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Shearing Strength of Soils: Symbols
Shearing Strength of Soils: Symbols
SYMBOLS
b = a length L
c = the cohesion intercept M L-1 T-2
Ip = the plasticity index
-
P = a force M L T-2
u = the pore fluid pressure ML-1 T-2
θ = an angle Angle
µ1 = shear strength reduction factor related to time effects -
µ2 = shear strength reduction factor related to fissuring -
σ = the normal stress on a plane M L-1 T-2
τ = the shearing stress on a plane M L-1 T-2
φ = the angle of internal friction Angle
ψ = an angle related to cohesion Angle
1. INTRODUCTION
Stability analysis in geotechnical engineering includes all studies which
attempt to determine whether or not the average shearing strength of soil
over the assumed failure surface has a sufficient factor of safety against
failure. Basically such studies consist of comparisons between all the
forces which are or may act to cause failure and the resisting forces
provided by the soil's shearing strength.
The shearing strength of a soil sample is generally defined as its
maximum resistance to shearing forces. In special cases an ultimate, Figure 1. Stress-strain curves for sand.
residual or post peak value is used. The peak and ultimate values are
shown on the normal stress-strain plot of test results in Figure 1. The
residual value (Skempton, 1964) may be taken as the value recorded on a
presheared sample or on an intact sample which is subject to excessive
shearing, such as in a ring shear apparatus (Bishop et al, 1971), where the Coulomb's original shearing strength equation or Law is shown on
soil particles can rearrange themselves into preferred orientations. Figure 3 and was expressed in terms of total stresses by
Normally stability problems are solved by approximating the stress-strain
behaviour by an ideal rigid-plastic material as shown in Figure 2. Where
such an assumption is made the stability can be expressed in terms of
some definition of the shearing strength τf alone (this need not be a τf ' c % σn tan φ (1)
maximum value of τ). In actual fact the failure strength varies with the
normal stress on the failure plane. Coulomb is credited with being the
first person to express this variable
It should be noted that unless φ = 0 the value of τf is not equal to the
failure strength in terms of two engineering properties or parameters,
maximum shearing strength stress τmax. This relationship expresses both
namely:
the variation of strength of a single sample to changing external stresses
(1) cohesion (c), or the resistance due to the forces tending to bond or
or the locus of test results using different samples of the same type soil.
hold the soil particles together in a solid mass;
Another point worth noting is that the equation must have some limitation
(2) internal friction (φ), or the rate of change of the resistance due to an
otherwise soil slopes with slope angles less than φ could theoretically be
increase of normal stress (σn) on the failure plane.
infinitely high. Particle crushing will obviously occur first.
It should be clearly understood that the term "drained" refers to the τ ' τf ' c % σn tan φ (20)
dissipation of pore fluid pressures and not to the drainage under gravity
of pore fluid from the soil. Basically what is being referred to is the open Substituting equation (19) with suitable subscripts to indicate failure and
position of the drainage cock leading to the pore water of the soil. With equation (16) for σn in equation (20)
the cock open pore water may (drain) enter or leave the sample to maintain (σ1 & σ3)f sinθ cosθ '
zero pore pressure. A fully saturated soil specimen subject to a drained
laboratory test remains fully saturated. In clean sands, gravels and c % [(σ1)f cos2θ % (σ3)f sin2θ] tanφ (21)
normally consolidated clays c´ is generally close to and assumed to be
zero.
c % σ3 tan φ
σ1 ' σ3 %
5. THEORY VERSUS APPLICATION sin θ cos θ & cos2 θ tan φ (22)
From a simple engineering mechanics point of view it is appropriate to at failure
develop theoretical engineering solutions in terms of Coulomb's
For dense clean granular soils, particularly gravel sized material and
larger, this often leads to the nonsensical result of φ´ > 45E. This is
clearly not the friction between two surfaces but includes energy required
for dilation. Nevertheless, because of established usage of the c´ = 0
approximation and the fact that the energy to cause dilation would be
required to cause failure in situ this convention is maintained herein. An
increase in density (decrease in porosity or void ratio) at a constant value
Figure 13. Consolidated undrained test results. of σ´n thus causes an increase in φ´ The effect of increasing the confining
pressure on granular materials at a given density results in a decreasing
value of φ´ as shown by Taylor (1948) for sands (Figure 15) and by Leps
(1970) for larger size particles (Figure 16). Leslie (1963) has shown that
well (or broadly) graded granular soil has a higher value of φ´ than a
uniformly graded (single sized or well sorted) soil with the same
maximum particle size. In addition a higher φ´ is recorded for the larger
particle sized soils of two similarly graded soils. Soils composed of
angular particles generally have higher values of φ´ than soils composed
of rounded particles as shown in Table 1 (Sowers and Sowers 1951).
Typical values of φ´ for granular soils loaded at normal engineering
foundation stresses are given in Table 2. These values would decrease
under the high pressures associated with high dams and the like.
In the field values of φ´ are normally obtained from either the standard
penetration test (SPT) or cone penetrometer. Typical test correlation
values for sands at σ´n = 200 kPa are shown in Table 3. The values of φ´
Figure 14. Triaxial compression tests on crock ballast
should be decreased 5E for non-plastic (plastic index less than 6) silt size
(e.g. Raymond and Davies, 1978)
soils and silty sands and increased 5E for gravel sand mixtures. Silts and
sands with plastic fines should be evaluated as cohesive soils.
Rounded, Uniform SP 30 37
Rounded, Well Graded SW 34 40
Angular, Uniform SP 35 43
Angular, Well Graded SW 39 45
Very soft and soft cohesive soils are generally intact and show little or
no fissuring. Stiff to hard consistency clays, on the other hand, are very
frequently fissured. Indeed as the strength increases some of the fissures
may become classified as joints and these hard soils become
indistinguishable from soft rocks. Clearly there is no clear cut division
between these definitions and great care must be exercised in dealing
with problems where fissures or joints are likely to be important in any
stability analysis. Medium strength clays are likely to be either intact,
showing no signs of a fissured pattern, or be clearly fissured. Their
behaviour will be very much dependent on their physical nature.
Figure 16. Typical friction angles from direct shear tests on
sub-rounded sand (e.g. Taylor, 1948). The sensitivity of a cohesive soil is defined as the ratio of its
undisturbed undrained strength to the remoulded undrained strength of the
same soil. A sensitivity classification (Skempton and Northey, 1952) may
be made and is shown in Table 5. It should be clearly understood that
determination of a soil's sensitivity is not standardized. For the higher
(i) the total stress or undrained stability, which for a saturated soil, yields values of sensitivity there will normally be considerable differences in the
some appropriate proportion of cu … 0 and φu = 0, values determined in the laboratory and in the field. The value determined
(ii) the peak effective stress analysis in terms of some appropriate by field vane is often less than that obtained by a laboratory triaxial or,
proportion of c´ and φ´ more commonly, unconfined compression test. Further complications
(iii) the residual effective stress analysis in terms of c´r and φ´r. occur due to the fact that sensitive clays show different degrees of strength
regain (known as thixotropic strength regain or thixotropy) after
11. STRENGTH CLASSIFICATION OF COHESIVE SOILS remoulding. Thus the time between remoulding and testing may have an
Because cohesive soils often present serious stability problems the appreciable effect on the measured value of sensitivity.
further classification of these soils beyond that established using the
Unified System is most common. Three main characteristics of immediate One of the best known type of clay deposits exhibiting high
interest in any stability analysis are sensitivities are those deposited in a sea water environment and then
(i) Variation of undrained shearing strength cu of the soil deposit leached by fresh water. Sensitivity in these deposits are sometimes related
(ii) Nature of fissuring within the soil deposit to residual salt content (Figure 17).
(iii) Sensitivity of the various soil layers within the deposit.
Sand Density (SW,SP) Relative Density Standard Penetration Static Dutch-Cone Angle of Internal
Test N - blows/300 mm Resistance Friction*
qc - MPa φ´ Degrees
τf ' µ1 cu (39)
Thus Figure 23. Strength-depth profile for london clay (e.g. Ward
et al, 1965).
τf ' µ1 µ2 cu (41)
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