqns (i) & (ii) we get
2
Mg sin   Ma  Ma
5
2 7
 g sin   a  a  a
5 5
5
So a  g sin 
7
1
For a cylinder I CM  MR 2
2
Using the dynamical method we get
Translation of CM gives
Mg sin   f s  Ma (iii)
Rotation about CM gives
1  a  1
f s R  I CM   MR 2     MRa
2  R  2
1
 fs  Ma (iv)
2
 From Eqns (iii) & (i) we get
1
Mg sin   Ma  Ma
2
1 3
 g sin   a  a  a
2 2
2
So a  g sin 
3
90
 We see that the acceleration of the CM of the sphere is at all times
greater than the acceleration of the CM of the cylinder
 Since both bodies start from rest at the same instant, the sphere will
reach the bottom first.
Example
A ball and box have the same mass and are moving with the same velocity across a horizontal
floor. The ball rolls without slipping and the box slides without friction. They encounter an
upward slope in the floor. Which one makes it farther “up the hill” before stopping?
Solution
2 2
The moment of inertia of a spherical shell is I CM  mr
3
Conservation of energy gives
For ball
1  (2 3)mr 2 
  2
 m  v 2  0  0  mgh
2 R 
( I  r 2 m) v 2
or  mgh
2R 2
So
   
 2mr 2 gh   2mr 2 gh   2mr 2 gh   3gh 
v    
2 
       
 I  mr   2 mr 2  mr 2   5 mr 2   5 
3   3 
3gh
 v2 
5
5v 2 v2
 So h  1.7
3g g
For the box
1 2
0  mgh  mv  0
2
91
v2 v2
 h  0.5
2g g
  The ball makes it farther “up the hill” before stopping.
Example
A solid sphere is released from height h from the top of an incline making an angle θ with the
horizontal. Calculate the speed of the sphere when it reaches the bottom of the incline
(a) in the case that it rolls without slipping.
(b) in the case that it slides frictionlessly without rolling.
(c) Compare the time intervals required to reach the bottom in cases (a) and (b).
Solution
Conservation of energy for the sphere rolling without slipping gives
Ui  Ktranslation, f  K rotation, f
2
1 12  v  7
mgh  mv 2   mr 2     mv 2
2 25  r  10
10gh
 vf 
7
Conservation of energy for the sphere sliding without friction, with   0 gives
1
0  mgh  mv 2  0
2
 v f  2 gh
The time intervals required for the trips follow from
x  0  vt
h  0  v f 
    t
sin   2 
2h
 t
v f sin 
 For rolling we have
 2h   7 
   2h   1   2h   1 
t  0.7    0.84  
 sin    10 gh   sin    gh   sin    gh 
 and for sliding we get

 2h   1   2h   1   2h   1 
t   0.5    0.71  
 sin    2 gh   sin    gh   sin    gh 
 The time roll is longer by a factor of (0.7 0.5)  1.18
92
93
Electrostatics
94

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PH 110 Chapters 1 To 4

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CHAPTER 1 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS

BASE OR FUNDAMENTAL UNITS

The unit of length (L), a meter (m), is now defined as

Table 1: Basic SI units

Table 2: Derived units

Given that the definition of area is , determine the basic or

Units of (area) = Units of (length×width)

(i) (Mean) Distance between the Earth and the Sun

150 000 000 000 m = 1.5×1011m

(ii) Typical diameter of a nucleus of an atom

0.000 000 000 000 005 m = 5×10-15 m

Table 3: Prefixes for SI units

Power or multiple Prefix Symbol

Thus we can express

(i) (Mean) Distance between the Earth and the Sun

150 000 000 000 m = 1.5×1011 m

= 150 000 000×103 m = 150 000 000 km (in kilometers)

= 150 00×106 m = 150 000 Mm (in megameters)

= 150×109 m = 150 Gm (in gigameters)

= 0.15×1012 m = 0.15 Tm (in terameters)

(ii) Typical diameter of a nucleus of an atom

0.000 000 000 000 005 m = 5×10-15 m

= 0.000 000 005×10-6 m = 0.000 000 005 µm (in micrometers)

= 0.000 005×10-9 m = 0.000 005 nm (in nanometers)

= 0.005×10-12 m = 0.005 pm (in picometers)

= 5×10-15 m = 5 fm (in femtometers)

(ii) milligrams (mg), and (iii) micrograms (µg).

(i) 5×10-6 kg = 5×10-6 ×103 g = 5×10-3 g (from the law of indices).

[v] = [L]/[T] = [LT-1]

and the dimension of acceleration a is length divided by time squared or

[a] = [L]/[T]2 = [L]/[T2] = [LT-2].

NO QUANTITY SI UNIT SYMBOL DIMENSION

Substitute the dimensions of a, r, and v:

Equate the exponents of L and T so that the dimensional equation is balanced:

Solve the two equations for n:

Since pressure is the force per unit area, we have

b  v or b  L3  

 t   t    t    T 

surface tension  ma pb r c  km a pb r c (i)

Writing in dimensional form, we get

Thus Eq. (i) becomes

surface tension  kpr

Since k  1 2 and p  hg , we have

Writing in dimensional form gives

From Eq. (i)

Squaring both sides gives

Force = mass × acceleration

unit of velocity unit of dist ance

Let t  kP a  b E c where k is a dimensionless constant.

In dimensional form we have

[ M 0 L0T ]  [ ML1T 2 ]a [ ML3 ]b [ ML2T 2 ]c  [ M a  b  c La 3b  2c T 2a 2c ]

Solving for a, b and c, we get

where a, b and c are constants.

where k is a dimensionless constant. Writing Eq. 1 in dimensional form, we get

From principle of homogeneity, we obtain

Solving for a, b and c we get