Evaluation of Upgrading Techniques For Biogas

Report SGC 142
Evaluation of upgrading techniques for biogas
©Swedish Gas Center - November 2003
Margareta Persson
Lund Institute of Technology
Report SGC 142 ISSN 1102-7371 ISRN SGC-R--142--SE

FOREWORD
RD&D-projects performed by the Swedish Gas Center, are usually presented in
reports, available to each and everyone who wants to share the results of a
project.
SGC prints and publishes the reports but the authors of each report are
responsible for the accuracy of the content. Everyone making use of any
description, results etc, will do this on his own responsibility. Excerpts from a
report may be used if the source is indicated.
Swedish Gas Center (SGC) is a joint venture of energy gas business

organisations. SGC’s primary mission is to co-ordinate the joint Research,
Development and Demonstration (RD&D) efforts that are performed within the
Swedish gas industry. The shareholders of SGC are: The Swedish Gas
Association, Sydkraft Gas AB, Sydkraft AB, Gothenburg Energy, Lund Energy
and Helsingborg Energy.
This project has been funded by:
Sydkraft Gas AB
SWEDISH GAS CENTER
Johan Rietz
President
Abstract
Biogas can be used as vehicle fuel after it has been cleaned and upgraded. The
cleaning consists of separation of water and hydrogen sulphide, whilst upgrading
consists of separation of carbon dioxide. Today, there are four techniques for
upgrading of biogas to vehicle fuel quality in plants in Sweden. The majority of
these plants use absorption by water wash, the next most common technique is
PSA, followed by two other techniques, Selexol and absorption with chemical
reaction which are represented by one plant each. There has been an increased
interest among municipalities and industry for upgrading biogas to vehicle fuel.
This, together with the fact that there are more techniques to choose among
creates a need to evaluate the techniques and bring forward their advantages and
disadvantages. How the upgrading of biogas can be improved and made more cost
efficient is another important aspect.
The method used for the evaluation is literature studies, questionnaires sent to
plant owners, visits and interviews. Furthermore were measurements of methane
losses performed at one plant with PSA. To find more angels of approach was
information from four different suppliers also assembled.
The evaluation shows a number of advantages and disadvantages for the different
techniques. For PSA it could be mentioned that the technique has a good
guarantee against sulphur and water content in the upgraded gas. PSA does not
imply any use of chemicals and it does not demand any access to water. There is
also a lot of experience of PSA in Sweden.
The advantage with water wash with or without regeneration is that it does not
imply any use of chemicals and there is great experience of the techniques in
Sweden. Especially, for water wash without regeneration, large amounts of water
is used, therefore the technique is most common nearby sewage treatment plants.
Also water wash with regeneration uses water since some of the water in the
process is continually changed.
Selexol and absorption with chemical reaction imply use of chemicals and the
experience of the techniques is so far low in Sweden. The need for electricity to
upgrade biogas with absorption with chemical reaction is less than for the other
techniques because the gas that is separated is not compressed. Thus, the need for
heat is high to regenerate the chemical when upgrading with chemical reaction.
An advantage with absorption by chemical reaction is that it implies small losses
of methane since the chemical selectively reacts with carbon dioxide.
Information from plants indicates that the electricity demand to upgrade biogas is
3-6 % of the energy content in the upgraded gas. Furthermore have all techniques
an access of approx. 95 %. Information from plants, suppliers and literature show
that the cost to upgrade biogas is 0.10-0.40 SEK per kWh upgraded gas.
By building upgrading plants as standardized prefabricated modules in a more

limited edition of capacities it may be possible to reach a number of advantages.
Some of these are lower investment costs and reduced number of operational
problems.
I
Foreword
The report before you is the result of a master thesis performed at the Swedish
Gas Centre during summer and fall 2003. The master thesis comprises 30 ECTS
points and is the completion of a Master of Science programme in Environmental
engineering at Lund Institute of Technology.
I would like to thank all persons who in one way or the other have contributed to
the completion of this project. Above all I would like to thank my supervisors,
Owe Jönsson at the Swedish Gas Centre, Staffan Ivarsson at Sydkraft Gas and
Mikael Näslund at the division of Energy Economics and Planning on the
department of Heat and Power Engineering at Lund Institute of Technology.
Further, I would like to thank Anders Dahl at BioMil for help with measurements
and Katarina Starberg and Bernt Karlsson at Sweco Viak for giving me the
opportunity to coordinate my questionnaire and plant visits with their evaluation.
Finally, I would like to thank all personnel on the upgrading plants and suppliers.
Without your contributions it would have been impossible to carry out the project.
Lund, November 2003
Margareta Persson
II
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................1
1.1 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................................1
1.2 PURPOSE ........................................................................................................................................1
1.3 METHOD ........................................................................................................................................2
1.4 DELIMITATIONS..............................................................................................................................2
1.5 CONTENT .......................................................................................................................................2
2 BIOGAS .................................................................................................................................................3
2.1 PRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................3
2.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ....................................................................................................................4
2.3 APPLICATIONS ................................................................................................................................5
2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS .............................................................................................................6
2.5 TECHNICAL DEMANDS ON UPGRADED GAS .......................................................................................6
3 CLEANING AND UPGRADING.........................................................................................................7
3.1 CLEANING ......................................................................................................................................8
3.1.1 Hydrogen sulphide...................................................................................................................8
3.1.2 Water .......................................................................................................................................9
3.1.3 Other contaminants ...............................................................................................................10
3.2 UPGRADING .................................................................................................................................11
3.2.1 PSA (Pressure Swing Adsorption) .........................................................................................11
3.2.2 Absorption with water............................................................................................................13
3.2.3 Absorption with Selexol .......................................................................................................16
3.2.4 Absorption with chemical reaction ........................................................................................17
3.2.5 Membrane separation............................................................................................................18
3.2.6 Cryogenic process .................................................................................................................20
3.3 ODORISING...................................................................................................................................20
4 TECHNICAL EVALUATION ...........................................................................................................21
4.1 CHOICE OF UPGRADING TECHNIQUE ..............................................................................................21
4.2 OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCES .........................................................................................................24
4.2.1 PSA ........................................................................................................................................24
4.2.3 Absorption with Selexol® .......................................................................................................30
4.2.5 Summarize of operational experiences ..................................................................................31
4.3 AVAILABILITY ..............................................................................................................................32
4.4 RESOURCE NEEDS .........................................................................................................................34
4.4.1 Personnel...............................................................................................................................34
4.4.2 Electricity ..............................................................................................................................36
4.4.3 Water .....................................................................................................................................39
4.4.4 Other......................................................................................................................................40
5 ECONOMY AND PURCHASE .........................................................................................................42
5.1 PLANNING AND PURCHASE ............................................................................................................43
5.2 INVESTMENT COSTS ......................................................................................................................45
5.3 OPERATIONAL AND MAINTENANCE COSTS .....................................................................................48
5.4 GAS UPGRADING COST ..................................................................................................................51
6 GAS QUALITY ...................................................................................................................................57
7 ENVIRONMENT ................................................................................................................................58
7.1 METHANE LOSSES ........................................................................................................................58
7.1.1 PSA ........................................................................................................................................59
7.1.3 Absorption with Selexol® .......................................................................................................61
7.2 ODOUR.........................................................................................................................................62
8 CONCLUSIONS..................................................................................................................................63
REFERENCES...............................................................................................................................................67
III
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
Biogas can be used as vehicle fuel after it has been cleaned and upgraded. The
purification mainly consists of separation of water and hydrogen sulphide and the
upgrade consists of separation of carbon dioxide to raise the gas calorific value.
The first pilot plants for upgrading biogas were built in 1992 in Sweden and these
used Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) as technique for separation of carbon
dioxide. In 1996 started the construction of a number of plants with pressurised
water absorption (water wash) for separation of carbon dioxide. The expansion
has continued and today there are upgrading plants at sixteen locations in Sweden
and new plants on other locations are planned and under investigation. The
number of plants has increased as well as the number of techniques for separation
of carbon dioxide. Today there are four techniques on the different plants in the
country. The majority use water wash, the second most common technique is PSA
while there are two plants using completely different techniques, physical
absorption with chemical (Selexol after the product name of the chemical) and
absorption with chemical reaction.
The upgraded gas is mainly used as vehicle fuel, but there is also one plant which
distributes the biogas to the gas grid. This is an element which will be more
common in the future since it facilitates the outlet of the biogas.
During the years there have been a number of different aspects in focus regarding
upgrading. Earlier it was, above all, the gas quality that was discussed. Nowadays,
it is quality insurance of upgraded gas, methane losses and inspection of
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) cylinders that are the questions at issue.
Increased interest in upgrading biogas among municipality and industry have

together with the fact that there are several techniques available for upgrading
biogas emphasised the need to compare these techniques and display their
advantages and disadvantages.
1.2 Purpose
The purpose of this master thesis is to evaluate different techniques for upgrading
biogas. This evaluation will be performed with respect to technology, economy,
gas quality and environmental aspects. The evaluation should mainly be based on
data from existing plants in Sweden. The target of the comparison is to create a
versatile image of the different techniques and their advantages and
disadvantages, since this have been missing.
Another purpose with the master thesis is to identify various aspects regarding
upgrading of biogas that could be developed in order to improve the plants
functionality and lower the investment costs.
1
1.3 Method
The method used in the master thesis is literature study of existing material within
the area, questionnaires distributed to plants, visits and interviews. Nine visits
have been performed during June to August. Information from three other plants
has been collected by telephone calls. The ambition was to cover as many plants
as possible of the plants in Sweden. In addition to this, measurements of methane
losses in a PSA plant were carried out. In order to find more angles of approach
has information also been collected from different suppliers.
The aim of the study is to evaluate the upgrading techniques, not to evaluate and
compare the different plants. Nevertheless, the evaluation is based on data from
the plants. For the information to be relevant, as well as keeping the plants
anonymous, plant information is reported by technique, capacity and the year the
plant was put into operation.
In those cases where the data is insufficient within an area, upgrading is evaluated
generally instead of specifically for each technique.
1.4 Delimitations
The evaluation has its focus on the four existing upgrading techniques in Sweden,
water wash, PSA, Selexol and chemical absorption. However, other upgrading
techniques which aren’t present in Sweden are mentioned in the opening part of
this report, chapter 3.2 Upgrading.
The system boundary of the evaluation of upgrading techniques is placed from the
point where raw, uncompressed biogas arrive at the upgrading plant to the point
where upgraded gas leave the plant before any high pressure compression
(compression of the gas to 200 bar). For instance, investment cost and energy
consumption for high pressure compression is not part of the evaluation.
Focus of the evaluation is all relevant factors by comparison of different

techniques. With that, the study is wide but without any deeper studies.
1.5 Content
In chapter 2 there is a description of how biogas is produced and used. There is

also a description of some of its properties. Chapter 3 describes how biogas is
refined to vehicle fuel by cleaning, upgrading and odorising it.
In chapters 4, 5, 6 and 7 the different upgrading techniques are compared in

respect to a number of factors. A technical evaluation is performed in chapter 4,
chapter 5 describes economy and purchase, chapter 6 gas quality and chapter 7
environmental issues.
After most parts of the report there follows a discussion in form of a concluding
section with summarizing comments. In chapter 8 are the evaluations total
conclusions reported.
2
2 Biogas
2.1 Production
Biogas is produced through anaerobic digestion of organic material. This occurs

naturally in flooded land, rice cultivations and in chewers’ stomachs (Norin,
1998). In human controlled biogas production are different sorts of organic
materials used. For example, plants, manure, waste from provisions, sludge from
sewage treatment plants or household waste.
In Sweden there are over 200 plants for biogas production which annually
produce approx. 1.4 TWh biogas. The majority of the biogas production plants are
located next to municipal sewage treatment plants and use the sludge as raw
material. The next most common production is by collecting gas from landfills or
bio cells, a gas which sometimes is referred to as landfill gas. Remaining
occurrences are plants for digestion of industrial waste and manure, farming
biogas plants and experimental facilities (SGC 2002).
The digestion of the organic material occurs, apart from landfills, in a digestion
tank, figure 1. The tank provides good possibilities to control temperature and
humidity in order to optimize the biogas production. In the anaerobe digestion of
the organic material a large part of the energy content in the material is
transformed to methane gas. By this, less heat is produced and a lower amount of
material is remaining from the digestion process than compared to an aerobe
digestion in form of composting. For the anaerobe process to work well heat must
be added (Norin, 1998).
Figur1: Digestion tank, approximately 300 mn3 biogas is produced per hour
(Photo: Margareta Persson)
Biogas mainly consists of methane, CH4, and carbon dioxide, CO2. In addition to
this, there exist some other gases and bi products, i.e. hydrogen sulphide, H2S and
ammonium, NH3. Hydrogen sulphide is produced in anaerobe transformation of
material containing sulphur. Ammonium is produced by transforming components
which contains nitrogen (Hagen et al, 2001).
3
The biogas composition is depending on the composition of the digested material,
process technique and how the gas is being collected. The gas which is produced
in a digestion tank has generally a higher energy content compared to gas from
landfills. This depends on the more controlled process in a digestion tank as well
as unwanted air in the gas from a landfill since it is withdrawn by fans, table 1
(Norin, 1998).
Table 1: Biogas composition (Hagen et al, 2001)

Component Unit Biogas plant Sewage plant Landfill
Methane, CH4 vol-% 60-70 55-65 45-55
Carbon dioxide, CO2 vol-% 30-40 35-45 30-40
Nitrogen, N2 vol-% <1 <1 5-15
Hydrogen sulphide, H2S ppm 10-2000 10-40 50-300
Since the gas from digestion tanks has higher energy content than gas from
landfills, it is gas from digestion tanks that in Sweden is upgraded to vehicle fuel
and natural gas quality. For example, in Holland there are plants which upgrade
landfill gas to natural gas quality. However, it should be noted that Dutch natural
gas has a lower calorific value than natural gas in Sweden. Dutch natural gas
contains approx. 86 % methane and 14 % nitrogen (CADDET renewable energy,
1996).
2.2 Physical properties
When stating volumes of biogas the same unit as for natural gas, normal cubic
meter (mn3), is used. This aims to the volume at 0 °C and 1.0325 bar. The gas
amount can also be given as energy with the unit joule (J) or watt hours (Wh). In
order to convert the biogas volume from normal cubic meter to energy the
methane content and calorific value for methane must be known (Näslund, 2002).
The calorific value (H) states the energy which is released when burning one
normal cubic meter of the gas. The calorific value can also be stated an upper
calorific value (Hu), or lower calorific value (Hl). The upper calorific value refers
to the energy content when the steam in the fumes is condensed (Näslund, 2002).
Usually, the lower calorific value is used; this corresponds to the energy content
when the steam in the fumes isn’t condensed. In table 2 is the calorific value for
gases with different methane content calculated, assumed that methane is the only
combustible component in the gas.
Table 2: Calorific value for gases with different content of methane.

Methane content, CH4, (vol-%) Hu (kWh/mn3) Hl (kWh/mn3)
100 * 11.06 9.97
97 10.73 9.67
60 6.64 5.98
* (Näslund, 2002)
In order to compare the exchange abilities of various gases the Wobbe number
(W) is used. It is expressed as calorific value relative to the relative density (d).
The relative density is the relation between the gas and air density
(densitygas/densityair). The Wobbe number can similarly to the calorific value be
expressed with an upper or lower value.
4
H
Wobbe number definition: W =
d
Regarding safety issues, biogas is an explosive gas in concentrations between 5 to

20 % in air, depending on the methane content in the gas (Norin, 1998).
2.3 Applications
Combustion of biogas to produce heat is the easiest and most common

application. Normally, no preparation of the gas is needed except the separation of
water which is done by draining the gas system. However, it could be suitable to
dry the gas. The discharge of sulphur dioxide is lowered by separating hydrogen
sulphide from the gas prior to combustion. This is beneficial in an environmental
point of view but not necessary for the combustion (Norin, 1998).
Combined heat and power (CHP) production is a common alternative to heat

production. Electricity is produced in about 60 biogas plants in Sweden. It is
mainly Otto engines that are used for production of electricity since they are well
suited for the power levels in question (Norin, 1998). Diesel engines are also used,
but then for higher power levels above 1-2 MW electricity (Vågdahl, 1999).
Before biogas is used for CHP it can be drained or dried from water. Furthermore
must dust and corrosive components such as hydrogen sulphide and chlorinated
hydrocarbon be separated (Norin, 1998). In Helsingborg there is CHP production
with a gas turbine based CHP cycle with a capacity of 0.8 MW electricity. The
plant was set into operation in 2002 (SGC, 2002).
After biogas has been upgraded it can be used exactly as natural gas in vehicles
adapted for gas operation. When biogas is upgraded carbon dioxide is separated to
increase the energy content and thus increase the driving distance for a certain
volume of gas. The separation of carbon dioxide results in a steady gas quality
regarding the calorific value. This is according to auto manufacturers a condition
for low emissions of nitrogen oxide (IEA Bioenergy). Further, the gas is dried to
prevent condensation when the gas is being compressed. Condensed water could
cause corrosion in gas storages and CNG cylinders. Environmental and health
dangerous components such as hydrogen sulphide is separated and also particles
to avoid mechanical interruptions. During 2002, approx.100 GWh of biogas were
used for vehicle fuel in Sweden.
An additional market for biogas is the natural gas grid. By upgrading the biogas in
the same way as for vehicle fuel and by adding higher hydrocarbon in form of i.e.
liquefied petroleum gas the upgraded biogas have similar properties to natural gas.
The upgraded biogas can then be distributed to the gas grid without any risks for
problems within the application chain (Vågdahl, 1999).
5
2.4 Environmental aspects
Biogas is a renewable energy source produced from organic material. Thus,
combustion of biogas does not give any net contribution of greenhouse gases
(Vågdahl, 1999).
Methane is, seen from a hundred year perspective, approx. a 20 times stronger
green house gas than carbon dioxide. Therefore it is extremely important to
minimize the methane discharge from production, distribution, upgrading or usage
of biogas. Simultaneously it should be mentioned that by collecting and digesting
organic material, above all manure, the spontaneous methane leakage from
conventional systems is lowered (Börjesson & Berglund, 2003).
Biogas has a number of positive properties as vehicle fuel regarding emissions.

The simple composition of biogas creates significantly easier emissions compared
to other fuels as petrol or diesel. For instance, the fumes from petrol and diesel
contain benzene and toluene. This does not occur in fumes from biogas.
Furthermore biogas has lower emissions of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and
sulphide compounds compared to petrol and diesel. This is valid for both light and
heavy vehicles. Solely for methane biogas has higher emissions compared to
petrol and diesel. But these discharges are small, so petrol and diesel still have
higher green house effect (Cornander et al, 2002).
2.5 Technical demands on upgraded gas

There is a Swedish standard for biogas as vehicle fuel, SS 15 54 38. The standard
is constructed of two parts, standard A, table 3, refers to the operation of engines
without lambda regulation (lorries), whilst standard B, table 4, refers to the
operation of engines with lambda regulation (cars) (SGC, 2001). Besides the
standard for biogas as vehicle fuel the gas quality must follow the regulation for
CNG stations, table 5 (Dahl, 2003).
Biogas which is transferred to the gas grid is first upgraded to vehicle fuel quality.
Then liquefied petroleum gas is added to increase the calorific value of the gas
and Wobbe number in order to resemble natural gas (Jönsson, 2003). The amount
of water in the gas transferred to the gas grid can be higher than what is stated in
standards for biogas as vehicle fuel and regulation for CNG stations since the gas
isn’t high pressure compressed to at least 200 bar.
Table 3: Biogas specification according to Swedish standard A (Dahl, 2003)
Parameter Demand
Methane content, vol-% 96-98
Amount of water, mg/mn3 < 32
Dew point, °C 5 °C below water pressure dew point at maximum storage pressure
during lowest monthly mean day temperature for current location
CO2 + O2 + N2, vol-% <4
O2, vol-% <1
Total sulphide, mg/mn3 < 23 (equivalent to approx. 16 ppmv H2S)
Nitrogen compounds, < 20 (excl. N2) accounted as NH3
mg/mn3
Particles < 5 µm
6
Table 4: Biogas specification according to Swedish standard B (Dahl, 2003)
Parameter Demand
Methan content, vol-% 95-99
Amount of water, mg/mn3 < 32
Dew point, °C 5 °C below water pressure dew point at maximum storage pressure
during lowest monthly mean day temperature for current location
CO2 + O2 + N2, vol-% <5
O2, vol-% <1
Total sulphide, mg/mn3 < 23 (equivalent to approx. 16 ppmv H2S)
Nitrogen compounds, < 20 (excl. N2) accounted as NH3
mg/mn3
Particles < 5 µm
Table 5: Demands for biogas according to regulation for CNG stations (Dahl, 2003)
Parameter Demand
Amount of water, mg/mn3 < 32, equivalent to the dew point -9 °C or lower at 200 bar.
Sulphide level and other < 23
soluble sulphides, mg/mn3
O2, vol-% <1
3 Cleaning and upgrading
In order to use biogas as vehicle fuel or to distribute it to the natural gas grid the
gas must, as previously mentioned, be cleaned and upgraded. There are a number
of different techniques to clean and upgrade the gas to vehicle or natural gas
quality. The cleaning of the gas consists of removal of corrosive products, mainly
hydrogen sulphide, water and particles. The upgrading consists of removal of
carbon dioxide to increase the energy level of the gas.
Biogas can contain oxygen or nitrogen to a certain extent. Since nitrogen as well
as carbon dioxide is an inert gas nitrogen isn’t desirable in the gas mixture. It is
difficult and expensive to remove nitrogen and normally this is therefore not a
part of the upgrading process. Instead, a high level of nitrogen is avoided by
avoiding in leakage of air. This is mainly a problem at landfills (Hagen et al,
2000).
Common techniques for removal of carbon dioxide also remove other harmful
components which are present in biogas from digestion tanks. In spite of this it is
often interesting to pre separate some components as i.e. particles and hydrogen
sulphide, if present in high levels. These components can otherwise cause
corrosive problems or heavy mechanical wear in the upgrading plant (Vågdahl,
1999).
The following section is a description of different techniques for removing

hydrogen sulphide, water and some other components like particles and ammonia.
Also, techniques for removing carbon dioxide will be displayed. The different
upgrading techniques for carbon dioxide are emphasised since carbon dioxide
greatly affects removal of other components like hydrogen sulphide and water.
7
3.1 Cleaning
3.1.1 Hydrogen sulphide

Hydrogen sulphide is produced when compounds containing sulphide is digested.
As mentioned earlier the sulphide level can be reduced in relation to separation of
carbon dioxide. But there are several different separate methods for removing
hydrogen sulphide. Hydrogen sulphide can be removed in the digestion tank, from
the biogas or from the gas separated from the biogas in the upgrading plant
(Hagen et al, 2001). Hydrogen sulphide is removed since it is corrosive on most
metals. The reactivity increases with increased concentration, pressure,
temperature and occurrence of water (IEA Bioenergy). In addition, hydrogen
sulphide can cause problem at the removal of carbon dioxide and cause odour
problems. Hydrogen sulphur form sulphide dioxide when the gas is combusted.
In-situ reduction with iron ions

With this method the hydrogen sulphide level is reduces directly in the digestion
tank by adding iron ions in the form of iron chloride, FeCl2. The iron ions, Fe2+
reacts with the sulphide ions, S2- and forms iron sulphide, FeS (Hagen et al, 2001).
The iron sulphide is removed from the plant together with the material remaining
after the digestion process. By this method can hydrogen sulphide levels from
2000 ppm be reduced to approx. 100 ppm. A disadvantage with the method is that
it’s hard to predict how much iron chloride that needs to be added. Since the
hydrogen sulphide level depends on the organic material that is digested. This
means that guaranteed overdosing must be done to ensure a low level of hydrogen
sulphide (Vågdahl, 1999). The method favours the digestion process since the
hydrogen sulphide level in the digestion tank is lowered and hydrogen sulphide
works restraining on biogas production (Dahl, 2003).
Adsorption on activated carbon

Hydrogen sulphide can be adsorbed on
activated carbon, figure 2. The carbon works as
a catalyst. The sulphur containing carbon can
either be replaced with fresh activated carbon or
regenerated with nitrogen or steam. The
reaction that occurs is transformation of
hydrogen sulphide and oxygen to sulphur and
water. The sulphur remains tied to the activated
carbon whilst the water passes to gas phase.
The oxygen in the reaction comes from additive
of air which results in increased nitrogen level
in the biogas. The carbon can be impregnated
with potassium iodide, KI, or sulphuric acid,
H2SO4, to increase the reaction rate (Hagen et
Figure 2: Removal of hydrogen al, 2001). The reaction works best at a pressure
sulphide with activated carbon
(Cirmac)
of 7-8 bar and a temperature of 50-70 °C.
Adsorption on activated carbon is a common
method for removing hydrogen sulphide when
PSA is used for removing carbon dioxide (IEA
Bioenergy).
8
Metal oxides
Hydrogen sulphide can be removed from the biogas
by chemical absorption in a fixed material with
metal oxides. Commonly, metal compounds of iron
oxides are used. An example of a commercial
product is Sulfa Treat, industrially produced
granules, figure 3. (Dahl, 2003) The reaction can
occur at atmosphere pressure. Some material with
iron oxide can be regenerated, however not Sulfa
Treat which is exchanged when it’s saturated
(Vågdahl, 1999). With new Sulfa Treat material
and moderate concentrations of hydrogen sulphide,
all hydrogen sulphide in the biogas is separated.
With time the material gets more and more saturated
and higher levels of hydrogen sulphide are
presented in the outlet stream. In order to see when
to renew the material, the level of hydrogen
sulphide must be measured (Hagen et al, 2001).
Figure 3: Separation of hydrogen sulphide with Sulfa Treat filter
Oxidation with air in biological filter

Hydrogen sulphide can be removed from the biogas by oxidation with air in a
biological filter containing hydrogen sulphide oxidising bacteria. In a vessel with
plastic carriers is 5-10 % air added and thereby the hydrogen sulphide is
biologically transformed to sulphur. Inside the vessel is a liquid circulating with
the gas condensate and removed sulphur or sulphuric acid. The temperature
should be approx. 35 °C to promote the reaction. The hydrogen sulphide content
can be reduced from 2000-3000 ppm to 50-100 ppm. Also ammonium can be
removed from the gas by this method which is an advantage. The addition of air is
a disadvantage when the gas should be used as vehicle fuel or when distributed to
the gas grid. Even if the air is added in correct amounts, whereby all oxygen is
used for oxidation, the nitrogen still remains in the gas (Hagen et al, 2001). The
advantage with this cleaning method is that it is cheap. The technique can also be
used for removing hydrogen sulphide from the carbon dioxide rich gas that is
being separated in the upgrading process (Vågdahl, 1999).
3.1.2 Water
The crude biogas is saturated with water. The water content may vary depending
on temperature, but at 35 °C there is approx. 5 % water in the gas (Hagen et al,
2001). A low level of water in biogas is usually not a problem. In higher levels
there can be corrosive damages of acids formed by water and hydrogen sulphide
or carbon dioxide, respectively. Due to this reason is water removed from the
biogas before it is used as vehicle fuel or distributed in the gas grid. There are
different methods for removing water, but adsorption drying is most commonly
used. Some techniques for separation of carbon dioxide also remove small levels
of water (Dahl, 2003). The separation of water can, depending on used technique
for separation of carbon dioxide, occur at different steps in the upgrading process.
Condensed water is removed from the crude biogas before any compression
(Hagen et al, 2001).
9
Refrigeration
The amount of water a gas can contain depends on pressure and temperature. With
decreasing temperature and increasing pressure water is condensed from a
saturated gas and thereby the dew point is lowered. This can be used to dry biogas
(Vågdahl, 1999).
The gas is cooled by heat exchangers and the condensed water is separated from
the gas. To achieve lower dew points the gas has to be compressed before cooling
and then expanded to the desired pressure (Hagen et al, 2001).
Adsorption
Water can be adsorbed with e.g. silica gel,
aluminium oxide or magnesium oxide. The water
is adsorbed on the surface of a drying agent. The
drying agent is packed in two containers which
alternating adsorbs water and regenerates, figure
4. If the drying is performed at elevated pressure
a minor amount of the dried gas can be
depressurised and used for regeneration. This gas
is then recycled to the compressor inlet and thus
passes all cleaning steps again which means that
the capacity of the compressor is lowered. If
drying is performed at atmospheric pressure the
regeneration is performed with air and a vacuum
pump (Hagen et al, 2001).
Figur 4: Adsorption driers (Photo: Margareta Persson)
Absorption
The biogas can also be dried by absorption of water in different types of glycol or
hygroscopic salts. Normally the drier consists of an absorption vessel filled with
salt granules. The wet gas is fed from the bottom of the vessel and the salt is
dissolved as it adsorbs water. The saturated salt solution is withdrawn with a valve
from the bottom of the vessel. The salt is not regenerated and new salt granules
have to be added to replace the dissolved salt. (Hagen et al, 2001).
3.1.3 Other contaminants
Particles
Biogas contains particles which are separated in mechanical filters made of paper
or cloth. Remainders of oil possibly added to the gas during compression can also
be removed with a filter. The removal can be done before the upgrading plant or
before CNG stations. The pore sizes of the filter can be chosen according to
maximal allowed particle size in the gas (Vågdahl, 1999).
10
Ammonia
Ammonia is formed in anaerobe digestion of protein and exists normally in low
levels in biogas, which means that removal is usually not necessary. Ammonia is
removed indirectly by separation of condensed water but also in carbon dioxide
separation with water wash (Vågdahl, 1999).
Halogenated hydrocarbons
Halogenated hydrocarbons can cause corrosion and exists mainly in landfill gas.
The halogenated hydrocarbons can be removed by adsorption on impregnated
activated carbon. The large molecules like the halogenated hydrocarbons are
adsorbed, while smaller molecules like methane and carbon dioxide pass through.
The activated carbon can be regenerated by heating it to 200 °C (Hagen et al,
2001).
Oxygen
Oxygen can be removed in some cleaning processes for carbon dioxide i.e.
membrane separation and PSA. Oxygen is often present in landfill gas, but is not a
natural component in biogas. The existence of oxygen can be an indication of air
leakage (Hagen et al, 2001).
Organic silicon compounds

Organic silicon compounds exists only occasionally in biogas. The compounds
can be removed in a liquid with a mixture of hydrocarbon with special ability to
absorb the organic silicon compounds. The organic silicon compounds can, if not
separated, cause severe damage on gas engines (IEA Bioenergy).
3.2 Upgrading
3.2.1 PSA (Pressure Swing Adsorption)

This technique separates different substances on the basis of physical forces and
molecular size, which decides their penetration ability in a material. The
upgrading is performed at increased pressure and the adsorption material is
regenerated by pressure reduction, hence the name PSA, Pressure Swing
Adsorption (Lindberg, 1998). PSA is the second most common upgrading
technique in Sweden.
With PSA are carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen separated by adsorption on
zeolites or activated carbon at different pressure levels. The fixed adsorption
material also adsorbs hydrogen sulphide, but unlike adsorption of carbon dioxide
this is done irreversibly. Therefore the technique has high security against
hydrogen sulphide in the upgraded gas. In order not to destroy the fixed
adsorption material hydrogen sulphide is removed in a separate cleaning step.
Water is also pre separated to prevent it from damaging the adsorption process
11
Zeolites are a mineral in form
of crystalline polymers, i.e.
aluminium silicate which
exists naturally or can be
produced synthetically. Their
characteristically spongy
structure with hollows makes
them suitable as molecular
sieves for carbon dioxide,
water, hydrogen sulphide,
ammonium etc. Zeolites can be
produced in different forms
Figurer 5: Different forms of zeolites (Uop, 2003) and some of them can be
viewed in figure 5 (Uop,
2003).
A PSA plant with removal of carbon

dioxide can be built in the following
way. The crude biogas from the
digestion tank passes through a
condenser trap where water is
removed. Then the gas passes a
particle filter before it’s compressed
by a low pressure compressor to
approx. 5 bar. Hydrogen sulphide is
removed from the gas in a column
with activated carbon and oxygen for
the process is supplied in form of
compressed air. After the removal of
hydrogen sulphide the gas is cooled in
a refrigerator in which the water
steam condenses and is removed. The
gas can then enter the PSA vessels in
order to increase the concentration of
Figure 6: Pilot plant with PSA, Helsingborg methane (Stockholm Vatten).
The PSA plant consists of four vessels with adsorption material, figure 6. The
vessels are connected in order to lower the energy demand for compressing the
gas. Every vessel work in four different phases, adsorption, depressurising,
regeneration and pressure build-up, figure 7. In the adsorption phase compressed
crude biogas is lead into the lower end of the vessel. When the gas passes through
the vessel carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen are adsorbed on the adsorbent
material surface. The gas which leaves the top of the vessel is enriched with
methane and contains approx. 97 % methane. Before the adsorption material is
completely saturated the biogas is redirected to another pressurised vessel.
Regeneration of the saturated vessel starts. The pressure in the vessel is lowered,
almost to vacuum, in several steps. First, the vessel is depressurised by balancing
it with another vessel which is already regenerated. Then the pressure is lowered
12
to atmospheric pressure. The gas which now leaves the vessel contains high
concentrations of methane and is recycled to the inlet of crude biogas. In the last
step of the regeneration, vacuum is created in the vessel. The gas that now leaves
the vessel is lead from the plant to the atmosphere. This gas mainly contains
carbon dioxide, but also some methane. Therefore there are some small losses of
methane in the upgrading process. Before the vessel can be used for adsorption
again the pressure is increased step by step, which is the final step in the cycle.
The vessel is first pressurised by balancing it with a vessel which has been in
adsorption phase and thereafter the final pressure build-up is achieved with feed
gas (Hagen et al, 2001).
Upgraded
biogas
e
ion
ion
rise
uris
orpt
orpt
ssu
ress
Ads
Des
Pre
Dep
Vent gas
Raw biogas (CO2)
Vacuum
Compressor pump
Figure 7: Adsorption with PSA (Hagen et al, 2001)
In the PSA process is also water adsorbed, which gives the gas a low dew point
when it exits the vessels. By this, the security against water is good in the
upgraded gas. Occasionally, the gas is dried also after the PSA vessels, before it is
odorised and compressed.
3.2.2 Absorption with water

In pressurised water absorption (water wash) is the gas cleaned from carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and ammonium since these substances are physically
dissolved in water under pressure. Methane is also dissolved in water, but its
solubility is lower than for the other substances. Carbon dioxides solubility in
water increases with increasing pressure and decreasing temperature. The water
wash can either be built for regeneration of water or for the use of new water all
the time. The regeneration of water lowers the water usage but increase the energy
consumption (Vågdahl, 1999). Water wash is the most common technique in
Sweden for removal of carbon dioxide from biogas. The separation can be
regulated with pressure and the relation between gas and fluid flow (Dahl, 2003).
13
In figure 10 is a scheme for water wash with
regeneration displayed. The condensed water is
first removed from the gas. Then the crude biogas
is compressed and feed to the bottom of the
absorption vessels where the gas meets a counter
flow of water fed from the top of the vessel, figure
8. The absorption vessel is provided with random
packing in order to get maximum mass transfer,
figure 9. In the vessel is carbon dioxide absorbed
by the water and the biogas which exits the vessel
is enriched on methane. The upgraded gas is
saturated of water and must be dried, for instance
in an adsorption drier before it is odorised and
pressurised (Dahl, 2003).
Since methane is partly soluble in water, the water

from the absorption vessel is, in order to lower the
methane losses, lead to a flash tank. In the flash
tank the pressure is lowered and the dissolved gas
departs. The gas is then returned to the crude
biogas before the compressor (Dahl, 2003).
Figure 8: Absorption vessel for water wash

Figure 9: Packings (Appelkvist & Johansson, 2002)
After the flash tank is the water sent to a desorption vessel where the dissolved
carbon dioxide is driven off by a counter current airflow. The desorption vessel is
formed exactly as the absorption vessel with packings to get a large mass transfer.
The exiting liquid from the desorption vessel is cooled before it is returned to the
absorption vessel (Hagen et al, 2001). The vent gas from the desorption vessel
contains air, the removed carbon dioxide and small amounts of methane separated
from the water. It is hard to take the methane leakage in custody since it exits in
large amounts of air. To prevent odour and to collect hydrogen sulphide the vent
gas can pass a filter, i.e. a bio filter, before it’s released into the atmosphere
14
Upgraded gas
Gas dryer
Water pump
Filter
Vent gas
Absorption (CO2)
column
Bio
filter
Flash
Raw biogas tank
Compressor
Desorption Cooler
Water column
separator
Air
blower
Figure 10: Water wash with regeneration (Hagen et al, 2001)
As previously mention is, besides carbon dioxide, also hydrogen sulphide

absorbed by water. Hydrogen sulphide is partly desorbed with the carbon dioxide
in the desorption vessel, but a certain amount remains in a system with
regeneration of water. Hydrogen sulphide can oxidise with air to elementary
sulphur in the desorption column. This sulphur can cause problems with plugging
and fouling after some period of operation (Hagen et al, 2001). Therefore
desorption with air is not recommended when the biogas contain high levels of
hydrogen sulphide (IEA Bioenergy).
In the other type of absorption with water isn’t the water regenerated in a
desorption column, instead it is lead away from the plant after the flash tank,
figure 11. This is more cost effective than regenerating the water if cheap water
like cleaned sewage water can be used (IEA Bioenergy). Since the water isn’t
regenerated there occurs no problem with precipitation of elementary sulphur
(Hagen et al, 2001). Methane which is dissolved in water and not separated in the
flash tank leaves the plant with the sewage water. This means that the methane
losses cannot be collected and are hard to measure (Dahl, 2003).
Figure 11: Water wash without regeneration (Hagen et al, 2001)
15
3.2.3 Absorption with Selexol
Absorption with a solution of polyglycol ether is highly similar to absorption with
pressurised water with regeneration. Selexol and Genosorb are two trade marks
for the chemical. Selexol is most internationally known.
Selexol has low freezing point and it is non corrosive. The solubility for carbon
dioxide and ammonium is higher in Selexol than in water. Selexol also dissolves
water, chlorinated hydrocarbons and in some extent methane (Kohl & Riesenfeld,
1979). Selexol can absorb three times as much carbon dioxide as water. Therefore
can a Selexol plant be smaller than a corresponding plant with water (Appelkvist
& Johansson, 2002). The disadvantage with higher solubility is that Selexol is
harder to regenerate from carbon dioxide than water (Vågdahl, 1999).
The solubility of hydrogen sulphide in Selexol is higher than the solubility of

carbon dioxide. In order to regenerate Selexol from hydrogen sulphide and water,
a substantial increment in temperature is needed and therefore should these
components be removed in separate steps before the absorption with Selexol. This
brings good security against hydrogen sulphide and water in the cleaned gas
(Dahl, 2003).
Today there is one plant with Selexol in Sweden. In figure 12 is a process scheme
for the Selexol plant displayed. First, is hydrogen sulphide removed from the
biogas. Then the gas is cooled down and the condensed water is removed. The
crude biogas is compressed and chilled before it is fed to the bottom of an
absorption column. Selexol is fed from the top to achieve a gas-liquid counter
flow. The column is equipped with random packing to give a large surface for
gas-liquid contact. The gas leaving the top of the column is enriched of methane.
The gas is dried before it is odorised and distributed in the gas grid or compressed
to vehicle fuel (Hagen et al, 2001).
Since methane, like water, partly is soluble in Selexol some of the methane is
separated in the absorption column. To lower the methane losses is the Selexol
after the absorption column led to a flash tank where the pressure is lowered. The
released gas mixture is rich in methane and is recirculated to the compressor inlet.
To regenerate the Selexol from carbon dioxide it is after the flash tank led to a
desorption column similar to the absorption column. The Selexol meets a counter
flow with air and carbon dioxide is desorbed. The regenerated Selexol is cooled
and then used again for removal of carbon dioxide (Hagen et al, 2001).
If hydrogen sulphide isn’t pre separated it is not recommended to use air in the
desorption column, since it could lead to precipitation of elementary sulphur.
Instead could an inert gas like cleaned biogas be used for regenerating Selexol
(IEA Bioenergy).
The vent gas from the desorption column is sometimes treated in a bio filter
before it is let out. The filter lowers the odour from the plant. Just as in a plant
with water wash with regeneration and PSA there is some methane in the
separated vent gas (Hagen et al, 2001).
16
Figure 12: Removal of carbon dioxide by absorption with Selexol (Hagen et al, 2001)
3.2.4 Absorption with chemical reaction

This process is based on the same principle as
the absorption process without chemical
reaction. One of the more important parts of the
plant is the absorption column, figure 13. The
main difference is that the absorption material
reacts chemically with the components and
therefore drives them into solution, instead of
simply dissolving the components. The
absorption material is regenerated by a reversal
chemical reaction with steam where carbon
dioxide returns to gas phase. The regeneration
involves high energy consumption. There are a
number of chemicals commercially available
for this type of absorption, but the most
commonly used is ethylamine in the form of
mono ethanol amine (MEA) (Dahl, 2003).
Figure 13: Absorption column in absorption with
chemical reaction (Photo: Margareta Persson)
Some of the advantages with absorption with chemical reaction is that the
absorbent is selective for carbon dioxide (and also in some cases for hydrogen
sulphide) whereby in principle no methane is removed. This means that the
methane concentration in the gas is high, about 99 %. Since the energy
consumption for regeneration of the absorbent from hydrogen sulphide is high, is
it suitable to remove hydrogen sulphide before removing carbon dioxide. Another
advantage with this technique is that it operates at atmospheric pressure.
Disadvantages with the technique are that it includes handling of toxic substances
and that there is a risk for chemical leakage. Another disadvantage is the high
17
energy consumption in the regeneration process. In order to make the technique
interesting there must be some kind of usage for this heat. In Sweden there is one
plant which uses absorption with chemical reaction (Dahl, 2003).
The security against sulphur and water in the cleaned gas can vary depending on
the chemical used in the chemical absorption. For instance, hydrogen sulphide is
absorbed by MEA while MEA doesn’t absorb water which several other amines
appropriate for chemical absorption does (Hagen et al, 2001).
In figure 14 is a principal scheme of how upgrading with chemical absorption can

be performed. Hydrogen sulphide is removed before the biogas is fed to the
bottom of the absorption column. The column is formed in such a way that there
is a large surface between biogas and the counter flowing chemical. Carbon
dioxide is chemically absorbed by the chemical. The gas leaving the top of the
column is rich in methane. The gas is compressed and dried before it is odorised
and high pressure compressed to desired pressure. The chemical leaving the
bottom of the absorption column is regenerated in the desorption column by
heating the chemical with steam to the boiling point. After the chemical has been
regenerated it is cooled before it is returned to the absorption column. The gas
which leaves the chemical during regeneration almost solely consists of carbon
dioxide and is released into the atmosphere (Cirmac).
Figure 14: Chemical absorption scheme (Cirmac)
3.2.5 Membrane separation

There are dry and wet techniques for removal of carbon dioxide with membrane,
figure 15. The dry technique is based on that certain substances easier pass
through thin membranes than others. The transportation speed of each substance is
depending on the difference in partial pressure of the substance over the
membrane. Partial pressure is, in turn, dependent of the permeability which is a
direct function of the chemical solubility of the substance in the membrane. To
achieve a good separation of carbon dioxide the membrane should be selective
and the permeability difference between carbon dioxide and methane should be
large (Hagen et al, 2001).
18
Figure 15: Dry (left) and wet (right) membrane for removal of carbon dioxide
(IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme)
Hollow fibre is an example of a fixed membrane material formed to create as

large surface as possible (Vågdahl, 1999). The fibres can be made up by different
polymers which could have permeability either 20 or 60 times higher for carbon
dioxide and hydrogen sulphide than for methane (Hagen et al, 2001). To prevent
corrosion is the hydrogen sulphide removed before the membrane separation
(Lindberg, 1998). It could also be necessary to pre separate water since it lowers
the efficiency of the membrane (Vågdahl, 1999).
The separation is performed under high pressure, usually in the range 25 and 40
bar. The methane rich gas stays on the high pressure side. This lowers the
compression need of the gas when distributing it to the gas grid or to vehicle fuel
The design of the membrane separation means that a high methane concentration
conflicts with low methane losses. By increasing the size or the number of
membrane modules could the methane concentration be increased, but in the same
time the losses are higher. To receive high methane concentration without large
losses is some of the permeated carbon dioxide rich gas recirculated (Hagen et al,
2001).
There is no upgrading plant with dry membrane separation in Sweden and only a
few in Europe (Dahl, 2003). The high pressure in combination with recirculation
brings high electricity consumption.
In difference to dry membranes are wet membranes not selective for certain gases.
The separation is instead performed by the occurrence of a fluid on one side of the
membrane which selectively absorbs certain compounds (IEA Greenhouse Gas
R&D Programme). Gas and fluid flows counter wise and the hydrophobic
membrane with micro pores works as a contact surface between them. Carbon
dioxide molecules diffuse through the membrane and are absorbed by a solution.
The solution is regenerated by heating it. The membranes work at atmospheric
pressure which brings low costs (IEA Bioenergy). There is no upgrading plant of
this kind in Sweden.
19
3.2.6 Cryogenic process
In a cryogenic process is the biogas compressed and chilled. This condenses the
carbon dioxide and can thus be separated in liquid form. The technique is based
on that carbon dioxide condenses at lower pressure and higher temperature than
methane. To prevent freezing, water is removed before the cryogenic process.
Hydrogen sulphide is also removed separately (Dahl, 2003).
In figure 16 is a process scheme for the process shown. It begins with

compressing the crude biogas to approx. 80 bar stepwise. Afterwards is the gas
dried to prevent freezing in the following cooling steps where the gas is cooled
with heat exchangers and cooling machines to -45 °C. When the gas is cooled
carbon dioxide is condensed and the liquid carbon dioxide is removed in a
separator. To lower the methane losses is methane recycled from the condensate.
The recycled methane gas is led back to previous cleaning step. After removal of
the condensed carbon dioxide is the gas cooled down additionally to -55 °C. The
gas is then expanded through a Joule-Thomson nozzle into an expansion vessel.
The pressure in the vessel is 8-10 bar and the temperature –110 °C, which freezes
the remaining carbon dioxide. A balance is received between the solid carbon
dioxide and the gas, consisting of approx. 97 % methane. The upgraded gas is
heated before it leaves the plant (Hagen et al, 2001).
14
12
Heat ex-
changer 6
11 F1
J-T
nozzle
6
Heat ex-
changer 5
2
B2
KOND 1
Heat ex- Heat ex- Heat ex-
changer 4
changer 2 changer 3 CO 2 out
B1
18 19 4 KA
3
16
BIOGAS
21
5 F2
17
Biogas in
Gas drier METHANE
Heat ex-
changer 1
KOND 2
CO 2 out
Upgraded gas out
Figure 16: Cryogenic process for removal of carbon dioxide (Hagen et al, 2001)
The technology with cryogenic removal of carbon dioxide is under development

on, among others, Lund Institute of Technology, but it is not available as a
commercial process (Hagen et al, 2001).
3.3 Odorising
Upgraded biogas used for vehicle fuel, or distributed in the gas grid is odorised
for security reasons. The odorising substance is tetrahydrotiophen (THT) or
mercaptans (Vågdahl, 1999). The added amount is between 5 and 30 mg/mn3
(Hagen et al, 2001). Since the odour contain sulphur, it must follow the
requirements as outlined in standard for vehicle fuel and regulation for CNG
station.
20
4 Technical evaluation
4.1 Choice of upgrading technique
To identify the underlying factors which decide the choice of upgrading

technique, personnel on plants were asked why a specific technology had been
chosen. The question was put as a multi choice question where the possible
answers were investment cost, operation and maintenance costs, performance,
availability, guarantees, experience of others and other.
Twelve answers were received. At six of these plants the gas is upgraded with a
water wash, from which half use regeneration of water and half don’t. Four of the
plants use PSA, one use Selexol and one use absorption with chemical reaction.
Sometimes more than one answer was given, in these cases the answers were
weighted. For instance, if a plant provided three answers, each answer was given a
weight of 33 % of the total answer from the plant. The result of the answers from
all plants is summarised in figure 17.
Motive for choosing upgrading technique
Other 39 % Investment cost 39 %
Others experience Operation and maintenance cost 11 %

Performance 8 %
3%
Figure 17: Motive for choosing upgrading technique for all asked plants
In total, 40 % of the answers contained investment cost as a motive for selecting a

certain technique. The choice others were also 40 %. As others were experiences
from pilot plants, availability of cleaned sewage water, the will to try a new
technology, no methane losses and good experience with contractor stated. The
sum of the answers indicate what is generally the deciding factor in choosing
upgrading technique, but it is more interesting to report the result individually for
each technique.
Of the four PSA plants the motive for their technology was only in one case the
investment and in another investment cost together with operational and
maintenance costs. Personnel on the two remaining plants stated other reasons for
investing in a PSA plant. The deciding factors in these cases were earlier
experiences and odour demands, figure 18.
21
Motive for choosing PSA
Odour demands 25 % Investment cost 38%
Pilot plant 25 % Operation and maintenance cost 13 %
Figure 18: Motive for choosing PSA
For regenerating water wash the personnel on one plant stated investment cost as
the only reason for selecting the technique and for another plant performance was
stated. The third plant selected the technique based on investment cost together
with operational and maintenance costs, figure 19.
Motive for choosing water wash with
regeneration
Performance 33 %
Operation and maintenance cost 17 % Investment cost 50 %
Figure 19: Motive for choosing water wash with regeneration
Personnel on one of the water wash plants without regeneration stated investment
cost as the only reason for choosing the technique. For another of these plants was
the availability of cleaned sewage water mentioned as a motive. For the third
water wash plant without regeneration the technique was chosen due to
investment cost, experience from others and good experience with contractor,
figure 20.
Motive for choosing water wash without
regeneration
Others experience 6 % Good experience with contractor 6 %
Availability of cleaned sewage water 33 % Investment cost 45 %
Figure 20: Motive for choosing water wash without regeneration
22
For the two plants with Selexol and absorption with chemical reaction were some
other reasons stated. The motive for investing in a Selexol plant were the lack of
water in the area, for instance as cleaned sewage water and the will to try a new
technique for removal of carbon dioxide. The reasons for investing in a plant with
absorption with chemical reaction were investment cost, operational and
maintenance costs and that the technique doesn’t have any methane losses.
Suppliers of upgrading plants were asked what they see as the deciding factor or
factors when choosing a specific technique. According to a PSA supplier are the
deciding factors of why to choose PSA investment cost, availability above 97 %
and at the most 2 % methane losses. Another PSA supplier stated the motives for
PSA could be that the plant only requires a small area or no access to water.
For water wash with regeneration a supplier stated that a decisive motive for this
technique is low operational and maintenance costs and the fact that it is a simple,
known process. Another supplier of water wash with and without regeneration
stated that it is a mixture of all possible answers which is decisive. The supplier
pointed out that upgrading is a difficult process and therefore is experience
important. The supplier agrees on that the price have been completely decisive,
but also that an orderer have paid more to get a certain supplier or upgrading
technique. Another supplier stated that it before in general was investment cost
and availability that decided, but an increased technology understanding within
the orderer brings operational and maintenance costs into the decision nowadays.
Further, the supplier presented that when it comes to operation and maintenance
costs these costs may incorrectly divert between different techniques since the
information is given by the supplier and the orderer have a hard time judging the
relevance of the information.
Summarising comment of technology choice
From answers from plants and suppliers it could be stated that the investment cost
is the most common underlying factor why a certain technique is chosen. This
answer exists for three of the represented techniques. Although the choice of
techniques in different cases have been based on investment cost this does not
mean that the techniques are similar in investment. Depending on conditions in
the actual location and the tenders handed in, the technique with lowest
investment cost could vary from case to case.
Solely for three plants were investment cost together with operational and
maintenance costs the deciding factors for choosing a technique. It is a little
surprising that operational and maintenance costs haven’t been part of the
decision on more plants when costs have been the deciding factor. The total plant
costs, including investment, operational and maintenance costs provide a more
correct view of the plants economy than just the investment cost.
There are certain factors which are specific for a technique. One such factor is if
there is access to water at the current location. This is pointed out, for instance, by
a water wash plant without regeneration, the Selexol plant and a supplier.
23
Water wash without regeneration is limited to locations where large amounts of
cheap water are available like next to a sewage treatment plant. But also for
regenerating systems where tap water is used is a natural recipient of the water
needed since it to some extent is exchanged. When it comes to PSA, Selexol and
chemical reaction the access to water isn’t decisive.
Other interesting answers given specifically for different techniques are odour
demands with PSA and no methane losses with chemical reaction. Concerning
odours, the PSA technology secures low odour discharges since, above all,
hydrogen sulphide in the gas is trapped in the pre filtering or in the adsorption
column. Absorption with chemical reaction performs a selective reaction between
carbon dioxide and the chemical where, in principal, no methane is lost.
Beside the information given in the questionnaires, some other factors which may
affect the choice of technique and supplier came up during the plants visits. One
such factor is a strong supplier economy. Another is that the supplier, if foreign,
has a Swedish partner. Otherwise, it was mentioned that lacking knowledge in
Swedish regulations could be a problem. These factors do not affect the
techniques directly, but could anyway become decisive when choosing upgrading
techniques since different suppliers leave offers for various techniques.
4.2 Operational experiences
4.2.1 PSA
An operational problem with PSA can be that dust or particles form the material
in the absorption columns follows the gas and plug the valves, which degrades
their functionality. This problem occurs in a plant with the capacity of 350 mn3
crude biogas per hour, taken into operation in 2002. The plant use activated
carbon as absorption material and have problems with carbon particles in the
valves. To avoid this problem the personnel at the plant recommend new plants to
choose the more expensive zeolite material instead of activated carbon. The
zeolite material is according to the personnel not as inclined as carbon to follow
the gas stream. However, there have also been reported problems with dust from
zeolite material in valves. It was a pilot plant with the capacity of 20 mn3 crude
biogas per hour and taken into operation in 1997. The problem depended much on
incorrect designed columns. With help from some kind of sock as a filter, the
problem was corrected, but despite this, some dust ended up in the valves anyway.
A plant with the capacity two times 300 mn3 crude biogas per hour (termed 600
mn3 crude biogas per hour hereafter) and taken into operation between 2000 and
2002 has also had problems with the pneumatic valves by the adsorption columns.
The valves wouldn’t close properly, which made it hard to reach a high methane
level in the gas. The error wasn’t due to carbon particles in the valves but to an
error in number of “return springs” in the pneumatic valves. This is a construction
error made by the supplier. Personnel on the plant further states that they haven’t
had any problems with carbon particles in the valves and only found a little dust
in valves and the vacuum pump filter. The reason for carbon dust ending up in the
valves could according to the personnel depend on slightly incorrect timing in the
cycle between adsorption columns. This could bring too fast loss of pressure and
thus dust from the absorption material is pulled with the gas stream.
24
Leakage in valves and thereby leakage of entering air is another operational
problem which occurred on the pilot plant with capacity of 20 mn3 crude biogas.
The valves in the plant open or close two times per minute and they are therefore
exposed to heavy wear. Also, a supplier of PSA plants points out the problems
with exhaustion and wear that occurs at varying pressure in columns and
frequently opening or closing valves. This is, according to the supplier, something
that is taken into account when dimensioning plants, i.e. by exhaustion
calculations.
When it comes to compressors in

PSA plants there have been some
problems, figure 21. For instance, it
is said that the electric engines to the
high pressure compressors at the PSA
plant of 600 mn3 are slightly under
dimensioned. Further, it is said that
there is insufficient space around the
compressor which makes mainten-
ance harder.
Figure 21: High pressure compressor (The compressor in the photo has no connection to the text.)
At the 600 mn3 plant there have been problems with the low pressure compressor,
where vibrations form the compressor has caused bolts in the concrete to break.
The vibrations were due to a missing stabiliser in the girder construction in which
the compressor was mounted. The problem can be noted as a construction error
made by the supplier. From the literature study it could also be found that the low
pressure compressor at a pilot plant of 20 mn3 crude biogas per hour was wrong
dimensioned and had to be replaced (Dahl, 1999).
When it comes to the analyse equipment, the personnel on the plants of 350 mn3
and 600 mn3 crude biogas per hour state that there are problems with equipment
for measuring the methane and oxygen level in the cleaned gas. The equipment
initially worked, but was after a while behaving unstable and showing completely
incorrect values. In both cases has the supplier have had to attend to the
equipment.
At the PSA plant with capacity of 600 mn3 crude biogas per hour has a number of
other operational interrupts occurred. I.e. the waterborne heat and cooling system
in the plant, which among other things is used for cooling compressors, has been
wrongfully constructed. Heat exchangers, pump, pipes etc. were misplaced. The
system is today rebuilt. Further, there have been problems with communication
interrupts between the plant and computer where signals have been lost. This was
due to a construction error on the communication chip in form of hardware bugs.
Other problems that the personnel have stated are missing parts in the pump to the
odorising equipment, temperature sensors that was set in wrong range and also
that too little glycol was added to the cooling system.
25
According to a supplier of PSA plants for upgrading biogas, the main problem
with PSA is to prevent hydrogen sulphide to reach the adsorption column since it
permanently destroys the adsorption material. The supplier has solved this by
installing a biological filter which pre separates hydrogen sulphide. The filter
reduces the hydrogen sulphide level by 95 %. As an extra precaution a filter with
activated carbon is also installed for each adsorption column which eliminates any
remaining hydrogen sulphide.
Water wash without regeneration

Plugging or growth on packings in the absorption column is an existing problem
in plants without regeneration of water. The problem also exists on plants with
regeneration, but not to the same extent. In systems without regeneration is
cleaned sewage water used in which there is some biological material that get
stuck in the packings or cause growth. In the regenerating system, tap water is
used. This water is less nutritious than the cleaned sewage water. In spite of this
there occurs growth on the packings. This is due to bacteria and other biological
material entering the plant through the air that is added to the desorption column
in order to drive out the carbon dioxide form the water (Appelkvist & Johansson,
2002).
When the packings are plugged they don’t scatter the water which causes
difficulties to reach a sufficient methane concentration. Plugging of the packings
also makes it harder for the water to flow down in the column and therefore water
can follow the gas out of the column and fills the condensation separator, figure
22. The packings must be cleaned when this happens. It is done either manually
by removing the packings from the column or by adding a detergent in the column
(Appelkvist & Johansson, 2002). For water wash without regeneration can the
column be washed during operation since the water is exchanged which is an
advantage for this technique compared to water wash with regeneration.
Figure 22: Plugging of packings (Appelkvist & Johansson, 2002)
26
Plugging of packings in the absorption column exists in all three water wash
plants without regeneration that have left information about operation
experiences. On a plant dimension for 150 mn3 crude biogas per hour, taken into
operation in 2000, are the packings removed from the column and washed in a
cement mixer or they are left inside the column and washed by adding a detergent.
Personnel on the plant with capacity of 150 mn3 states that they have two sets of
packings of which one set can be washed while the other is operational. This
reduces the operation interrupts. Personnel on a plant with capacity of 80 mn3
crude biogas per hour and taken into operation in 1999 also state that they remove
the packings from the column and washes them when they notice that it is hard to
receive a high methane concentration. On this plant the packings is washed two or
three times per year. Both the plant of 150 mn3 and the one of 80 mn3 are using
cleaned sewage water for removal of carbon dioxide.
On another plant with extended capacity to 300 mn3 crude biogas per hour and
taken into operation in 2002 there is problems with plugging packings. The plant
has used both cleaned sewage water and tap water. A semi automatic washing
apparatus have been installed which washes the packings without removing them
from the columns. The absorption column is washed after one and a half month of
operation when using tap water. The reason for using tap water is due to
difficulties with the gas quality when using cleaned sewage water. Larger amounts
of water are needed to achieve sufficient methane concentration than what the
pumps in the plant can manage.
A supplier of both water washes with and without regeneration also points out that
growth or plugging of the absorption column can occur in both these processes.
The supplier says that the growth seem to get worse when organic waste in form
of, i.e. waste from slaughter houses or provisions are digested.
The cleaned sewage water can also bring foaming in the absorption column. This
is a problem stated by personnel on a plant dimensioned for 80 mn3 crude biogas
per hour. The problem could according to the personnel be relived by adding a
foam reducing oil.
Another operation interrupt is problems with high water dew point which is
presented at plants with water wash without regeneration. For a plant of 80 mn3
crude biogas per hour the dew point is said to be too high in some cases. The high
dew point is according to the personnel due to the material used in the drying
process, aluminium oxide, is getting old or that the material hasn’t been
regenerated enough. Also the plant with 150 mn3 crude biogas per hour is said to
have problem with occasionally rising humidity in the gas. The drying solution
has then been replaced or the drying material has been removed from the column
and dried. According to the operational personnel this problem mainly occurs at
the same time as the packings is plugged and water follows the gas. The time
between the occasions that the drying material must be treated may vary from two
weeks to four months. Personnel on the plant which was extended in 2002 to 300
mn3 crude biogas per hour says that they initially had problems with adjusting the
driers. Time for drying and regeneration had to be adjusted which is done now.
27
Concerning low pressure compressors the
personnel states, at the plant dimensioned
for 300 mn3 crude biogas per hour, that there
are problems with compressors being poorly
mounted. This causes vibrations in the
whole plant and has even caused breaks in
pipes.
Figure 23: Low pressure compressor (The compressor

on the photo does not have anything to do with the text.)
Water wash with regeneration

Plugging of packings can, as mentioned earlier, occur in water washes with
regeneration. This problem is reported by the personnel at a plant dimensioned for
660 mn3 crude biogas per hour and taken into operation in 1997. Both absorption
as well as desorption columns in the plant are plugged which means that the
packings must be removed and washed manually once a year. The operation
personnel say that the plugging of the packings is partly biological but also partly
depends on leakage of oil from the low pressure compressors. For another plant,
dimensioned for twice the capacity of 700 mn3 crude biogas per hour (later
referred to as a plant dimensioned for 1400 m3 crude biogas per hour) and taken
into operation in 2002, the personnel reported after one year of operation that they
checked the water wash but couldn’t find any signs of plugging or growth. A
supplier of water wash with regeneration points out that plugging of the packings
occurs although tap water is used. The supplier has been cooperating with a
detergent producer to produce an ecological detergent that has low foaming
tendencies and it is planned to be usable during operation.
When it comes to drying equipment there have been a number of different

operational issues, above all, on plants taken into operation before 2000, but also
on new plants. Personnel on one new plant dimensioned for a capacity of 600 mn3
crude biogas per hour, taken into operation in 2003, reports that it takes a long
time to achieve the correct dew point at start up. It is said that this depends on
under dimensioned drying equipment.
For those plants which are a little bit older some data can be collected from
literature from Dahl (1999). For instance, a plant dimensioned for the capacity of
75 mn3 crude biogas per hour and taken into operation in 1998, has earlier had
problems to get sufficiently low dew point. This was probably due to
inappropriate dimensioning of the plant. The same plant has also had problems
with drying material that followed the gas. Another plant with the capacity 200
mn3 crude biogas, taken into operation in 1997, has also had problems with
unsatisfactory functioning gas driers and dust from the drying solution that
followed the gas. In the literature it comes to light that yet another plant, taken
28
into operation in 1997 with the capacity of 660 mn3 crude biogas per hour had to
replace the driers to twice the original size. This since there was big problems
with keeping down the dew point. The plant has also had problems with dust from
the driers that follows the gas stream. There have also been complications with
plugging in draining valves on the plant.
Concerning low pressure compressors there have, just like for the drying
equipment, been a number of problems with older plants as well as there are some
problems with newer plants as well. Personnel at the plant with 1400 mn3 crude
biogas per hour report that they have had to replace components in the compressor
engine, an error which were caused by a construction error by the manufacturer.
For the slightly older plants, taken into operation 1996-1998, there have been a
number of problems with low pressure compressors. A plant started in 1997 with
the capacity of 200 mn3 has had problem with early wear of piston rings to
compressors. Another problem was pipe fractures due to bad pipefitting in
combination with compressor vibrations. A regulation valve of bad quality has
caused water to enter the low pressure compressor in a plant started in 1996 with
an original capacity of 150 mn3 crude biogas per hour. Initial errors with another
plant started in 1998 with the capacity of 75 mn3 were due to bad dimensioning of
the compressor and membrane breakdown in the second step of the compressor
(Dahl, 1999). The plant with 75 mn3 and the one with 660 mn3, started in 1997,
today reports having heavy wear on the compressor which causes high
maintenance costs. The spare parts are expensive and hard to get hold of. Further,
personnel on one of the plants state that the compressors that are leaking oil are
those components with worst operation in the plant.
Another operational problem that has occurred on the plant with 1 400 mn3 is that
the gas cooler, situated after the compressor and before the water wash, has
broken down. The reason was that the cooler was soldered with copper, on which
hydrogen sulphide from the biogas caused corrosion. This is an example on bad
material selection.
A supplier of water wash with regeneration states different operational problems

with the process. The supplier points out that the outside temperature affects the
process. The solubility of carbon dioxide is increasing with reduced water
temperature. According to the supplier are plants dimensioned for an outside
temperature of 25 °C. When the temperature has been above 25 °C during a
longer period, which it has been the recent years, there are problems with lower
upgrading. Other interrupts mentioned by the supplier are problems with
compressors, filters and sensors. The supplier points out that another large
problem is gas analysis. It is hard to get exact measurements of hydrogen sulphide
and methane. Today, the instruments are expensive. Further, orderer has higher
demands on, for instance, the number of components to be analysed than what is
necessary for regulating the operation and guarantee good vehicle quality.
Another supplier of both water wash with and without regeneration emphasise
that upgrading of biogas is a complicated process. According to the supplier could
variations in the crude biogas quality as well as the large number of sensors and
measurements in the plant cause operation interrupts. A few concrete examples of
interrupts, mentioned by the supplier, are crashing sensors or just process compli-
cations. The latter occurs seldom after the plant has been delivered.
29
4.2.3 Absorption with Selexol®
It is said that the main operation interrupt on the only Selexol plant in Sweden is
high water level in the Selexol. The plant was originally taken into operation in
2000 and was dimensioned for 250 mn3 crude biogas per hour. The high water
level was, according to the owner, due to Selexol absorbing water from the air in
the desorption column. A high water level brings difficulties with reaching
sufficiently high methane level in the cleaned gas. The problem has been taken
care of by leading a sub stream of the Selexol through a heat exchanger. In the
heat exchanger, compressed gas flows counter currently, which heats the Selexol
to 105 °C causing the water to boil away.
The plant capacity has during 2002 been extended to 450 mn3 crude biogas per
hour. The operation personnel states that an operational problem after extending
the capacity is a level error of Selexol in absorption, flash or desorption columns
after, for instance, a short power failure. This could cause the chemical to run into
the plants gas pipes. Another operational problems since the extension is
occasionally high water level in the Selexol due to the plugging of the heat
exchanger. The plant is now being slightly modified to make the water boiling
process more secure. Further, the plant personnel say that the plant works slow on
changes in the crude biogas flow since the plant capacity was extended. To get the
right methane level the gas is then recirculated. The personnel points out that the
technique, in opposition to water wash, doesn’t have any problems with growth in
the column packings.

The one plant in Sweden with absorption with chemical reaction was taken into
operation in 2002. The plant is according to the personnel only running
intermittent since the extra digestion tank isn’t fully completed. Since the plant,
which is dimensioned to 300 mn3 crude biogas per hour, recently was started and
isn’t operating at maximum capacity there isn’t much experience of operation.
The personnel state that there haven’t been any operational problems with the
plant function. However, there have been initial problems in running the plant on,
for instance, control equipment. Another problem at start up that occurred during
the winter was that the water steam in the carbon dioxide rich gas, which leaves
the plat, froze and plugged the exit causing the plant to halt. The problem was
taken care of with a heat exchanger.
The supplier of the technique states just like the plant personnel that the technique
has worked as estimated. Further, the supplier says that there have been some
foaming in absorption and desorption columns which has been attended by adding
a foam reducing agent.
30
4.2.5 Summarize of operational experiences
Table 6: Summarize of process specific problems

Component Problem Cause Occurrence Type of error
PSA
Valve Closes/opens poorly Dust/particles from 350 mn3, operation 2002
causing low methane adsorption material 20 mn3, operation 1997 Dimensioning
level in cleaned gas
Wrong number of 600 mn3, operation Construction
“return springs” in 2000-2002
pneumatic valves
Leakage Wear 20 mn3, operation 1997
Packings in High carbon dioxide Plugging of/growth on 80 mn3, operation 1999
absorption level, water follows packings 150 mn3, operation 2000
columns the gas 300 mn3, operation 2002
Absorption Foaming Cleaned sewage water is 80 mn3, operation 1999
column used
Driers High dew point in gas Old material/ 80 mn3, operation 1999
too short regeneration 150 mn3, operation 2000
time /plugged packings 300 mn3, operation 2002
Packings in High carbon dioxide Plugging/growth on 660 mn3, operation 1997
absorption and level packings
desorption
columns
Driers High dew point in gas Wrong dimensioned 200 mn3, operation 1997 Dimensioning
Dust from driers in the 75 mn3, operation 1998
gas 660 mn3, operation 1997
600 mn3, operation 2003
Selexol
Absorption Low methane level in High water level since 200 mn3, operation 2000
material cleaned gas the material absorb
water from air
Absorption with chemical reaction
Absorption and Foaming 300 mn3, operation 2002
desorption
columns
31
Table 7: Summarize of common problems in plants
Component Problem Cause Occurrence Type of error
Low pressure Vibrations Poorly mounted 600 mn3, operation 2000- Construction
compressor 2002,
Wrong dimensioned 20 mn3, operation 1997 Dimensioning
Heavy wear 200 mn3, operation 1997
High pressure Electrical engine under 600 mn3, operation 2000- Dimensioning
compressor dimensioned 2002
Analyse equipment Unstable, measurements 350 mn3, operation 2002
for cleaned gas inaccurate 600 mn3, operation 2000-
2002
Heat/cooling system Heat exch., pump 600 mn3, operation 2000- Construction
etc. placed wrong 2002
Poor operation during Too little glycol600 mn3, operation 2000-

winter 2002
Communication chip Communication Hardware bugs in 600 mn3, operation 2000- Construction
interrupt between the communicat- 2002
computer and plant ion chip
Odorising pump Malfunction Missing parts 600 mn3, operation 2000-
2002
Temperature sensor Set for wrong 600 mn3, operation 2000-
range 2002
Gas cooler Corrosion since 1400 mn3, operation Wrong choice
the cooler was 2002 of material
soldered with
copper
4.3 Availability
In this case, availability means the time that the upgrading plant is operational out
of total possible operational time. Therefore should the availability not be affected
by shortage of biogas or a full gas storage. A halt in operation can depend on an
operational interrupt, but also on maintenance and service. A high availability is
essential for the upgrading plant’s economy and to secure the support of vehicle
fuel. There are a number of different factors which influence the availability.
Some of these factors are the age of the plant, the operation load and how many
hours of the day it’s operational. In order to get a fair comparison between
different techniques, these factors should be considered. How much spare parts
the plant keeps in storage is another aspect which influences availability, but it’s
harder to take into consideration in a comparison.
Only four plants replied with useful information regarding availability. There are
several reasons why there is only little information about the availability. Partly,
several plants lack any availability information since the plants are new, partly
since the plants have maximum availability due to present over capacity compared
to the needed amount of vehicle fuel. This should however not affect the
availability in the given definition.
One of the plants which gave informative data on availability was a water wash
plant with regeneration dimensioned for 75 mn3 biogas per hour. The plant was
taken into operation in 1998 and operates 12-13 hours a day, which covers the gas
32
need. Personnel on the plant stated the availability to 75 %. The remaining time is
used for maintenance and reparations. It is mainly the compressor used for both
low and high pressure compression of the gas, which is exposed to heavy wear
and thus demands high maintenance.
When it comes to water wash without regeneration, personnel stated the

availability on one plant with input capacity of 150 mn3 biogas per hour to 98 %.
The plant was taken into operation in 2000. The personnel base this on the
monthly number of maintenance hours. The plant is only operational four to five
hours per day due to low need for vehicle fuel. For another plant with the same
technique and the input capacity of 80 mn3 biogas per hour, the personnel states
availability of 95 %. The plant was taken into operation in 1999 and operates 7-16
hours a day.
For the Selexol plant with input capacity of 250 mn3 biogas per hour the personnel
stated the availability to be between 90 and 95 %. The plant was taken into
operation in 2000. The information from the Selexol plant has been confirmed
through operation statistics. From one and a half years of data of operational hours
a mean value was calculated to 93 %. The plant delivers upgraded biogas to the
gas grid and can therefore be in constant operation. Thus, the availability can be
calculated from the number of operation hours.
Suppliers were also asked about dimensioned availability for different upgrading
techniques. According to two suppliers of PSA, the availability is 95 %. A
supplier of regenerating water wash stated the availability to 98 % for a planned
plant, but further mention that an availability of 95-96 % is usually counted for.
Another supplier of water wash plants with or without regeneration states the
availability to be above 95 %. To this should service one to three days per year be
added. A supplier of plants with absorption in chemical reaction states that the
only plant with this technique in Sweden has had high availability. According to
the supplier this plant has only been out of operation for 16 hours since the start in
May 2002.
In Tilburg in Holland there is an upgrading plant with regenerating water wash

with an availability of 95 %. The plant was taken into operation in 1988 and
renovated in 1994. Originally the plant upgraded landfill gas. The plant is now
also used for upgrading biogas from digestion of fruit, vegetables and garden
waste, as well as biogas from digestion of sewage sludge. The upgraded biogas is
delivered to the gas grid (Solagro, 2001).
In figure 24 the data from plants, suppliers and literature is summarized.
33
Availability
% 100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
PSA Water w ash w ith Water w ash w ithout Selexol
regeneration regeneration
Figure24: Availability for different upgrading techniques

Data from: grey- supplier, light grey- Swedish plants, white-literature
Summarizing comment of availability
From the information of availability it can be concluded that all represented

techniques have an availability of approx. 95 %. This is stated at plants and by
suppliers as well as in literature. The only information that notably differs from
others is from one plant with water wash with regeneration. This plant has low
availability since the compressor is of bad quality and is heavily worn. This brings
a high need for maintenance which cannot be added to the specific technique.
4.4 Resource needs
4.4.1 Personnel
A plant in continuous operation should be run automatically with advanced
control equipment. However, there is a need for daily supervision, maintenance
and on-call duty. The personnel on the plant usually have other tasks like handling
deliveries and digestion of organic material or operation of sewage treatment
plant. Personnel and suppliers were asked how much time is spent on daily
supervision, maintenance and on-duty calls. But since the personnel have more
tasks than just running the upgrading plant it is hard to make a time estimation of
the plant and other activities. The given values are estimations.
In table 8 are the answers regarding time consumption for daily supervision
during a week from the plants summarized. As shown in the table, the personnel
at six plants state the daily supervision to half an hour. The dimensioned capacity
on these plants differs between 75 to 600 mn3 crude biogas per hour.
34
Table 8: Time spent on daily supervision on upgrading plants
Taken into
Supervision Dim. capacity
Technique operation
(h/day) (mn3/h)
(year)
PSA 1.5 350 2002
0.5 600 2000-2002
Water wash with regeneration 0.5 600 2003
0.5 75 1998
Water wash without regeneration 0.5 300 2002
0.25 150 2000
0.5 80 1999
Selexol 1.5 250 2000
Absorption with chemical reaction 0.5 300 2002
The information from the water wash plant with regeneration, taken into operation
in 2003, is uncertain since the plant only has been operational for a short time.
The number of hours spent on maintenance depends on a number of factors like

plant age, operational load and how much it is operational. Maintenance can
partly be done by the plant personnel, partly be outsourced as maintenance or
service. The level of outsourcing differs from plant to plant. In table 9 are the time
that the personnel on the plant spend on maintenance summarized.
Table 9: Time spent on maintenance at different upgrading plants

Taken into
Maintenance Dim. Capacity
Technique operation
(h/year) (mn3/h)
(year)
PSA 96 600 2000-2002
Water wash with regeneration 96 600 2003
120 75 1998
Water wash without regeneration 144 150 2000
96 80 1999
Selexol 24 250 2000
The outsourced maintenance is mainly service of compressors and is thus not

presented in the table above. This is, for instance, bought by the water wash plant
without regeneration dimensioned for 80 mn3 crude biogas per hour and by the
Selexol plant.
All asked plants in the study have on-call duty at the plant. The personnel running
the duty also have on-call duty on other facilities. The personnel on the plants
were asked about how much time spent on measures done during on-call duty per
year. The result is shown in table 10.
Table 10: Time spent for measures during on-call duty at different upgrading plants
Technique Measures during on-call Dim. Capacity Taken into
duty (h/year) (mn3/h) operation
(year)
PSA 60 600 2000-2002
Water wash with regeneration 24 75 1998
Water wash without 60 300 2002
regeneration 12 150 2000
0 80 1999
Selexol 24 250 2000
35
At the plant dimensioned for 80 mn3 crude biogas per hour there is no measures
done during on-call duty. Instead, the plant is stopped and the errors are taken care
of during normal working hours. This is possible since backup with natural gas.
On the question of personnel requirement at upgrading plants to suppliers, a

supplier of PSA stated that a plant dimensioned for 300 mn3 crude biogas per hour
needs about one hour of daily supervision, during the working-week. A supplier
of water wash stated that the plants are full automatic and normally only require
supervision once a day. Another suppler of water wash stated one hour daily
supervision and approx. 150 hours a year for maintenance of a water wash with
regeneration, dimensioned for 600 mn3 crude biogas per hour.
A supplier of absorption with chemical reaction stated half an hour of daily

supervision during the working-week, for a plant dimensioned for 300 mn3 crude
biogas per hour. Further, the supplier stated that it takes six hours of maintenance
a year to change filters. The filters are used to separate any eventual impurities in
the chemical brought with the biogas.
Summarizing comment about personnel and supervision requirements
Half an hour for supervision a day is the most common time spent on daytime
supervision, independent of capacity or technique. The maintenance at the plants
performed by the personnel varies between 25 and 150 hours per year. For
measures during on-duty call, the number of hours can differ from zero to 60
hours a year. From the information about work effort it can be established that the
effort isn’t proportional to the plant size. This brings a higher cost per cubic meter
for smaller plants compared to larger.
4.4.2 Electricity
In a PSA plant, the electrical energy is generally consumed by the low pressure
compressor and vacuum pump. The largest need of electrical energy in a plant
with water wash is in the low pressure compressor together with circulation pump
for process water. In a water wash with regeneration some energy is used to run
the cooling machine which, if present, chills the process water. Also, energy is
used to run the air fan to the desorption column, something that isn’t needed in
water wash without regeneration. This means that water wash with regeneration
has a somewhat higher energy need than the corresponding system without
regeneration.
The Selexol plant works in a similar way as a plant with water wash with
regeneration and thus energy is used by the low pressure compressor, Selexol
circulation pump, cooling machine and air fan. Since carbon dioxide has higher
solubility in Selexol than in water, the amount of Selexol is lower compared to a
plant with the same capacity for water wash. This results in a lower pump
requirement in a Selexol plant which lowers the energy need. This is slightly
counteracted by sometimes having to separate water from the Selexol in a Selexol
plant (Dahl, 2003).
Upgrading with absorption with chemical reaction is done at atmospheric

pressure. The biogas can then be compressed after upgrading and thereby avoid
compressing the removed gas. The largest energy usage in chemical reaction is
36
instead the production of steam to boil the chemical at regeneration, but other
forms of energy than electricity can be used to do this (Dahl, 2003).
Here the machines that use the largest amount of electricity in different upgrading
techniques have been reported. Apart from this there occur a number of different
components in the plant which also need electricity, however not to the same
extent as those pointed out. Other electrically driven components are i.e. fans,
pumps for water circulation, heaters for gas drying, ventilation, computers, lights
etc.
The electricity cost constitutes an essential part of the operation costs for
upgrading biogas. In the table below is information about the electricity
requirements per normal cubic meter cleaned gas received from plants. The
information from the plants has been adjusted in some cases when, for instance,
the energy consumption for the high pressure compression has been included.
Table 11: Electricity need to upgrade gas with different techniques, data from plants
Technique Energy Methane Dim. capacity Taken
(kWh/mn3 cleaned gas) level (mn3/h) into
(vol-%) operation
(year)
PSA 0.6 (0.88)* 75-80 350 2002
0.5 (0.8) 65 600 2000-2002
Water wash with regeneration 0.3 (0.6) 68 75 1998
Water wash without 0.36 66-68 300 2002
regeneration 0.6 (1.0) 65 150 2000
0.36 60 80 1999
Selexol 0.41 70 250 2000
* Numbers in parenthesis are including high pressure compression
In addition to information reported above, personnel on one plant stated that the
electricity need for upgrading gas in a water wash as well as in a PSA plant is
between 0.3 and 0.35 kWh per mn3 cleaned gas.
The energy need for upgrading can, according to a PSA supplier, vary between
0.3 and 1.0 kWh/mn3 cleaned gas. The supplier says that the energy consumption
is depending on the size of the plant. Another PSA supplier states that it takes
0.45 kWh/mn3 of cleaned biogas in a plant dimensioned with the capacity of
300 mn3 crude biogas per hour. For water wash with regeneration a supplier says
that the energy consumption is 0.45 kWh/mn3 cleaned gas. Another supplier of
both water wash with and without regeneration states that the energy consumption
can vary between 0.45 and 0.90 kWh/mn3 cleaned gas for both techniques.
Further, the supplier states that water wash without regeneration has a lower
energy usage compared to regenerating systems and that the specific energy usage
is lower the bigger the plant is. A supplier of upgrading with absorption with
chemical reaction says that it takes 0.15 kWh/mn3 cleaned gas in a plant with the
capacity of 300 mn3 crude biogas per hour.
When it comes to differences between the energy consumption for upgrading gas
with water wash and PSA, respectively, a supplier of both these techniques says
that according to their calculations it is needed 0.05 kWh more electricity to
upgrade a normal cubic meter crude biogas with PSA than with water wash.
In Nilsson (2001) it is reported that the energy consumption for PSA is slightly
lower than with water wash and higher than with Selexol. The energy
37
consumption for upgrading with water wash is said to be approx 0.3 kWh per mn3
cleaned gas. Further, it is reported that the energy consumption with Selexol is
approx. 15 % lower than the energy consumption with water wash.
In Berglund (2003) it is reported that the energy consumption for upgrading and
high pressure compression is supposed to be 5 % of the energy content of the
crude biogas. Further, it is said that 60 % of this is required for upgrading and
40% for high pressure compression from 7 to 250 bar.
In literature it is also stated that the energy need for upgrading landfill gas to
Dutch natural gas quality is 0.46 kWh per normal cubic meter cleaned gas in a
PSA plant of 1000 mn3/h in Wijster (CADDET renewable energy, 2002c).
Summarizing comment about electricity need for upgrading
From the plant information it can be concluded that the energy requirement for
upgrading gas with all techniques (except chemical absorption) is between 0.3 and
0.6 kWh per normal cubic meter cleaned gas. A normal cubic meter of upgraded
biogas with a 97 % methane level has an energy content of 9.67 kWh. Therefore it
takes 3 to 6 % energy of the energy content in the cleaned gas to upgrade it. The
suppliers state a larger range between 0.3 to 1.0 kWh for producing a normal
cubic meter cleaned gas. According to the suppliers it takes less energy to upgrade
the gas in a bigger plant, something which hasn’t been confirmed by the
information from the plants. When it comes to the difference in electricity need
between different techniques there can be no general conclusion. For instance, the
information if PSA or water wash is more energy consuming is directly contrary.
However, it can be concluded that the energy consumption for upgrading the
biogas with chemical reaction is considerably lower than for the other techniques.
According to a supplier is the energy consumption 0.15 kWh per normal cubic
meter cleaned gas.
There is one factor which, of course, influences the energy need and it is the
methane level in the crude biogas. A high methane level means that less carbon
dioxide must be removed from the gas which lowers the energy need. In order to
get information that can be compared the data should be adjusted according to
this. Another factor affecting the energy consumption is on which load the plant is
operating. Low load brings a lower efficiency in e.g. compressors. Other, also
influencing factors are absorption pressure in the columns and how good the
control system in the plant works, which, for instance, affects the amount of
recirculated gas. Some of these factors could be the explanation of why the energy
consumption for the plant with water wash with regeneration, dimensioned for
150 mn3 crude biogas per hour, is considerable higher than for the other two plants
with the same technique.
38
4.4.3 Water
Large amounts of water are used in the process when absorbing carbon dioxide
with water wash. For the other techniques PSA, absorption with Selexol or
absorption with chemical reaction there is hardly any need for water access. Small
amounts of water could be needed in i.e. in cooling systems for compressors and
gas. Further, there can be discharges of water in form of condenser water from the
crude biogas (Dahl, 2003).
As an example, a supplier states a consumption of 300 m3 cleaned sewage water

per year for a PSA plant dimensioned for a crude biogas capacity of 300 mn3/h.
The cleaned sewage water is used as cooling water to the compressors. The
supplier of absorption with chemical reaction states a consumption of 70 m3 water
per year for a similar plant, which also uses the cleaned sewage water for
compressor cooling.
In water wash with regeneration the water is regenerated after it has absorbed
carbon dioxide. This is done by lowering the pressure in a flash tank and by
letting the water meet oncoming air in a desorption column, where the carbon
dioxide is desorbed from the water. Although the system is regenerating, some of
the water is continuously replaced. In water wash with regeneration is tap water
used for the process. The water thus contributes to the operational cost.
A supplier of water wash with regeneration states that they calculate with
replacing 10 % of the process water every hour. The reason why the water needs
to be replaced is, according to the supplier, that the pH level otherwise drops. As
an example of the amount of water that is replaced in plants with water wash with
regeneration a number of 2-3 m3 water per hour is stated for a plant with the
capacity of 75 mn3/h crude biogas and taken into operation in 1998. The plant
works at a pressure of 20 bar in the absorption column.
This plant replace a large part of the process water every hour and thus works as
something in between water wash with and without regeneration. Another plant
dimensioned for a crude biogas capacity of 1400 mn3/h, taken into operation 2002,
that works at an absorption pressure of 8 bar, state that they replace 1-2 m3 water
per hour.
If the water wash is without regeneration then the water isn’t regenerated. The
pressure is lowered in a flash tank and the gas which leaves the water is lead back
to the process. After this, the water leaves the plant. Large amounts of water are
used in water wash without regeneration. Therefore are the plants usually located
next to sewage treatment plants where cleaned sewage water can be used in the
process.
In table 12 is information about water usage from plants with water wash without
regeneration shown. At one of the studied plants there was no flash tank.
Table 12: Usage of cleaned sewage water on different plants

Taken into Operational
Dim. capacity (mn3/h) Water (m3/h)
operation (year) pressure (bar)
300 2002 10-13 30
150 2000 8-12 30-35
80 1999 7.5 11-14
39
A supplier of water wash without regeneration points out that the water flow is
depending on the pressure in the process. As an example, the supplier says that 80
m3 water per hour is needed, for a plant dimensioned for 400 mn3/h, with an
operational pressure of 12 bar. When it comes to tap water consumption in water
wash without regeneration a plant which uses tap water states that it takes fem
litres per minute to cool the compressor. With the plants operational time this is
360 m3 per year.
After the cleaned sewage water has been used in the process it is lead back to the
sewage treatment plant. Since only carbon dioxide and some hydrogen sulphide
has been dissolved in the water it can be lead with the exiting water from the
sewage treatment plant.
The personnel at a water wash plant with regeneration that are using tap water
states that the water from the plant is lead to the sewage treatment plant that is
located nearby. Another plant with water wash with regeneration states that they
lead the water to a smaller sewage treatment plant where odour in the water is
removed before it is lead into a ditch.
Summarizing comment about water need in upgrading
For upgrading biogas with PSA, Selexol and absorption with chemical reaction
there is hardly any water consumption. Some water is used in gas or compressor
cooling systems.
The water consumption is much larger in upgrading with water wash than for the
other techniques. The amount of water used with water wash depends on the plant
size and absorption pressure in the column. Information from plants and suppliers
shows that a couple of cubic meters of water are used per hour with recirculating
water wash. For water wash without regeneration the need can be from tens of
cubic meters to almost hundred cubic meters per hour.
4.4.4 Other
In addition to electricity and water are a number of different materials used in the
plants, which are described in this chapter.
In absorption with water wash and PSA there is hardly any chemicals used. On
the other hand, chemical usage is relevant on plants with Selexol or absorption
with chemical reaction. Although both these techniques use sealed systems where
the chemical is regenerated, some losses occur and thus new chemicals must be
added. The chemical can also be intoxicated by hydrogen sulphide and for this
reason be exchanged. The supplier of absorption with chemical reaction states that
a plant dimensioned for 300 mn3 crude biogas per hour have to change all the
chemical fluid, of 600 litres, every fifth year.
40
If a fixed bed is used for hydrogen sulphide removal, the bed must be removed
when it is used. This goes i.e. for plants with activated carbon or metal oxides. Pre
separation of hydrogen sulphide is done in plants with PSA, Selexol or absorption
with chemical reaction. A supplier states that 4 m3 activated carbon is used per
year when the crude biogas contain a hydrogen sulphide level at 200 ppm and the
plant is dimensioned for 300 mn3 crude biogas per hour.
Except pre separation of hydrogen sulphide there is, in PSA plants, a pre filter
before the adsorption columns. They are meant to remove the last impurities of
i.e. hydrogen sulphide or heavier hydrogen carbons to make sure that the large
adsorption columns aren’t intoxicated. Personnel on a plant states that the filters,
according to the supplier, needs to be replaced after 5000 hours of operation. In
this case the pre filters consists of activated carbon, just like the adsorption
column.
On the visited plants there were mainly adsorption driers for drying gas. The
drying media consisted of i.e. aluminium oxide or zeolites. The plant has two
columns with drying media, one is in operation and one is being regenerated.
Event though the drying media is regenerated it must be replaced at regular
intervals. Personnel at a water wash plant without regeneration, dimensioned for
150 mn3 states that they exchange 50 kg drying media every year, which is half the
amount in the driers. That the plant needs to change the media is a great deal
depending on plugged packings. This causes water to follow the gas and degrades
the functionality of the driers.
A supplier of plants with water wash states that the drying media, in form of
granulate, must be replaced every third to fifth year. Another supplier states that
the drying media should have unlimited lifetime, but that it is likely to have to
replace it after five years. As an example the supplier mentions that it takes 300
kg of drying media every fifth year for a water wash dimensioned for 360 mn3 per
hour.
Since there tend to be growth on packings in the absorption column in plants with
water wash, the column must be cleaned. How often the packings must be cleaned
varies between different plants. Heavier growth occurs when sewage water is
used. When washing the packings some kind of detergent like green soap is used.
In water wash without regeneration, where sewage water is used, foaming can
occur in the absorption column. If this happens a foam reducing solution of the
same type used at sewage treatment plants can be added. A water wash plant
without regeneration, dimensioned for 150 mn3 crude biogas per hour, states that
they use approx. five litres of foam reducing media per week.
When it comes to used material on all plants oil for lubricating compressors,
calibrating gases and odorising media could be mentioned. Glycol is also a
component that is usually added to the water circuit at plants for cooling
compressors or gas.
41
Summarising comment about consumed material
Plants with Selexol or absorption with chemical reaction needs regular chemical
exchanges. This is due to losses or intoxication of the chemical by i.e. hydrogen
sulphide. A supplier says that the interval for change is five years.
A fixed bed for hydrogen sulphide removal needs to be exchanged with time. It is
common to pre separate hydrogen sulphide in PSA, Selexol and absorption with
chemical reaction.
The drying media in adsorption driers have to be changed regularly. This need is
higher in water wash than in the other techniques since water may follow the gas
if the packings are plugged. Detergent for washing packings is another material
used in upgrading plants with water wash.
There are some materials which are consumed in all techniques. In example, oil
for lubricating compressors, calibration gases and odour solutions. Furthermore,
glycol is used in cooling circuits in most of the techniques.
5 Economy and purchase
Biogas is created by treating organic waste. When the material is digested it

decreases in volume at the same time as the nutrition is more accessible in the
digested remainders. If the organic material isn’t digested is another form of
treatment necessary like composting or deposition. Biogas production isn’t
normally the main purpose of the digestion, it is the waste treatment. Upgrading
biogas is in turn a way for creating an alternative usage area for the biogas.
The cost for biogas as vehicle fuel depends on a number of factors of which the
upgrading cost is one. Other factors which affects the total cost is the cost for raw
material, production, dismissal of digestion reminders, plant size, distribution and
CNG systems (Cornander et al, 2002).
The biogas production cost depends on which costs are allocated to the biogas.
Concurrently as biogas is produced is organic waste treated and bio fertilizer
produced. How the costs are divided between these areas is completely decisive
for the biogas profitability. In a plant where the raw material is bought and no
profit on the bio fertilizer is received the biogas cost is high compared to a plant
where high fees are charged for waste treatment and digestion remainders
(Cornander et al, 2002).
In this chapter are not all factors that affect biogas cost taken into consideration.
Instead, the chapter tries to report the actual cost for upgrading biogas. Costs for
administration and marketing the biogas are not included. All costs are exclusive
VAT. Due to brief information about some techniques is there in chapter 5.2-5.4
not any distinction between different techniques, besides some data given by
suppliers. The costs are reported generally for upgrading.
42
5.1 Planning and purchase
Personnel on the upgrading plants were asked when planning and plant
investigation was started and when the plant was taken into continuous operation.
The difference between these two points can give an indication of how the
planning, construction and start up of the plant have worked. Out of nine plants
which answered the question was the shortest time one year. The longest time was
four years and the mean value for the nine plants 2.8 year. The result for all plants
is summarized in figure 25.
Years betw een planing, investigation and continuous operation
Num ber of plants

3
0
One Tw o Three Four
Year(s)
Figure 25: Number of years from planning and investigation to

continuous operation for different plants
The reason why it took four years from planning and investigation to continuous
operation of a PSA plant was because the supplier went bankrupt while the plant
was being built. For the absorption plant with chemical reaction it took three years
from planning and investigation to continuous operation. One factor was that the
upgrading techniques first consisted of wet membranes, but since the technique
didn’t work in a full scale plant, the membranes replaced with an absorption
column.
When it comes to information from suppliers, one supplier says that it takes them
about a month to submit a tender. The supplier further states that it takes ten to
twelve months from the plant has been ordered to it is in operation. Two other
suppliers also state that it takes approx. one year from submitting a tender until
the plant is operational.
In order to build an upgrading plant is a number of permits such as building

permit, permit for handling fire hazardous material and environmental permit
needed. The time it takes to get the permits may vary much depending on local
conditions, but an estimate of the time is one and a half year providing no appeals
are submitted (Rosengren, 2003).
What is included in a purchase except from the upgrading plant may vary. For
seven out of eleven plants was CNG station with compressor and storage included
at purchase. In neither of the asked plants was the digestion system included.
According to a supplier is it common that the CNG station is included in half of
the purchases. The supplier further says that there may also be included i.e. a
43
transport system for crude biogas. Another supplier states that it is different from
case to case what is included in the purchase since it is the orderer who controls it.
According to a third supplier it is common that a CNG station is included if there
isn’t one already.
There are a number of different purchase forms, but the upgrading plants were
only asked if they used turn-key or divided contract. With turn-key it is meant that
a supplier is responsible for the whole plant and the orderer buys certain
functionality. With divided contract, several agreements with several contractors
are signed. The answers from plants show that the purchase forms for upgrading
plants are various. Out of ten plants five were turn-key. In four cases was the
purchase divided between different contractors and in one case it was mainly built
under personal management and only parts were ordered.
All three suppliers who answered the purchase question say that they prefer turn-
key purchases. Two of them points out that they refer to the ABT 94, Allmänna
bestämmelser för totalentreprenad avseende byggnads-, anläggnings- och instal-
lationsentreprenader. (Common regulation for turn-key contracts regarding
buildings, plants and installations contracts). One of the suppliers says that as
turn-key contractor they purchase equipment form their suppliers. The supplier
further says that they let the price decide the choice of suppliers. This brings that
different suppliers are used from case to case. Since the suppliers, in some cases,
haven’t carried out any similar work earlier, it is important with thorough plans
and the turn-key supplier therefore has every detail in print.
Summarising comment about purchase
The information from plants show that it may take one up to four years from
planning a plant until it is in operation. A recommendation for those how just
started to plan a new upgrading plant is that they should calculate with at least two
years until the plant is constructed and operational. This since it takes approx. a
year and a half to get all permits and also since the suppliers say that it takes a
year from ordering till the plant is built and operational.
50 % of the asked upgrading plants used turn-key contracts and 50 % used shared
contracts. Information from suppliers clearly shows that they prefer turn-key
contracts. After visiting the plants it can be concluded that turn-key contracts are
to prefer also for the purchaser. This since it is only one responsible part, which
answers to the orderer. Thus there is someone who has full responsibility for the
plant which makes it easier when handling various errors.
44
5.2 Investment costs
The plants were asked about the investment cost for the plants, exclusive eventual
high pressure compression, storage and CNG station. In three of the answers were
high pressure compressors included whereby its cost has been withdrawn after
discussion with supplier and plant personnel. A certain source of error lays in that
the investment cost sometimes was stated with or without the building in which
the machinery for biogas upgrading is placed in. In the total number of answers
were the building included in three cases while two cases used an already existing
building after minor reconstructions. In the remaining six cases wasn’t the cost for
building stated in the investment cost. Another source of error is in the fact that
the plants are taken into operation in between 1998 and 2003. No consideration
has been taken to the time of purchase. In figure 26 is investment cost for
upgrading plants with PSA, water wash, Selexol and absorption with chemical
reaction summarised. A second degree polynomial has been adjusted to the data
and is drawn in the figure. Figure 26 shows that the investment cost increase with
increasing capacity. The cost does not increase linearly. This is shown in figure 27
where the investment cost for one normal cubic meter of biogas capacity has been
calculated from the given investment costs.
Figure 26: Investment cost for upgrading plants, data from plants
45
Figure 27: Investment cost per dimensioned crude biogas capacity, data from plants
The suppliers were also asked about investment costs. One water wash supplier
state a cost of 8-10 million SEK for a plant without regeneration, dimensioned for
250 mn3 crude biogas per hour. According to the supplier there is an additional
20% to these numbers if the plant is to be with regeneration. This because a plant
with regeneration need more equipment like a desorption column. Another
supplier says that PSA and water wash costs are equally expensive. The supplier
says i.e. that a water wash plant with regeneration dimensioned for 150 mn3 crude
biogas per hour costs 4.9 million SEK and a plant dimensioned for 100 mn3 crude
biogas per hour using PSA costs 4.3 million SEK. The supplier further points out
that a larger plant has a lower cost per each cubic meter cleaned gas. Another PSA
supplier says that a plant dimensioned for 300 mn3/h crude biogas costs 7-8
million SEK. For absorption with chemical reaction a supplier states a cost of 9-
10 million SEK for a capacity of 300 mn3/h crude biogas.
In the literature there is also some data about investment costs for upgrading
plants. For instance, in Lindberg (1998) is information about investment cost
stated. These data has been modified regarding capacity to be valid for a plant
dimensioned for 200 mn3 crude biogas per hour. For a water wash plant in Lille in
France, taken into operation in 1994, is an investment cost of 6.7 million SEK
stated and for the PSA plant in Linköping, taken into operation in 1992, a cost of
3.5 million SEK is stated.
In Tilburg, Nuenen and Wijster is biogas from landfill upgraded to Dutch natural
gas quality. The natural gas is of type L with a composition of approx. 86 %
methane and 14 % nitrogen, a lower calorific value of 31.65 MJ/mn3 and a Wobbe
number of 43,9 MJ/mn3. The landfill gas consists of approx. 57 % methane, 37 %
carbon dioxide and 6 % nitrogen. Since the plants upgrade landfill gas is also
46
halogenated hydrocarbons removed (CADDET renewable energy, 1996 &
CADDET renewable energy, 2002b). The cost for investing in equipment for
doing this is included in the reported investment costs for the Dutch plants, table
13, but not in the costs for plants in Sweden since in Sweden there is no upgrading
of landfill gas. Also, the Dutch plants do not have the same demands on the
methane level in the upgraded gas which brings a lower need in equipment for the
same biogas capacity than in Sweden which can have effect when comparing the
investment cost.
Table 13: Investment cost for Dutch plants

Location Plant Capacity, landfill gas Investment cost
Tillburg Water wash with 2000 mn3/h 1 5 650 000 NLG1
1988 regeneration 24 000 000 SEK
Wijster PSA 1000 mn3/h 2 3 826 200 NLG2
1988 16 000 000 SEK
Nuenen PSA 1200 mn3/h 3 4 600 000 NLG3
1991 19 000 000 SEK
1
CADDET renewable energy, 2002a
2
CADDET renewable energy, 2002c
3
CADDET renewable energy, 2002b
(Using: 1 NLG = 4.19 SEK, Source: Euro Information 2002, Dagens Industri 2003)
In figure 28 are all data from plants, suppliers and literature gathered. A mean
value has been used for data given in an interval.
Figure 28: Investment cost for upgrading plants, data from plants, suppliers and literature
47
Summarising comment about investment cost
Investment cost per normal cubic meter crude biogas capacity decreases for
upgrading plants with increasing plant size. According to information from plants
is the investment cost per mn3 crude biogas per hour in between 20 000 and
45 000 SEK for plants in the range 100 to 350 mn3/h. For a plant of 1400 mn3/h the
cost is instead 15 000 SEK per mn3 crude biogas per hour.
A water wash with regeneration has a slightly higher investment cost compared to
a water wash without regeneration. This is due to the higher number of
components needed in the plant with regeneration, for instance, desorption
column. A supplier states a 20 % higher investment cost for water wash with
regeneration compared to a water wash without regeneration.
The information about investment costs from suppliers is generally higher than
data from plants and in literature. An explanation to this can be that information
from plants and literature describes investments done a few years ago while the
information from the suppliers state what an upgrading plant cost today.
5.3 Operational and maintenance costs
Operation and maintenance cost for different upgrading plants has been calculated
from plant information regarding cost for maintenance, larger repairs and
information of personnel needed and the consumption of electricity, chemicals
and water.
Concerning personnel, electricity and water were some costs information

assumed, based on data from plants and suppliers. In example, was personnel cost
for supervision and maintenance assumed to be 300 SEK per hour, while costs for
measures during on-call duty were assumed to be 500 SEK per hour. The
electricity cost was sat to 50 öre (½ SEK) and tap water cost to 5 SEK per cubic
meter.
The on-duty costs without measures have been neglected since the on-duty
personnel watch over several plants like sewage treatment plant and digestion
plants which make it hard to distinguish the costs. In figure 29 is operation and
maintenance cost per year displayed. The costs have been calculation with data
from plants.
48
Figure 29: Operation and maintenance costs per year for upgrading plants, data from plants
Operation and maintenance cost depends on a number of factors. One is, of

course, how much the plant is in operation. The plant dimensioned for 150 mn3
crude biogas per hour is only operational four to five hours a day which explains
its low cost compared to other plants. To get a fairer picture of the costs it is more
correct to report operational and maintenance costs divided by the amount of
cleaned gas, this is done in chapter 5.4.
According to a PSA plant supplier the annual cost for operation and maintenance
is less than 5 % of the investment cost. Another supplier points out that operation
and maintenance for a PSA and a water wash plant are almost equal. The supplier
explains this with that there are several similar parts in the plants like compressors
and drying equipment. However, the supplier says that a smaller PSA plant is
cheaper to operate than a plant with water wash.
A water wash supplier states a maintenance cost of 150 000 to 200 000 SEK per
year for a plant dimensioned for 250 mn3 crude biogas per hour. Further, the
supplier says that the operational cost depends on the electricity consumption. For
absorption with chemical reaction a supplier says that there is an annual cost of
750 000 SEK for operation and maintenance for a plant dimensioned for a crude
biogas capacity of 300 mn3/h.
In the literature study it has been found that the operational cost for a water wash
plant in Lille in France with entering crude biogas volume of 200 mn3/h is 450 000
SEK. The operational cost for a PSA plant in Linköping of the same size is
300 000 SEK (Lindberg, 1998).
49
Some information about operational and maintenance costs for Dutch plants can
also be found which is described in table 14.
Table 14: Operation and maintenance costs for Dutch plants

Location Plant Capacity, landfill gas Annual Operation per
maintenance year
Tilburg Water wash with 2000 mn3/h 1 712 400 NLG 2,3 128 400 NLG 2,3
1988 regeneration 3 000 000 SEK 540 000 SEK
Wijster PSA 1000 mn3/h 4 170 000 NLG 4 325 000 NLG 4
1988 720 000 SEK 1 400 000 SEK
Nuenen PSA 1200 mn3/h 5 830 000 NLG 3,5
1991 3 500 000 SEK
1
CADDET renewable energy, 2002a
2
CADDET renewable energy, 1996
3
Likely to include cost for landfill gas
4
CADDET renewable energy, 2002c
5
CADDET renewable energy, 2002b
(Using: 1 NLG = 4.19 SEK, Source: Euro Information 2002, Dagens Industri 2003)
Since the natural gas which is distributed in the Dutch gas grid has lower methane
level are the operational costs lower than in Swedish plants. This is counteracted
by the additional costs for operation and maintenance of removal of halogenated
hydrocarbons which is done in the Dutch plants.
In figure 30 is the information about operational and maintenance costs from

Swedish plants, suppliers and literature summarised.
Figure 30: Operation and maintenance costs per year for upgrading plants, data from plants,
suppliers and literature
50
Summarising comment about operational and maintenance costs
Operational and maintenance costs depend on a number of factors. Some are the
plant age and how much it is in operation. In order to get a correct comparison of
the operational and maintenance costs the cost should be expressed as a cost per
normal cubic meter upgraded biogas.
A supplier points out that PSA has lower operational costs than water wash in
small plants. Else, the supplier says that PSA and water wash have equal
operational and maintenance costs. The supplier says that this is true since several
of the components in the plants are the same, for instance compressor and drying
equipment.
5.4 Gas upgrading cost
To get the investment cost per produced cubic meter gas is the investment cost for
the plants recalculated to an annual capital cost. This is done by the real annual
instalment method (Lindberg, 1998). No consideration to inflation or that
investments have been done at different times are taken. Neither is the fact that
the plants may have a remaining value considered.
I ⋅r
Capital cos t =
1 − (1 + r ) −t
I = investment
r = real interest
t = depreciation
The real interest is assumed to be 6 % and the depreciation to 15 years (Lindberg

1998). When the investment has been recalculated to an annual capital cost it can
be used as a part when calculating the cost for producing a normal cubic meter or
kWh cleaned biogas. In figure 31 is the investment cost presented in form of
capital cost calculated per kWh upgraded gas for those plants this was possible.
The amount of upgraded gas is the real amount and not the amount that the plant
is dimensioned for.
51
Figure 31: Capital cost per kWh cleaned gas to upgrade biogas, data from plants
The plants of 150 and 600 mn3 crude biogas capacity are today run at 30 % of the
calculated capacity due to poorly built vehicle parks. If the investment cost is
based on planned amount of gas production instead, is 0.11 SEK/kWh gotten for
the plant of 150 mn3/h and 0.08 SEK/kWh for the plant of 600 mn3/h. Also, the
plants for 75 and 80 mn3 crude biogas per hour, respectively, are run at less than
possible due to poor dismissal of the gas in combination with sometimes lacking
occurrence of crude biogas and need for repair in the plant. These plants are run
50 % and 30-70 % per day, respectively.
Operation and maintenance cost can also be calculated per produced kWh cleaned
gas, figure 32. This is done by dividing operation and maintenance costs reported
by the plants with produced amount cleaned gas. In figure 33 are the total costs
for upgrading gas at the different plants summarised. The reported information is
the total cost for upgrading gas per real amount produced gas.
52
Figure 32: Operation and maintenance cost per kWh cleaned gas, data from plants
Figure 33: Cost for upgrading one kWh gas, data from plants
53
The plant of 150 mn3/h is as earlier mentioned run only at 30 % of its capacity. If a
total cost with planned capacity is calculated, the cost is 0.17 SEK/kWh. This is
done by dividing the capital cost on a larger amount of gas and adding a
supplement for operation and maintenance cost with higher electricity
consumption.
A supplier states that it costs 0.16 SEK to produce one kWh cleaned gas at 4 bar,
for a plant dimensioned for a crude biogas capacity of 300 mn3/h.
In literature, some information about the biogas upgrading cost can be found.
According to Cornander et al (2002) is the cost for upgrading the gas at least 0.10
SEK per kWh even if the best technique is used. Further, it is said by the Traffic
and Public Transport Authority (2000) that information about upgrading cost
varies prominently. There is information from 0.10 to 0.50 SEK per kWh. As an
example, they mention the cost for upgrading biogas with water wash with
recirculation in Trollhättan. The annual cost for the plant including investment
cost is 2.7 million SEK. The plant produces 1.9 million normal cubic meters gas
per year which results in a cost of 1.4 SEK per normal cubic meter. In other
words, 0.14 SEK per kWh upgraded gas. The plant is dimensioned for 140 mn3
crude biogas per hour (Dahl, 1999).
Based on information from an upgrading plant with water wash in Lille in France
is the cost per quantity upgraded biogas 0.11 SEK per kWh. This is somewhat
higher than data from Linköping where the cost per upgraded quantity is 0.08
SEK per kWh in a plant with PSA (Lindberg, 1998).
It costs 0.93 SEK to upgrade a normal cubic meter gas to Dutch natural gas
quality with PSA dimensioned for 1000 mn3 landfill gas per hour in Wijster,
Holland, if the same capital cost as reported earlier is used (CADDET Renewable
energy, 2002c). The gas which is distributed to the Dutch gas grid must have a
Wobbe number between 43.22 and 44.66 MJ/mn3. This is fulfilled by a gas
consisting of approx. 90 % methane, 7 % carbon dioxide and 3 % nitrogen
(Solagro, 2001). The kWh cost thus becomes 0.10 SEK.
In figure 34 is data from plants (adjusted value for a plant of 150 mn3/h is used),
suppliers and literature of total costs for upgrading biogas plotted.
54
Figure 34: Total cost for upgrading, data from plants, suppliers and literature
To study what effects the total cost for upgrading gas are electricity and capital
costs varied for data received from plants. The original data are those in the figure
with the total plant cost, figure 33, and the adjusted value for the plant
dimensioned for 150 mn3/h crude biogas. In figure 35 is the electricity cost halved
and doubled. In figure 36 is the capital cost changed by lowering the real interest
to 4 % and by extending the depreciation to 20 years and by increasing the real
interest to 8 % and shorten the depreciation to 10 years, respectively.
55
Figure 35: Total upgrading cost, data from plants, different electricity prices
Figure 36: Total upgrading cost, data from plants, different capital costs
56
Summarising comment about total upgrading cost
Data from plants, suppliers and literature shows that the cost for upgrading biogas
is between 0.10 and 0.40 SEK per kWh. The cost is higher for smaller than for
larger plants. For plants smaller than 100 mn3 crude biogas per hour is the cost
approx. 0.30-0.40 SEK per kWh cleaned gas. For plants of the size 200-300 mn3
crude biogas per hour is the cost instead approx. 0.10-0.15 SEK per kWh cleaned
gas.
If the electricity cost is halved or doubled with starting point at 50 öre (½ SEK)
per kWh electricity does this give a result with a couple of öres on the total cost.
The total cost is affected more when real interest and depreciation are changed.
This can in some cases make a five öre difference.
The factor which mainly influence the total cost for upgrading is the capital cost.
This is clearly shown by plants which are run significantly lower than
dimensioned, see figure 31. This is the case for several plants in Sweden.
6 Gas quality
The upgraded gas must follow Swedish standard, SS 15 54 38 and regulation for
CNG stations, SÄIFS 1998:5, see chapter 2.5 Technical demands on upgraded
gas. Following data regarding gas quality was received from the upgrading plants,
table 15.
Table 15: Quality of upgraded gas, information from plants

Plant CH4 (vol-%) O2 (vol-%) H2S (ppm) Dew point (°C)
PSA
600 mn3/h, operation 2000-2002 98 <5 -80 low pressure
-30 high pressure
350 mn3/h, operation 2002 96-99 0 -75 till -80 low pressure
300 mn3/h, operation 2002 96-98 ~0 -50 till -90 low pressure
150 mn3/h, operation 2000 96-98 -70 low pressure
80 mn3/h, operation 1999 97 0,7
1400 mn3/h, operation 2002 97 3 -80 low pressure
75 mn3/h, operation 1998 97 -75 low pressure
Selexol
250 mn3/h, operation 2000 ~ 97 < 10 -25 low pressure*
Absorption with chemical reaction
300 mn3/h, operation 2002 98 < 10 -68 low pressure
*Lower demands of the humidity level of the gas since it is distributed in the gas grid and not compressed.
The methane level must, according to the standard for vehicle fuel, be 96-98 vol-
% for standard A and 95-99 vol-% for standard B. All plants follow this
requirement, which is stated by table 15. Only three plants left information
regarding oxygen level in the cleaned gas. The oxygen levels are below the limit
in both the standard and regulation on less than 1 vol-%. When it comes to
sulphur content in the gas there is according to the standard and regulation a
demand for less than 23 mg/mn3, which corresponds to 16 ppmv hydrogen
sulphide. All plants which have left information fulfil this requirement. Regarding
57
the water level in the gas there is a demand for less than 32 mg/mn3 in both
standard and regulation. The water level can be expressed as dew point and less
than 32 mg/mn3 approx correspond to a dew point at -10 °C or lower at 200 bar
(high pressure) and -40 °C or lower at 4 bar (low pressure) (Widing, 1995). All
plants have left information regarding the dew point and all plants besides the
Selexol plant have lower dew point than required. However, the Selexol plant
fulfils the dew point requirements even if it is higher than -40 °C. This since the
gas is distributed in the gas grid and thus not high pressure compressed whereby a
higher water level in the gas is tolerated.
Suppliers gave the following information about the gas quality from the different
techniques.
Table 16: Quality of upgraded gas, information from suppliers

Plant CH4 (vol-%) H2S (ppm) Dew point (°C)
PSA > 97
Water wash 97-99 < 10 - 60 low pressure
Absorption with chemical reaction 98-99
One of the suppliers of plants with water wash pointed out that the gas quality
from the plants can be regulated and that the plant gives whatever gas quality
asked for.
There have been a few investigations regarding gas quality from Swedish
upgrading plants. There is a general summary of the status on Swedish plants in
Dahl (2003). Here it is stated that all Swedish plants have the ambition to follow
Swedish standard regarding gas quality. Further it is stated that the plants gas
quality mainly follows the existing technical demands. Some exceptions regarding
low methane level or high humidity have occurred very occasionally.
7 Environment
7.1 Methane losses
The removal of carbon dioxide from biogas brings methane losses. This since
some methane is absorbed by the water or chemical in the absorption techniques
or adsorbed by the activated carbon in PSA (Dahl, 2003). A high methane level in
the cleaned gas stands in contradiction to low methane losses and the plants are
built to optimize both of these values. The methane losses are presented as
percentage of the amount of methane in the crude biogas. Methane losses are not
desirable since methane is an approx. 20 times stronger green house gas than
carbon dioxide. The losses are also negative out of an economical perspective. At
plant purchase is normally max 2 % methane losses required by the orderer
(Nilsson, 2001). The gas which is removed from the biogas consists mainly of
carbon dioxide and is here called vent gas.
It can be interesting to bring up how large the methane losses from a biogas
system can be before the green house effect is as large as when using fossil fuels.
According to Börjesson & Berglund (2003) can the methane losses be 22-26 %
for a biogas system with manure and 12-17 % for a biogas system with digestion
of organic material or large scale composting before the contribution of green
58
house gases is as large as for the reference system with fossil fuels. For digesting
pasture, straw or beet haulm the limit is at 8-16 %. With biogas system is here the
whole cycle from supply of substrate, digestion and upgrading till the digestion
remainder is brought back. The high figures for manure is above all due to large
indirect environmental profits in form of decreased amount of spontaneous
methane discharges when the manure is digested compared to alternative storage
and treatment system.
The methane losses can be completely eliminated from upgrading if the vent gas
is gathered. This isn’t possible for water wash without regeneration since the
methane is dissolved in water. After visits to plants it has been established that the
vent gas from PSA and absorption with chemical reaction is directly discharged
into the atmosphere. In order to eliminate odour and break down certain
components the vent gas from water wash with regeneration and Selexol is lead
through some kind of filter, i.e. bark filter, before it is discharged into the
atmosphere. The vent gas from PSA and absorption with chemical reaction mainly
consists of carbon dioxide and small amounts of methane. This gas can be
combusted in a boiler or torched if a supporting fuel is used (Dahl, 2003). The
vent gas from water wash with regeneration and Selexol is diluted in large
amounts of air. It is possible to use this gas as combustion air in, for instance, a
gas boiler. The disadvantage is that the plants heat requirements usually aren’t
enough to use all vent gas as combustion air.
7.1.1 PSA
A PSA plant dimensioned for 600 mn3 crude biogas per hour, taken into operation
between 2000 and 2002, states that the plant has 2 % methane losses in maximum.
The information is reported by the supplier, but also controlled on the plant
through calculations. The calculations are based on the volume of the adsorption
columns and pre filters, number of evacuations with the vacuum pump per hour,
assumption of the methane level in the gas in the adsorption column and by
estimating a void ratio of the carbon absorbant. This has then been related to the
entering amount of methane and thus the losses confirmed to be less than 2 %.
At a PSA plant dimensioned for 350 mn3 crude biogas per hour, taken into
operation in 2002, was for two days in September measures of methane losses
carried out for this study. The vent gas was gathered in a gas sack and samples of
the gas was analysed in a gas chromatograph. The plant is like the other plants
bought for a maximum of 2 % methane losses. The measurements showed
methane losses on approx. 10 %. According to the equipment supplier does the
large methane losses likely depend on a leakage in valves between adsorption
columns. The supplier says that the methane losses will yet again be below 2 %
when this has been attended to.
Two PSA suppliers say that the methane losses are approx. 2 % of the methane
amount in the crude biogas. One of the suppliers points out the difficulty of
calculating the methane losses due to lacking accuracy in flow meters. The other
supplier states that the information has been calculated by measuring the methane
level in the vent gas with an online IR-spectrometer and the flow in the vent gas
with a meter with summary-function. The calculated amount is then related to
methane level and flow in the inlet of crude biogas. A third supplier says that the
methane losses most likely are somewhat higher than 2 %, probably 3-4 %, which
59
the supplier base on information from persons in the USA who have been working
with PSA for a long time.
In literature there is some information about methane losses in PSA plants. The
losses at the PSA plant in Linköping is said to be 12 % (Lindberg, 1998). The
PSA plant in Linköping is now rebuilt. The methane losses are today lower since
a larger part of the gas that is released by the absorption material during
depressurising is recycled to the step before the compressor. From literature it is
also described that the methane exchange is approx. 98 % on a PSA plant, which
upgrades landfill gas, in Nuenen Netherlands. This plant was taken into operation
in 1991 (CADDET renewable energy, 2003).

On a water wash plant with regeneration, dimensioned for 75 mn3 crude biogas per
hour, taken into operation in 1998, the personnel reports 18 % methane losses.
The losses are coarsely estimated by measurements on methane level in crude
biogas, cleaned gas and flow in crude and cleaned biogas. The plant is operating
with an absorption pressure on 20 bar. In the reported value there is a large margin
for error which mainly is caused be the difficulties of making correct
measurements of the flow in the crude biogas since its density varies with
humidity and temperature.
A water wash plant without regeneration dimensioned for 300 mn3 crude biogas
per hour, taken into operation in 2002, report a methane loss below 2 % which is
based on data from the supplier.
Unlike the other techniques, in water wash without regeneration all methane
losses end up in the exiting water. In order to determine the methane losses
reliably, measurements on the methane level in the water must be made.
In a master thesis performed by two chemists at the school of engineering in

Jönköping it is after a literature study established that a METS sensor is the best
alternative for measuring methane in water. With the sensor which is based on
semiconductor technology, the methane level can be measured continuously in
exiting water after the flash tank. The methane molecules diffuse through a silicon
membrane. The detector which is heated is a semiconductor made of tin oxide.
The methane reacts with the oxygen on the surface of the detector which increases
the conductivity. The change in conductivity is measured and transformed to a
voltage (Anderson & Montagnier, 2002).
Theoretical calculations of the methane losses were made in the thesis in order to
achieve a coarse idea of the methane concentration in the water. These simple
calculations based on Henrys law shows that the methane loss from the upgrading
plant in Jönköping is 3 % at 5 or 10 °C temperature in the water (Anderson &
Montagnier, 2002).
An experiment with a METS sensor has been made at the plant in Jönköping. The
plant is a water wash plant without regeneration dimensioned for 150 mn3 crude
biogas per hour, taken into operation in 2000. The measurements have yet not
been successful since no reasonable results have been received. What is causing
the error has still not been found. Some explanations can be wrong measurement
interval for the meter, or that the meter is disturbed by turbulent current in the
60
water (Eskilsson, 2003). Since the plant hasn’t been able to measure the methane
level in the exiting water there is no figures of the methane loss. They say that
calculating the losses from flow and methane level in crude and cleaned biogas is
a too coarse method since the flow meters have large sources of errors.
Two suppliers of water wash states losses at a maximum of 2 % of the entering

amount of methane. One of the suppliers says that they calculate the losses
theoretically with mass balances and another that they study the solubility of
methane at different pressures. Both suppliers say that they control the losses by
measuring the flow and methane level in crude and cleaned biogas, but it is hard
to achieve thorough results since the accuracy of the measurements can be bad.
In Nilsson (2001) are theoretical calculations of methane losses shown at different

methane levels in crude biogas and different demands for methane level in
cleaned gas in a water wash without flash tank, respectively. It is proved that the
methane losses are greater than 2 % for all compositions of the crude biogas when
the gas is cleaned to at least 95 % methane without flash tank. Further are the
methane losses shown to be different when various amounts of gas is released into
a flash tank and recirculated. These calculations shows that the methane losses
easily drops below 2 % when recirculation the gas released in the flash tank at the
same time as the changed power consumption isn’t worth mentioning. Further it
can be read in literature that the methane losses at a plant with pressure water
absorption in Lille in France is said to be 5 % (Lindberg, 1998).
7.1.3 Absorption with Selexol®

At the Selexol plant dimensioned for 250 mn3 crude biogas per hour, taken into
operation 2000, was high methane losses noticed by coarse calculations from
values of methane level and flow in crude and cleaned biogas, respectively. The
values were received from permanent analyse equipment. Based on one and a half
year of operational data it can be found that the methane losses are calculated to
13 %. To check the high losses has there been measurements of the methane level
in the vent gas made with a gas chromatograph. The methane losses have been
calculated by relating the amount of methane in vent gas to the entering amount of
methane in crude biogas. According to single measurements with a gas
chromatograph performed during the first, second and third quarter of 2002 there
were methane losses of 8-10 %. During the same time there were tests made
where the pressure in the flash tank was lowered to investigate a future expansion
of the plant. When these were performed could methane losses around 2 % be
found. The plant was rebuilt in the end of 2002 and the capacity doubled. Due to
the lack of measuring sockets there haven’t been any proper measurements of the
methane loss since the expansion.

In absorption with chemical reaction should, according to the supplier, in
principal no methane losses exist since the chemical reacts selective with carbon
dioxide. Losses between 0.1-0.2 percent are reported by a supplier from a plant
dimensioned for 300 mn3 crude biogas per hour, taken into operation in 2002.This
have been calculated from the methane level the vent gas. A gas sample has been
collected form the outlet of the desorption column and sent for analysis.
61
Summarising comment of methane losses
Regarding methane losses it is common for plants and suppliers to mention 2 %

maximal losses for water wash and PSA. However, the losses on the plants are not
checked apart from at few plants. In those cases have only coarse calculations
been made which are based of measurements of flow and methane level in crude
and cleaned biogas, respectively. The measurements of the methane level in the
vent gas in a PSA and Selexol plants shows that the losses may exceed 2 % and
are in individual cases 8-10 %.
For the water wash plant with regeneration that report methane losses of 18 %
there is a big insecurity in the measurements due to the measuring of flows. An
explanation for the high losses can, however, be the high operational pressure in
the plant of 20 bar. This is almost twice as high pressure as several other plants
use. A high pressure allows more methane to be dissolved in the water.
The high losses on the plant with PSA and Selexol before reconstruction indicate
that an active control of the plants is necessary. As a first step, this could be done
by calculating the loss with measured flow and methane level in crude and
cleaned biogas, respectively. This can give an indication of the losses which then
can be checked by analysing the methane level in the vent gas. It is possible for all
techniques, PSA, water wash with regeneration, Selexol and absorption with
chemical reaction to take a sample of the vent gas and send it away for analysis.
The methane levels in the vent gas vary with PSA and therefore are more samples
necessary. If the plant is aware of its methane losses can measures like
adjustments be taken or even combustion of vent gas.
Absorption with chemical reaction has a clear advantage towards the other
techniques regarding methane losses. This since the chemical reacts selective with
carbon dioxide. But also here it is important to regularly check the losses by
measuring the methane level in the vent gas and not only trust that the plant
delivers what it is bought to do.
The incentive for the plants to maintain low methane losses should be large since
this affects both the environment as well as the plants economy.
It would be interesting to control the accuracy of measuring equipment in order to

set the reliability of methane loss calculations with flow and methane level in
crude and cleaned biogas, respectively.
7.2 Odour
Plant personnel were asked if there had been any complaints from neighbours
regarding odour. None of the eleven plants which answered the question said that
there had been any complaints. All techniques were represented among the eleven
plants.
The upgrading plants are mainly placed next to digestion tanks. The handling of
the organic material means a significantly higher odour risk than the upgrading
process. Is the plant then also located next to a sewage treatment plant there is an
even higher odour risk.
62
A water wash suppliers says that it normally does not occur any smell from these
processes. The supplier admits that if there are high levels of hydrogen sulphide in
the crude biogas there could be some smell in the water, which is returned to the
sewage treatment plant, in a system without regeneration. If the same situation
was in a regenerative system it could occur some odour from the bio filter through
which the air form the desorption column is lead. The smell from a plant with
absorption with chemical reaction, is according to a supplier, a vague scent from
the outlet of the desorption column on the roof of the plant.
The vent gas form a water wash with

regeneration and Selexol plant is lead through
i.e. bark filter to minimize odour and to break
down unwanted components. This is one of
several possibilities to reduce the odour from
the upgrading plant. Hydrogen sulphide is one
of the components which may cause odour
from a plant. It would be interesting to
investigate which other substances that cause
odour.
Figure 37: Bio filter (Photo: Margareta Persson)
8 Conclusions
Upgrading plants have been built in Sweden since 1992. The dimensioned
capacities have increased with the years. The capacity on the plants that today are
operational in Sweden varies from ten normal cubic meters or so crude biogas per
hour to 1400 normal cubic meters crude biogas per hour. At the plants there are
four different techniques, water wash with or without regeneration, PSA, Selexol
and absorption with chemical reaction. The majority of the plants use water wash
or PSA.
During the ten years that biogas upgrading has been available in Sweden the
upgrading techniques have developed. This brings that each plant in Sweden have
its own design depending on what knowledge there was at the time the plant was
built. This difference between plants with the same technology has along with
only a few plants with certain techniques made it hard to evaluate the techniques
in some aspects and to separate them in absolute terms. However, there are a
number of differences between the techniques that have been established in the
evaluation and these are summarised in table 17.
63
Table 17: Summarise of properties for different upgrading techniques
Property PSA Water wash w. Water wash no Selexol Absorption w.
regeneration regeneration chemical reaction
Main operation Valves Plugging of Plugging of Water in No experiences yet
interrupt packings packings the Selexol
Energy need 0.5-0.6 0.3 kWh 0.4-0.6 kWh 0.4 kWh n.d*
electricity/mn3 kWh
cleaned gas acc.
to plant
Energy need 0.3-1.0 0.45-0.9 kWh 0.45-0.9 kWh n.d* 0.15 kWh
electricity/mn3 kWh
cleaned gas acc.
to suppliers
Energy need None None None None High
heat (regeneration)
Water Low Medium (tap High (cleaned Low Low
consumption water) sewage water)
Chemical Low Low Low High High
consumption
Gas quality, High High High Medium High
methane (low meth-
ane level
when wat-
er in S.)
Gas quality, High Low Low Medium Medium - High
security against (depending on
hydrogen chemical)
sulphide in gas
Gas quality, Medium Low Low Medium Low - High
security against (depending on
humidity in gas chemical)
Methane losses Medium Medium - High Medium - High Medium - Low
- High High
Possibility to Yes Partly No Yes Yes
measure
methane losses
Experience of High High High Low Low
the technique in
Sweden
* no data
Beside those properties stated in table 17 it has been established a number of other
factors regarding upgrading. However, for these there cannot be any distinction
between the techniques. One such factor is the availability. The evaluation shows
that all techniques have a good availability of approx. 95 %. From the information
of work effort regarding daily supervision, maintenance and measures during on-
call duty it can be established that the effort isn’t directly proportional to the plant
size. This brings higher costs per cubic meter cleaned gas for smaller plants. As an
example could it be mentioned that the questionnaires report half an hour of daily
supervision at plants with a capacity from 80 to 600 normal cubic meters crude
biogas per hour.
Similar to the personnel requirement does the investment cost per normal cubic
meter crude gas capacity decrease with increasing upgrading plants size.
According to plant information is the investment cost per normal cubic meter
crude biogas per hour between 20 000 and 45 000 SEK for plants in the range 100
64
to 350 mn3/h. For the plant of 1400 mn3/h is the cost instead 15 000 SEK per
normal cubic meter crude biogas per hour. It can also be stated that a water wash
plant with regeneration has a somewhat higher investment cost than a water wash
plant without regeneration. This since the regenerating water wash needs
additional components in the plant like i.e. desorption column.
Information from a supplier shows that the investment cost for PSA and water
wash are comparable. The supplier further says that PSA and water wash have
about the same operational and maintenance costs. The supplier explains this by
saying that there are several similar components in the plants like compressor and
drying equipment. However, the supplier believes that PSA have lower
operational costs than water wash for smaller plants.
Data from plants, suppliers and literature shows that the cost for upgrading biogas
is between 0.10-0.40 SEK per kWh cleaned gas. The costs can be divided on plant
with different sizes. The cost is 0.30-0.40 SEK per kWh cleaned gas for plants
less than 100 mn3 crude biogas per hour. For plants in with the size 200-300 mn3
crude biogas per hour the cost is 0.10-0.15 per kWh cleaned gas. The factor which
has the greatest influence on the total upgrading cost is the capital cost. This is
clearly noticed for plants run at significantly lower capacity than they are
dimensioned for which is true for several upgrading plants in Sweden.
The high methane losses on the plant with PSA and Selexol before it was rebuilt
indicate that an active control of methane losses on plants is necessary. As a first
step this could be done by calculating the loss with flow and methane level in
crude and cleaned biogas, respectively. For all techniques like PSA, water wash
with regeneration, Selexol and absorption with chemical reaction is it possible to
get a sample on the vent gas and send it to be analysed. However, in water wash
with regeneration there is some methane dissolved in the water which leaves the
plant. If the plant personnel are aware of the losses they can carry out adjustments
in the plant or perhaps combust the vent gas. Low methane losses are of great
significance to both environment as well as economy.
Sweden is the country in Europe with largest experience of upgrading biogas to

vehicle fuel. This gives Sweden a unique opportunity to export knowledge and
technology to other countries. The possibility of export should be a good
incitement for Swedish industry to develop better and cheaper concepts for
upgrading biogas. One way to get there is by creating more standardised concepts
for building upgrading plants and work toward pre fabricated modules. Two
suppliers are today working to develop this principle.
Today the plants to a great extent are built on location. The plants are also built
with unlimited variation of capacity. Instead the number of different capacities
should be limited. Then experiences can be used and every plant won’t be the first
of its kind. This is the case for several new plants today, even those with the most
common technique, water wash.
When there are ready concepts it is easier for the orderer. A brochure with a
technology description, description of possible capacities and costs would make it
much easier for an upgrading plant orderer.
65
The advantage with pre fabricated plants of a number of different capacities is
also that the time it takes for building the plant should decrease. The plants should
also have simple sockets for rapid connection. Today it takes about a year from a
plant is ordered to it is finished and taken into operation. Another advantage with
pre fabricated plants is that the plant properties should be guaranteed better by
doing tests at the manufacturing.
Further, a standardised pre fabricated building concept would eliminate a number

of those operation interrupts that occur on upgrading plants today. Upgrading is a
relatively complicated process and there are a number of factors like meters which
may cause interrupts. However, there are interrupts that are experienced as
unnecessary. This can be everything from dimensioning errors to pure
carelessness, something that shouldn’t be accepted when there is ten years of
biogas upgrading experience in the country. The reason that there still are
dimensioning errors can be because of plants are built with new capacities all the
time and the scalability brings difficulties.
There is much to win on good communication between personnel at plants and

suppliers. If the suppliers share operational experiences from the whole life cycle
of the plant and not just during the time for the guarantee could a number of
important experiences be identified and used at new plant constructions. Those
mistakes that have been made once shouldn’t have to be repeated.
Another way to build cheaper upgrading plants is by minimizing the number of

operation situations. For instance, by building plants which only operate on full
capacity the capacity control equipment could be simplified. The plant could also
be tuned better and minimize the energy consumption, guarantee better gas of
good quality and minimize methane losses.
As conclusion are some possible suggestions on further work within the area
mentioned. One such is more measurements of methane losses in upgrading plants
and development of better techniques for doing this. Further, a method for
measuring methane losses from water wash plants without regeneration should be
made. It is also relevant to investigate the source of error in flow measuring with
different flow meters, in order to identify the accuracy when calculating methane
losses. There is also a need of a more concrete analysis of how upgrading plants
could be improved with i.e. a comparing analysis of investment costs for pre
fabricated plants against on location constructions.
66
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Plants
Borås Lennart Wennberg Borås municipal Visit 3 July

Jöran Eriksson Conversation 11 July
Bromma, Lars Rahm Stockholm Vatten Visit 7 August
Henriksdal
Eslöv Kaj Embrandt Eslövs municipal Visit 9 July
Helsingborg Karin Eken Södergård Nordvästra Skånes Visit 26 June
Nils Gunnar Ericsson Renhållnings AB
Jönköping Fridolf Eskilsson Jönköping municipal Visit 20 August
Wilford Strandsäter
Kalmar Linda Pettersson Kalmar Vatten och Visit 24 June
Thomas Ottosson Renhållnings AB
Kristianstad Magnus Persson C4 Teknik - Kristianstad Visit 2 July
Jan Jibre municipal Visit 25 June
Laholm Åke Aronsson Laholms Biogas AB Visit 26 June
Ronny Johansson
Rolf Mårtensson Sydkraft Gas Conversation 9 July
Staffan Ivarsson Conversation
5 August
Linköping Bertil Carlsson Tekniska verken i Conversation 4 July
Per Rylander Linköping Visit 23 June
Madelene Bjernersjö
Skövde Jan Furengren Skövde municipal Conversation 30 July
Ulriceham Ingemar Pettersson Ulricehamn municipal Conversation 7 July
Suppliers
Farmatic Biotech Energy AG Sven Reher E-mail 31 July

Läckeby Water AB Lars Evert Karlsson E-mail 15 September
Malmbergs Water AB Rune Simonsson E-mail 29 August
YIT Vatten och Miljöteknik AB Håkan Ericsson Visit 14 August
69
SE-205 09 MALMÖ z PHONE +46 40 24 43 10 z FAX +46 40 24 43 14
Home page www.sgc.se z e-mail info@sgc.se

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Report SGC 142

Evaluation of upgrading techniques for biogas

©Swedish Gas Center - November 2003

Report SGC 142 ISSN 1102-7371 ISRN SGC-R--142--SE

Swedish Gas Center (SGC) is a joint venture of energy gas business

This project has been funded by:

SWEDISH GAS CENTER

By building upgrading plants as standardized prefabricated modules in a more

Lund, November 2003

Increased interest in upgrading biogas among municipality and industry have

Focus of the evaluation is all relevant factors by comparison of different

In chapter 2 there is a description of how biogas is produced and used. There is

In chapters 4, 5, 6 and 7 the different upgrading techniques are compared in

Biogas is produced through anaerobic digestion of organic material. This occurs

Table 1: Biogas composition (Hagen et al, 2001)

2.2 Physical properties

Table 2: Calorific value for gases with different content of methane.

Regarding safety issues, biogas is an explosive gas in concentrations between 5 to

Combustion of biogas to produce heat is the easiest and most common

Combined heat and power (CHP) production is a common alternative to heat

Biogas has a number of positive properties as vehicle fuel regarding emissions.

2.5 Technical demands on upgraded gas

3 Cleaning and upgrading

The following section is a description of different techniques for removing

3.1.1 Hydrogen sulphide

In-situ reduction with iron ions

Adsorption on activated carbon

Oxidation with air in biological filter

Figur 4: Adsorption driers (Photo: Margareta Persson)

3.1.3 Other contaminants

Organic silicon compounds

3.2.1 PSA (Pressure Swing Adsorption)

A PSA plant with removal of carbon

Figure 7: Adsorption with PSA (Hagen et al, 2001)

3.2.2 Absorption with water

Since methane is partly soluble in water, the water

Figure 8: Absorption vessel for water wash

Figure 9: Packings (Appelkvist & Johansson, 2002)

Figure 10: Water wash with regeneration (Hagen et al, 2001)

As previously mention is, besides carbon dioxide, also hydrogen sulphide

Figure 11: Water wash without regeneration (Hagen et al, 2001)

The solubility of hydrogen sulphide in Selexol is higher than the solubility of

3.2.4 Absorption with chemical reaction

In figure 14 is a principal scheme of how upgrading with chemical absorption can

Figure 14: Chemical absorption scheme (Cirmac)

3.2.5 Membrane separation

Hollow fibre is an example of a fixed membrane material formed to create as

In figure 16 is a process scheme for the process shown. It begins with

Upgraded gas out

The technology with cryogenic removal of carbon dioxide is under development

4.1 Choice of upgrading technique

To identify the underlying factors which decide the choice of upgrading

Other 39 % Investment cost 39 %

Others experience Operation and maintenance cost 11 %

In total, 40 % of the answers contained investment cost as a motive for selecting a

Pilot plant 25 % Operation and maintenance cost 13 %

Figure 18: Motive for choosing PSA

Operation and maintenance cost 17 % Investment cost 50 %