CONTROL SYSTEM

INSTRUMENTATION
(continued)
Action of pneumatic control valve:
■ As air pressure increases, the valve opening can becomes
larger or smaller:
a) Air to open (A/O) or (A-O) valves; normally closed; fail
close (FC): as the air pressure increases, the valves
opening gets larger.
Close = 0% CO Open = 100% CO

b) Air to close (A/C) or (A-C) valve; normally open, fail open

(FO) : as the air pressure increases, the valve opening
gets smaller.
Open = 0% CO Close = 100% CO

■ The selection of A/O or A/C should be made based on the

safety consideration.
Action of pneumatic control valve:
Air to open / Fail Closed Air to close / Fail opened

Fail Open
(FO) means that
when there is a
Fail Closed
loss of signal, the
(FC) means that
valve opens.
when the signal is
This is typically
lost, the valve will
chosen to prevent
close.
overpressure in
This may be chosen
the event of a
in the case of a
blocked line or in
steam injection
case of
stream.
catastrophic
failure.
Example 4: Chemical reactor with cooling jacket

What is the correct failure position for the cooling fluid flow valve?

Fail open (FO) to

maximize cooling
Cooling
fluid out

Cooling
fluid in

Wikiwand http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Chemical_reactor
 Example 5: Separator with surge tank
PC AC/FO valve
Down stream facilities

What kind of valve FO or FC?

Separator
LC

Surge tank
AO/FC valve

■ A control valve which operates from a high pressure to low

pressure, we prefer an air to close (A/C) valve to avoid over
pressuring of the down stream facilities.
■ The level control valve of the bulk separators will be an air to
open (A/O) valve. This is to protect surge tank from over
pressuring in case of a failure of the separator.
Example 6
■ Pneumatic control valves are to be specified for the
application listed below.
■ State whether FC or FO valve should be used for the
following manipulated variable
a) Steam pressure in a reactor heating coil → FC
b) Flow rate of reactants into a polymerization reactor → FC
c) Flow of effluent from a wastewater treatment → FC
holding tank into a river
d) Flow of cooling water to a distillation condenser → FO
e) Furnace fuel valve → FC
f) Coolant valve in exothermic reactor → FO
Action of Controller
Direct- Acting Controller
Close = 0% CO
Open = 100% CO
• Kc < 0
• Error increase → the controller
output (%CO) increase → valve
open
• If the level increases the valve would
need to be opened more, if level
decreases the valve would need to be
closed.
Reverse-Acting Controller
Close = 0% CO
Open = 100% CO
• Kc > 0
• Error increase → the controller
output (%CO) decreases → valve
close
• If the level increases the valve would
need to be closed and if level
decreases then the valve would need
to opened further.
 Example 7
• State whether FC or FO valve should be used?
• State whether Direct acting or reverse acting controller
should be used for the following system?
FO Open = 0% CO
Vapor product Close = 100% CO

FSP
Racting
Racting PT PC
FC
PSP
10 10
10
FT hSP
10 Feed
LT LC
Steam 10 Dacting
10

FC Close = 0% CO
Close = 0% CO Open = 100% CO
Open = 100% CO FC
T
Liquid product
Condensate
Exercise
A process instrumentation diagram for a flash drum is shown in figure below. Steam is
condensed in a steam coil to vaporize a portion of the liquid feed, and the liquid
product is removed by a pump. There are five control valves for the steam flow, vapor
product, liquid product, feed flow, and steam chest (which allows the steam chest to be
rapidly evacuated in emergency situations). Liquid flow to downstream equipment can
cause a hazardous situation.
a) Determine whether the five valves should be air-to-open (AO) or air-to-close (AC) for
safe operation.
b) Determine the action of each controller (Direct acting or reverse acting controller
Valve Types

Fluids: water, nitrogen, tree pulp and water, blood,

sewage, food products (yogurt), highly pure pharma
products, hazards (isocyanates), polymer melts, and
just about anything else that flows!

We have to match the valve body to the fluid type and process needs?
Ball Valve
Sphere with a port in a
housing, rotate to expose
channel.
• Applications: Flow
control, pressure
control, shutoff,
corrosive fluids, liquids,
gases, high temp.
• Advantages : low
pressure drop, low
leakage, small, rapid
opening
• Disadvantages – seat
can wear if used for
throttling, quick open
may cause hammer
Butterfly Valve
• Rotating disk on a shaft,
in a housing.
• Low pressure, large
diameter lines where
leakage is unimportant
• Advantages – low
pressure drop, small and
light weight
• Disadvantages – high
leakage, high actuation
forces so limited to low
pressures
Gate Valve
• Sliding disk, perpendicular to
flow
• Applications: Stop valves, (not
throttling), high pressure and
temp, not for slurries, viscous
fluids
• Advantages – low pressure
drop when fully open, tight
seal when closed, free of
contamination buildup
• Disadvantages – vibration
when partially open, slow
response and large actuating
force
Globe Valve
• plug moved perpendicular to
flow and closes on a ring seat
• Throttling, general purpose
flow control valve
• Advantages – faster than
gate, seat less wear and tear,
high pressure drop for
pressure control
• Disadvantage high pressure
drop, require considerable
power to operate (gears and
levers), heavy
 Control valve selection

http://www.pc-education.mcmaster.ca/Instrumentation/go_inst.htm
 Control valve selection

http://www.pc-education.mcmaster.ca/Instrumentation/go_inst.htm
http://www.pc-education.mcmaster.ca/Instrumentation/go_inst.htm
Valve’s Symbols
Control Valve Transfer function
■ Valve transfer function can be modelled by first order transfer
function:

• 𝐾𝑉 : valve’s gain. For pneumatic control valve, Kv has the unit of

volumetric flow rate divided by psig.
• τ𝑉 : the valve time constant. It is usually of few seconds and it can be
neglected when the process space time is of order of minutes.
• 𝑄 𝑠 : manipulated variable. For pneumatic control valve, it is
volumetric flow rate.
 Control Valve Characteristic
Valve Opening
A design equation used for control valves

Δ𝑃𝑣
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑓 ℓ
𝑔𝑠

• q : actual flow rate

• ℓ : valve opening (0 ≤ ℓ ≤ 1)
• Cv : valve coefficient. It depend on
valve size and type
• 𝑔𝑠 : specific gravity of the fluid
• Δ𝑃𝑣 : Pressure drop across the ℓ=0 ℓ=1
valve
ℓ = 0% ℓ = 100%
Control Valve Characteristic
𝑓(ℓ) : function of valve opening which depends on the type of
valve trim→ fractional flow rate

𝑓(ℓ) = 𝑅ℓ−1
𝑓(ℓ) = ℓ 𝑓(ℓ) = ℓ R = valve design parameter
20 ≤ 𝑅 ≤ 50
Control Valve Characteristic
• Quick Opening
✓ Used for ON/OFF control
✓ Small valve opening, resulted
in maximum possible flow rate
✓ 𝑓(ℓ) = ℓ
• Linear
✓ Used for regulating flow
✓ For linear process where Δ𝑃𝑣
is constant
✓ 𝑓(ℓ) = ℓ
• Equal Percentage
✓ Used for regulating flow (𝑅 = 50)

✓ For non linear process where

Δ𝑃𝑣 is a function of flow and
process
✓ 𝑓(ℓ) = 𝑅ℓ−1
Control Valve Characteristic
Valve Rangeability
Rangeability refers to a control valve’s inherent characteristic; it is the ratio between
the maximum and minimum controllable flows. The term Rangeability is exclusive to
the valve itself and can be used to compare one valve to another (prior to installation).

Flow at 95% valve opening

Rangeability =
Flow at 5% valve opening

linear rangeability = 0.95/0.05 = 19

equal percentage rangeability = 𝑅0.95−1 = 𝑅 0.9

0.05−1 𝑅

for R= 25 → rangeability = 18
R= 50 → rangeability = 34
Example: TF of Transmitter
■ A Level transmitter in process can be modelled as first order
transfer function. However the time constant is very small so
that it can be neglected. The level transmitter has a span of
2.0 m and an output range of 0 to 100%. Calculate gain of
the transmitter and write down the transfer function of this
transmitter.
■ Solution:

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 100 − 0%

𝐾𝑚 = = = 50 %/𝑚
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 2𝑚
 Example: TF of Control Valve
■ The valve characteristic 𝑓 of the equal percentage control valve is related to
the fraction of lift ℓ by the relation
𝑓(ℓ) = 30ℓ−1
■ The air to open (A/O) control valve receives a 3 to 15 psig signal from an I/P
transducer, which, in turn, receives a 0 to 100% signal from controller.
When control valve is fully open (ℓ =1), the flow rate through the valve is 0.2
m3/min. At the nominal operating condition, the control valve is half open
(ℓ =0.5). Assume constant pressure drop over the valve.
a) Calculate the gain of I/P tranducer
b) Calculate the gain of control valve.
c) Calculate the gain of control valve if the valve type is linear control valve
d) Calculate the gain of control valve if the valve type is quick opening control
valve
Solution (a):
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 15 − 3 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝐾𝐼𝑃 = = = 0.12 𝑝𝑠𝑖/ %
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 100 − 0 %
Solution (b): For equal precentage trim
control Valve:
Δ𝑃𝑣 𝑓(ℓ) = 𝑅ℓ−1
Valve equation : 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑓 ℓ
𝑔𝑠

When ℓ = 1 (full open) → 𝑓 ℓ = 1

𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥
Δ𝑃𝑣 𝐶𝑣 =
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑣 Δ𝑃𝑣
𝑔𝑠 𝑔𝑠

𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 Δ𝑃𝑣
Valve equation : 𝑞 = (30)ℓ−1
Δ𝑃𝑣 𝑔𝑠
𝑔𝑠

𝑞 = 0.2(30)ℓ−1

𝑑𝑞
= 0.2 (ln 30) (30)ℓ−1
𝑑ℓ
Solution (b):
Valve gain can be expressed as:
Δ𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑑ℓ
𝐾𝑣 = = =
Δ𝑃𝑡 𝑑𝑃𝑡 𝑑ℓ 𝑑𝑃𝑡
𝑑𝑞
At the nominal valve condition ℓ = 0.5 : = 0.124 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑑ℓ

If the valve actuator is designed so that the fraction of lift ℓ varies

linearly with the IP transducer output 𝑃𝑡 , then:

𝑑ℓ Δℓ 1−0
= = = 0.0833 𝑝𝑠𝑖 −1
𝑑𝑃𝑡 Δ𝑃𝑡 15 − 3 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝐾𝑣 = 0.124 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.0833 𝑝𝑠𝑖 −1 = 1.03 𝑥 10−2 𝑚3 / min 𝑝𝑠𝑖

Solution (c): For linear trim control Valve:
𝑓(ℓ) = ℓ
Valve equation : Δ𝑃𝑣
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑓 ℓ
𝑔𝑠

When ℓ = 1 (full open) → 𝑓 ℓ = 1

𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥
Δ𝑃𝑣 𝐶𝑣 =
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑣 Δ𝑃𝑣
𝑔𝑠 𝑔𝑠

𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 Δ𝑃𝑣
Valve equation : 𝑞= ℓ 𝑞 = 0.2ℓ
Δ𝑃𝑣 𝑔𝑠
𝑔𝑠 𝑑𝑞
= 0.2
𝑑ℓ
𝑑𝑞
At the nominal valve condition ℓ = 0.5 : = 0.2 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑑ℓ
𝑑𝑞 𝑑ℓ
𝐾𝑣 = = 0.2 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.0833 𝑝𝑠𝑖 −1
𝑑ℓ 𝑑𝑃𝑡
= 1.66 𝑥 10−2 𝑚3 / min 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Solution (d): For quick opening
control Valve:
Valve equation : Δ𝑃𝑣 𝑓(ℓ) = ℓ
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑓 ℓ
𝑔𝑠

When ℓ = 1 (full open) → 𝑓 ℓ = 1

𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥
Δ𝑃𝑣 𝐶𝑣 =
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑣 Δ𝑃𝑣
𝑔𝑠 𝑔𝑠

𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 Δ𝑃𝑣
Valve equation : 𝑞= ℓ 𝑞 = 0.2 ℓ
Δ𝑃𝑣 𝑔𝑠
𝑔𝑠 𝑑𝑞 0.1
=
𝑑ℓ ℓ
𝑑𝑞
At the nominal valve condition ℓ = 0.5 : = 0.1414 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑑ℓ
𝑑𝑞 𝑑ℓ
𝐾𝑣 = = 0.1414 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.0833 𝑝𝑠𝑖 −1
𝑑ℓ 𝑑𝑃𝑡
= 1.178 𝑥 10−2 𝑚3 / min 𝑝𝑠𝑖
 Exercise:
■ The valve characteristic 𝑓 of the equal percentage control valve is related to
the fraction of lift ℓ by the relation
𝑓(ℓ) = 50ℓ−1
■ The air to open (A/O) control valve receives a 3 to 15 psig signal from an I/P
transducer, which, in turn, receives a 4-20 mA signal from controller. When
control valve is fully open (ℓ =1), the flow rate through the valve is 0.5
m3/min. At the nominal operating condition, the control valve is half open
(ℓ =0.5). Assume constant pressure drop over the valve.
a) Calculate the gain of I/P tranducer
b) Calculate the gain of control valve.
c) Calculate the gain of control valve if the valve type is linear control valve
d) Calculate the gain of control valve if the valve type is quick opening control
valve
END