Detailed Design Review of the

LT1600

Vance Varner Mishal Mehta

Gershon Gilman Justin Snider
Vincent Russo Solomon Wells
Joseph Broady Alvin Kim
Maxwell Qiu Bradley Deamer
At $7,925 the 1608cc LT 1600 is a steal
2
3
Goals, Objectives, and Scope
 In Scope Out of Scope

Project Statement & Scope Engine Block

Powertrain: Piston, Crankshaft, Connecting Rod

Intake Manifold

Exhaust Manifold

Cylinder Head Battery / Alternator / Starter

Our goal was to design a unique motorcycle engine that
Camshaft Transmission Design
maximizes fuel efficiency, minimizes cost and size,
while following all pertinent US Federal and state
Gaskets Electrical Systems (Ignition, Injection)

regulations and customer requirements. Intake and Exhaust: Valves, Springs, Keepers, Retainers Fuel Pump (CAD)

Spark Ignition: Spark Plug, Coils, Wiring Sensors

Customer Requirements: Fuel Injection: Injectors, Connection System Surrounding Motorcycle Structure
➔ 1st Year Sales of 7,500 Units
➔ 2nd Year Sales of 12,000 Units Lubrication System: Oil Channels, Oil Pump, Oil Pan, Oil Filter Flywheel (Calculations)

➔ 3rd Year Sales of 15,000 Units Cooling System: Cooling Channels, Coolant Pump, Radiator Vibrational Analysis

Engine Requirements: Transmission Connection Point

➔ 2 or More Cylinders
➔ 4-Stroke Cycle All Bearings and Bolts Required

➔ Displacement Between 1500cc - 1800cc

Timing System: Timing Chain, Chain Cover
➔ Fuel Injection
➔ Spark Ignition
➔ Runs on Standard Gasoline (87 Octane)
➔ Compression Ratio Between 9:1 to 10:1 Analysis Components in Scope:
● Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis - Ideal and Non-Ideal
Performance Requirements: ● Fuel Efficiency Analysis
➔ Capable of 5000 RPM for Continuous Service ● Emissions Analysis
● Fatigue / Stress / Finite Element Analysis
➔ Idle at 800 RPM ● Crankshaft Balancing
➔ Capable of Powering a Six-Speed Transmission ● Air Flow Analysis
➔ Must meet all safety, fuel efficiency, noise, and emission standards and ● Engine Power and Torque Analysis
specifications ● Cooling System Calculations and Analysis
● Lubrication System Calculations and Analysis
5
 Derived Requirements
Customer Requirements
Metric Target
2 or More Cylinders Smaller Engine and Market Gap Inline 4 Engine

4-Stroke Cycle Realizable Model Otto Cycle

Displacement 1500 to 1800cc High Performance ~1600cc

Compression Ratio 9:1 to 10:1 Acceptable Thermal Efficiency & Compression Ratio ~45%, Appropriate for 87-Octane gasoline, 1:9.3

Fuel injection Port or Direct Injection Efficient and evenly timed fuel injection for each of the cylinders for the combustion cycle

Spark-ignition Use of spark plugs Evenly timed spark ignition for each of the cylinders for the combustion cycle

Maintain Cruising Speeds, Maximum Torque 42 ignition/sec for each active cylinder
Continuous operation at 5000 RPM, Idle at 800 RPM, Power 6 speed
Interface with 6 speed transmission Redline at 8,000 RPM
transmission
Comply with OSHA 1910.219 regarding the flywheel and transmission Chain Cover and properly sized flywheel
1st year =7,500 1st year ≥ 7,500
Sales Targets 2nd year =12,000 2nd year ≥ 12,000
3rd year =15,000 3rd year ≥15,000

Fuel Standard Gasoline 87 Octane

Minimize Dimensions Market Averages 500mm x 300mm x 600mm [1]

Minimize Weight Using steel, magnesium, and aluminum alloys < 120kg [2]

Minimize Cost Existing Market < $8,000 Manufacturing Cost [3]

Maximize Fuel efficiency Our km/l ≥ Standard km/l ≥15km/l [4]

Meet EPA and California emission standards based on CFR § 86.508-78 HC+NOx (g/km) < 0.8
Minimize Emissions
testing procedures CO (g/km) < 12.0 [5]
< 72 DBA for < 45MPH
Minimize Noise Noise production meets regulations
< 78 DBA ≥45MPH [6]
65% of manufacturing cost derived from purchased parts
Mass Production Use of purchased parts and minimize manufacturing
30% Margin for the Spartan Company [7]
Cooling System (Air or Liquid)
Engine temperature 100 to 230℉ [8]
Meet Safety Regulations Proper Safety Factors on critical components that may cause injury (Meet 49
Safety factor 1.5 - 2 [9]
CFR § 571 for motor vehicle safety) [10]
225,000km life target 6
Reliability and Durability Existing Market
Oil change every 4,000km [11]
System and Subsystem Design
Our Design Specs

8
9
10
Powertrain Overview

Mass 31.90kg

Bore-Stroke Ratio 1 (80mm to 80mm)

Mean Piston Speed 13.3 m/s

Max Piston Speed 21.6 m/s

11
Crankshaft

Mass 28.53 kg

Length 542 mm

Material SAE 1045 Steel

Manufacturing Forged, Machined, Coated

12
 Crankshaft

13
Crankshaft FEA & Calculations
Compression

Tension

Minimum Safety Factor 9.3

>106 cycles
Fatigue
(Sn,bending: 330 MPa > σmax)
14
Pistons
Mass 0.371 kg

Diameter 79.95mm (oil ring spans the bore)

Height 7.2 cm

Rings 3 Compression Rings, 1 Oil Ring

Material A4032 (for silicon content)

Manufacturing Cast, Machined, T6 Temper

15
Piston

16
Piston FEA & Calculations

Used Maximum gas pressure 9.38 MPa

Minimum Factor of Safety: 2.6
17
Wrist Pin

Mass 0.0742 kg

Material H13 Steel

Manufacturing Machined, Coated with Diamond Like

Carbon (DLC)

Safety Factor Shear: 2.22, Bending: 5.78

Fatigue >106 cycles

(Sn,bending: 330 MPa > σmax)

18
Wrist Pin

19
Connecting Rod

Details H-Beam

Mass 0.85 kg

Length 180 mm

Material SAE 1045 Steel

Manufacturing Forged, Split Fracture, Coated,

Press fit wrist pin bearing

20
21
Connecting Rod FEA & Calculations

Minimum FOS 2.5

Fatigue >106 cycles

(Sn,bending: 330 MPa > σmax)
(Sn,tension: 264 MPa > σmax)

Buckling Load 314.1 kN

Bolts: ARP 8740 Chrome Moly M8 bolts

22
Valvetrain & Cylinder Head Overview

Mass 16.5kg

Envelope 460mm x 170mm x 173mm

23
Cylinder Head

Mass 9.055 kg

Material Aluminum A356

Manufacturing Lost Foam Cast, Machining,

Grinding

Combustion Chamber Bathtub/ Heart Shaped

Safety Factor 10

24
Cylinder Head

25
Cylinder Head FEA

Minimum Factor of Safety of 10

26
Intake Valve

Mass 0.0405 kg

Head Size 36.8 mm

Length 70.69 mm

Seat Angle 45°

Material 422 Stainless Steel

Manufacturing Forged, Machined

27
Intake Valve

28
Exhaust valve

Mass 0.0230 kg

Head Size 29.6 mm

Length 72.69 mm

Seat Angle 45°

Material Titanium 6242

Manufacturing Forged, Machined,

Annealed
29
Exhaust Valve

30
Valve FEA
Intake Valve Exhaust Valve

31
Camshaft

Details SOHC, 10.3 mm Intake Lift, 9.77 mm Exhaust Lift, Valve

Overlap 65 degrees, Lobe Separation 110 degrees

Mass 2.75 kg

Material Grey Cast Iron GJL 350

Manufacturing Sand Cast, Tempered, Machined

32
Camshaft

33
Camshaft FEA

Pressure is applied from combustion even though the force

experienced would be less due to the existence of springs.
Min FOS = 7.5 34
Engine Block

Mass 28.152 kg

Envelope 484 mm x 274 mm x 276.2 mm

Material Aluminum A356

Manufacturing Sand Cast, Bored

Cylinder Liners Gray Cast Iron, Sand Cast then honed

35
Engine Block
Gaskets Summary
Cylinder Head
Exhaust Manifold

Timing Cover

Valve Cover Oil Pan

Material Copper C12500

Intake Manifold Manufacturing Punched, Milled 37

Lubrication Overview
Lubrication Channels (SAE 20W 40 Oil) Lubrication Theory of Operations

38
Lubrication Calculations
Units Crankshaft Journal Camshaft Journal Connecting Rod Journal

Journal Length L m 0.032 0.015 0.028

Journal Diameter D m 0.0599 0.028 0.0499

Sommerfeld Number S --- 0.0743 0.0107 0.0496

Flow Variable Q/RcnL --- 5.5 5.8 5.7

RcnL mm^3/sec 3234.6 708.8 2360.1

Oil Flow Rate Q mm^3/sec 16367.1 4028.5 12645.6

Total Flow Rate L/min 9.80

Major Head Loss m 0.0941

Minor Head Loss m 40.73

Pressure Change from Head Loss kPa 335.1 39

Lubrication Calculations

ΔP Correlation for SI Engines (Heywood) Oil Pump Power Requirement

● “For four-stroke cycle four-cylinder SI engines between 845 and ● Power required by pump can be expressed as:
2000 cc displacement as a function of engine speed”:
PPUMP, IDEAL = Q x ΔP = (1.633 x 10-4 m3/s) x (881700 Pa) = 143.9 W
ΔP = 0.97 + 0.15 (N / 1000) + 0.05 (N / 1000)2
● Incorporating an estimated pump efficiency of η = 80%:
where N is in revolutions per minute and ΔP is in bar
PPUMP = PPUMP, IDEAL/ η = 143.9 W / 0.80
● At a redline of N = 8100 RPM: ΔP = 5.466 bar = 546.6 kPa
PPUMP = 179.9 W
● For total pressure loss across lubrication system:
● Sizing a purchased pump:
ΔPTOTAL = 546.6 kPa + ΔPhL = 546.6 kPA + 335.1 kPa
○ Electrical Oil Scavenge Pump Standard from RB Racing,
ΔPTOTAL = 881.7 kPa Part Number: OCS-P-002

■ Our Min Requirement was 9.80 L/min

■ Supplies 11.36 L/min

40
Cooling Overview
Parallel Flow Cooling Circuit
Coolant Sleeves (50/50 Propylene Glycol - Water)

Cooling Theory of Operations

41
 Cooling Calculations
● Convective Gas Resistance
Thermal Resistivity Circuit
○ Utilized “Woschni” correlation from Internal Combustion Engines to find hg

● Conductive Heat Transfer Resistance modeled by:

● Convective Coolant Resistance

● Convective Heat Transfer Resistance Modeled by:

● The heat transfer area consists of the outer surface areas of all
four cylinders:

42
Cooling Calculations
Conductive Heat Transfer Resistances

Total Thermal Resistance / Heat Transferred

● Total Thermal Resistance:

RTOTAL = RGAS + RCYLINDER + RCOOLANT + RBLOCK

● Total Heat Transferred:

QTOTAL = ΔT / RTOTAL = (TGAS - TSURFACE ) / RTOTAL

 Coolant Pump and Radiator Sizing
Radiator: Coolant Pump:
● Treated radiator surface as a flat plate ● Derived pressure change using Bernoulli + head loss
● Derived radiator area required based on ● Solved for required pump power using relation: Selected Radiator Model:
heat transferred Dewitts Pro-Series Radiator
PPUMP = (QC x Δp) / η DeWitts Radiator
Q = h’ A (TCOOLANT- TAIR) 32-1139097M DeWitts
Pro-Series Radiators |
Summit Racing

Selected Pump Model: Vovyo

Pumps Model# VP75A
Capable of pumping up to
40L / min
Motorcycle Electric Water
Pump | Coolant Pump
Manufacturer
(vovyopump.com)

44
 Cycle Analysis
● Volumetric efficiency as a function of RPM was calculated from intake
mass flow rate, averaged the flow rate of a cycle to get an approximate
mass flow rate for a RPM value

● PV Diagram was updated to Real Cycle Analysis

Temp.
State Pressure (kPa)
(K)

1 (Residual) 317 101.325

2 715 2,299

3 (CEA) 2,903 9,385

4 1,196 413.6 45
With the use of Ferguson and Mass Flow code following 1988 Heywood Equations
 Power & Torque
● Power derived from Work done per cylinder from Otto Cycle (0.5 kJ of work per cycle), RPM, and mass flow-averaged volumetric efficiency
● Torque derived from Power and RPM
● Torque modified to account for throttling at low RPM
● Volumetric inefficiencies significantly decreases Otto-cycle predicted power and torque performance

Value RPM

Max Power 78.2 kW 7900

Power 11.0 kW 800 - Idle

- 61.2 kW 5000

- 78.1 kW 8100 - Redline

Max Torque 123 Nm 3900

Torque 52.3 Nm 800 - Idle

- 116.9 Nm 5000

- 92.1 Nm 8100 - Redline

46
 Emissions
● Utilized CFR § 86.529–98 for Emissions Testing
conditions of 75kph at different RPM

● Ran CEA at 14.7 AFR using 1608cc displacement

● Used internal Mass Flow excel and matlab code for input MagnaFlow
Universal Catalytic
● Conclusion: was a catalytic converter is necessary Converter (2.5in) -
51206

Idle - 800 RPM 5000 RPM Redline - 8100 RPM

NOx +HC NOx +HC NOx +HC
(g/km)
CO (g/km)
(g/km)
CO (g/km)
(g/km)
CO (g/km) Species Mass Fraction
Without
Catalytic 10.95 42.95 14.29 56.06 11.09 43.50
CO 0.029
Converter
With Catalytic
NOx + HC 0.0074
Converter 0.55 2.15 0.71 2.80 0.55 2.17
(95%)
Regulatory
0.8 12 0.8 12 0.8 12
Requirement
47
Fuel Efficiency

Constant Symbol Value Units

Mass of Reactants mr 0.39 g

Air to Fuel Ratio A/F 14.7

Density of fuel ro 0.77 kg/L

48
 Fuel Efficiency

MPG vs RPM at different velocities

Fuel Efficiency Fuel Efficiency

Velocity (mph) Velocity (kmph) Typical RPM
(MPG) (km/L)
1 1.609 1100 3.58 1.51
10 16.09 2600 15.14 6.4
20 32.18 2600 30.28 12.8
30 48.27 3200 36.9 15.6
45 72.405 4200 42.17 17.83
60 96.54 5500 42.94 18.15
70 112.63 6800 40.52 17.13

49
LT 1600 Manufacturing & Materials
Selection
Make vs Buy
Manufactured Components Purchased Components
● Engine Block ● Camshaft ● Oil Ring ● Fuel Injector
● Connecting Rod ● Intake Systems ● Compression Rings ● Coolant Pump, Radiator, Tubing
● Piston ● Exhaust Systems ● Valve Springs ● Catalytic Converter
● Wrist Pin ● Crankshaft ● Oil Pump, Tubing ● Misc. Nuts & Bolts
● Cylinder Head ● Oil Pan ● Spark Plug ● Timing System (Post Machined)
● Gaskets

Justifications for Make vs Buy Decisions:

● Manufactured Components
○ Parts that are specific to the Little Tikes engine design
○ Parts that are cheaper to manufacture in-house than sourcing
● Purchased Components
○ Simple parts that are mass produced, i.e. nuts, bolts, springs
○ Complex parts with electrical components, i.e. spark plugs, fuel injectors, pumps

Part Totals:
43 Unique Manufactured Parts, 289 Total Parts
51
Cost of Manufacturing & Materials

Full Bill of Materials

Justifications

52
LT1600 Financials
Market Analysis

● Target Market (Touring)

○ Covid-19 brought about a distinct change in consumer preferences as social distancing and freedom
of movement became a trend and motorcycle sales grew dramatically
○ We designed a motorcycle that appeals to new entry level consumers that are both environmentally
conscious and seeking to travel the country while air travel attempts to get back to normal.
● Sales Target
○ To achieve our target of producing 7,500 motorcycles in our first year followed by 12,000 and 15,000
the following two years, we must capture about 5% of the market in 3 years from our release.
○ To reduce expenses on every sale we will employ a direct to consumer (DTC) strategy.
● Competing Products
○ Indian Chief
■ 1800cc V-twin engine, air cooled
○ Vulcan 1700
■ 1700cc V-twin engine, liquid cooled
○ BMW K1600GT
■ 1649cc 6 cylinder inline engine, liquid cooling

54
Pricing & Warranty
Total Yearly Cost of Total Yearly Cumulative Line Items Cost
Units Yearly Profits
Manufacturing Revenue Profits Raw Materials $167.87
Year 1 7500 $45,702,164.13 $59,437,500.00 $13,735,335.87 $13,735,335.87 Purchased Parts $2,780.56
Year 2 12000 $73,123,462.61 $95,100,000.00 $21,976,537.39 $35,711,873.26 Labor $2,245.00
Year 3 15000 $91,404,328.26 $118,875,000.00 $27,470,671.74 $63,182,545.00 Utilities $35.68
Total 34500 $210,229,955.00 $273,412,500.00 $63,182,545.00 $63,182,545.00 Workspace $251.62
Capital
$86.96
Investment
Miscellaneous
$525.94
Costs
Total Cost $6,093.62
MSRP $7,921.71
Final Price $7,925.00

Cost assessment heavily skewed due

to covid surge pricing and accounting
for inflation 55
Operations & Risk Management
Theory of Operations

57
Failure Mode Effects Analysis

Life Limiting Components (RPN’s > 70):

● Engine Block (Mechanical Failure i.e. Fatigue or

Cracking)
● Crankshaft and crankshaft bearing cap (Fatigue)
● Connecting rod and connecting rod bearing cap
(Excess Pressure)
● Piston (Fatigue Failure with Piston Crown Breach)
● Valves (Head Deformation and/or Fatigue)
● Springs (Fatigue Failure)
● Camshaft (Fatigue)

Full FMEA 58
Project in Review
Did we Satisfy the customer?
Target As Designed
Inline 4 Engine ✔
4-Stroke Cycle, Otto Cycle ✔
~1600cc ✔ (1608cc)
Compression Ratio 9:1 to 10:1, Appropriate for 87-Octane gasoline ✔ (9.3:1)
Efficient and evenly timed fuel injection for each of the cylinders for the combustion cycle ✔ ( Real Cycle Analysis & Cam Sizing)
Evenly timed spark ignition for each of the cylinders for the combustion cycle ✔ (1 NGK spark plug per chamber)
42 ignitions/sec for each active cylinder ✔ ( 1 Bosch Fuel Injector for Port Injection per intake port, ECU is out of Scope)
Redline at 8,000 RPM ✔ (8100 RPM)
Chain Cover and properly sized flywheel ✔ (Chain Used)
1st year ≥ 7,500 ✔
2nd year ≥ 12,000 ✔
3rd year ≥15,000 ✔
500mm x 300mm x 600mm [1] ✘, ✔, ✘ (517 mm x 244 mm x 636 mm)
< 120kg [2] ✔ (106.5kg)
< $8,000 Manufacturing Cost [3] ✔ ($6,094)
Fuel Efficiency of ≥15 km/L [4] ✔ (Highway 20.5 km/L , City 15.7 km/L)
Max Emissions: HC+NOx (g/km) < 0.8, CO (g/km) < 12.0 [5] ✔ (Catalytic Converter used, Max: HC+NOx = 0.55g/km, CO = 2.17 g/km)
Minimize Noise < 72 DBA for < 45MPH, < 78 DBA ≥45MPH [6] ⍭ (Unable to conduct analysis without testing)
65% of manufacturing cost derived from purchased parts ✔ (45.6% from Purchased Parts, 3% Raw Material, 37% Labor )
30% Margin for the Spartan Company [7] ✔ (30.05%)
Engine temperature 100 to 230℉ [8] ✔ (Maximum 108 ℉)
Safety factor 1.5 - 2 [9] ✔ (Minimum was Con Rod of 1.5)
225,000km life target ✔ (3333 hours @ Continuous Operation) 60
Oil change every 4,000km [11] ✔ ( Not free but potential business opportunity)
 Team Member Contributions
Member Role Contributions
Theory of Operations, Scope, Executive Summary, Cooling Calculations, Lubrication Calculations, Pugh Charts, Gantt Chart,
Vance Varner Team Lead
Project Management, Redline Mechanical Calculations, Team Morale, Enthusiasm, Encouragement, Guidance, Clarity

Cylinder Head Design, Connecting Rod, Wrist Pin & Piston Head Design and Calculations, CEA, FEA, FMEA, Emissions
Gershon Gilman Project Manager Calculations, Mass Flow Model, Volumetric Efficiency, Real Cycle Analysis, Pugh Charts, Project Management, Bolt
Calculations, Drawings

Mass Flow Model, Real Cycle Analysis, Counterweight Balancing, Volumetric Efficiency Modeling, Fuel Efficiency
Vincent Russo Research & Calculations Lead
Calculations

Maxwell Qiu Mechanical Elements Specialist Bolt Calculations, Fatigue Analysis, Buckling and Shearing Calculations, Redline Mechanical Calculations

Mishal Mehta Thermodynamics and Fluids Specialist Initial Research, Ideal Otto Cycle - Work & Power Calculations, Fuel Efficiency, MATLAB code

Justin Snider Materials & Procurement Bill of Materials, Materials and Manufacturing Selection, Costing, Quality Control of Manufacturing, Solidworks Materials Files

Joseph Broady Design Lead Assembly and Testing of Manufacturing, Piston Research, Bearing Design, Theory of Operations, Drawings

Bradley Deamer Accessory System Specialist Lubrication Calculations, Piston Head CAD, Pugh Charts, Drawings

Engine Block CAD, Flywheel, Crankshaft CAD, Lubrication and Cooling Channels CAD, FEA, Timing Chain, Oil Pan,
Solomon Wells Engine Block Specialist
Drawings

61
Camshaft Calculations/CAD/MATLAB, Valvetrain Calculations/CAD/MATLAB, FMEA, Gaskets CAD, Financial Analysis,
Alvin Kim Cylinder Head Specialist
FEA, Drawings
62
 Thank You
Thank you to Dr. Collins, the TAs (especially Michael for answering our questions at odd hours),
classmates, and Little Tikes Company.

63
Quick Links

Pugh Charts
Calculations
Mechanical Calculations
BOM
Materials Justifications
FMEA
Team Contributions
Product Design Specifications
Final Report Chapters

64
 References
[1]https://powersportsguide.com/average-motorcycle-dimensions/
[2]https://vehq.com/how-much-motorcycle-engine-weigh/
[3]https://cars.usnews.com/powersports/motorcycles/cruiser-motorcycles
[4]https://www.fuelly.com/motorcycle/kawasaki/vn1700_vulcan_1700_voyager_abs
[5]https://govt.westlaw.com/calregs/Document/I6E7243702DDD11E197D9B83B68A61150?viewType=FullText&originationContext=documenttoc&transitionType
=CategoryPageItem&contextData=%28sc.Default%29
[6]https://www.semasan.com/resources/exhaust-noise-laws-state
[7]https://ycharts.com/companies/HOG/gross_profit_margin
[8]https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/factors-safety-fos-d_1624.html,
https://bikerestart.com/motorcycle-engine-temperature-range-during-riding/#:~:text=The%20normal%20operating%20engine%20temperatures,the%20temperature%
20going%20above%20250F.
[9]https://bikerestart.com/motorcycle-engine-temperature-range-during-riding/#:~:text=The%20normal%20operating%20engine%20temperatures,the%20temperatur
e%20going%20above%20250F.
[10] https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-49/subtitle-B/chapter-V/part-571
[11]https://letsridemotorbike.com/how-long-do-motorcycles-last/

65