Exam III Study Guide/Outline

• Structure (components, location & histological appearance)/ function (S&F)

• Nervous system
– CNS & PNS (general)
Central Nervous System
• Brain & spinal cord
– neural tube
– ectoderm
– func: integrate sensory (afferent)
information and initiate &
coordinate efferent (motor)
responses
– higher mental functions of
higher thinking, learning, &
remembering

Peripheral Nervous System

Cranial, spinal & peripheral
nerves and ganglia
– neural crest cells
– functional and anatomical
extension of the CNS

– SNS & ANS (general)

Sensory Nervous System
 afferent & efferent innervation
– motor neurons -- skeletal muscles
Autonomic Nervous System
 motor fibers --- smooth muscles
– functions of the heart, abdominal organs, sweat glands muscles of the
eye and hair follicles

sympathetic:
• chiefly adrenergic fibers
– acetylcholine, norepinephrine & adrenaline
– innervates the smooth muscles of organs, glands &
BV
– parasympathetic
• chiefly cholinergic fibers
– Acetylcholine
– antagonistically
• ex. heart
– enteric

– Neurons: types, functional components, classification

– functional unit of the nervous system
– highly specialized morphology

 do not divide
• sensory neurons
• motor neurons
• interneurons
• Functional components
– cell body (perikaryon)
– nerve fibers
• dendrite
• axon
• Classification
– unipolar (pseudounipolar)
– bipolar
– multipolar
• round, star-shaped, pyramidal or flask-shaped
Functional Components of Nucleus
nucleus
– center & euchromatic
– nucleolus: central (owls eye look)
• cell body cytoplasm
– mito., Golgi stacks, lysosomes, transport vesicles, free ribosome & rER
– Nissl bodies (stack of rER)
– melanin (midbrain) & lipofusin
– microtubules & neurofilaments (IF)
• axon
– Func: convey information away from cell body
• neurons
• effector cells
– one per cell
– 0.20 -20 um in diameter
– up to ~ a meter in length
– recurrent branches or collateral branches
– axonal hillock
– initial segment
• axon hillock & myelin sheath
• site of action potential
– axolema

Dendrites
– function
• receive stimuli (information) from:
– neuron & external environment to cell body
– greater diameter than axons; but typically close to the cell body
– unmyelinated
– one or many per cell
– tapered
– dendritic trees
• increase receptor surface
• dendritic spines
– no Goligi*
 – supporting cells: neuroglia/glia (oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells),
Schwann cells, Satellite glial cells…

Oligodendrocytes
Function:
– produce & maintain myelin
• 80% lipid & 20% protein
• efficient conduction of action potentials
• node of Ranvier
• saltatory (discontinuous) conduction
– metabolic support to axons
• Structure:
– one or more axon
– aligned in rows
– tongue like process
– internodal segment
– no external lamina/ basement membrane
– myelin of adjacent axons may touch
– no cytoplasm on the outermost layer of the
myelin sheath
• unmyelinated axons= bare
White matter

Microglial
small numbers & smallest
• Function
– phagocytotic
– macrophages, scavenging debris & "cleaning
up"
• development
– proliferate & phagocytic
• injury and disease
• Origin:
– bone marrow-vascular system
• Structure:
– small elongated nucleus
– short twisted processes
– spikes
– lysosomes, inclusions & vesicles
– rER, microtubules & actin filaments

Astrocytes
largest
• Function
– physical & metabolic
• Types:
– ptotoplasmic astrocytes
• gray matter
• cytoplasmic processes
– perivascular feet & perineural feet
– glia limitans
» subpial feet to pia mater
» impermeable barrier
(surrounding the CNS)
– blood vessels & neurons
» movement of metabolites
• fibrous astrocytes
– white matter
– fewer cytoplasmic process
• perivascular feet & perineural feet
– fibrous astrocytomas (80%)
– IFs: glial fibrillary acidic proteins (GFAP)
– bare areas of myelinated axons
– nodes of Ranvier & synapses
Origin: neural tube
Ependymal Cells
Func: barrier
– ventricles
– central canal of spinal cord
– fluid transporting cells
• Structure
– simple epithelial cell lining
– cuboildal to columnar
– no BM / poorly developed,
associate w/ astrocytes
– cilia & microvilli
• absorbing cerebrospinal
fluid

Schwann Cells
Func: to coat axon with myelin (PNS)
• Neural crest cells
• Myelin sheath multi layers
• Membrane:
– High in lipid content (>75%)
– Specialized proteins
• Myelin basic protein
• Proteolipid protein
• One cell per short segment (.08-0.1 mm)
• Cytoplasmic squeeze
– Inner collar of S cell cytoplasm
– Schmidt-Lanterman clefts
– Outer collar of perinuclear cytoplasm
• Inner leaflets fuse
– Major dense lines----concentric dense llamellae
• Intraperiod lines------outer membrane leaflets
• Node of Ravnier
– Junction between adjacent S. cells
– Site of AP jumping
• Non-myelinated axons
Satellite Cells
Func: support cell in ganglia, provide
electrical insulation & metabolic exchange
• Neural crest cells
• Complete
– no synapses in sensory ganglia
– peripheral & paravertebral ganglia
• nerve fibers
• satellite cells
• synapses
• LM: only nuclei

– Gray matter vs White matter (general)

Gray Matter
– cell bodies
– neuroglia cells
– nerve fibers
• diversely oriented & highly
interwoven
• dendrite
• unmyelinated portions of axons
• neuropil
– dendrites & proximal portion of
unmyelinated axons & glial cell
process
– matted felt-like texture
– not much if any myelin

White matter
– no neural cell bodies
– myelinated nerve fibers (axons)
– glial cells: oligodendrocytes
 – nerves
• connective tissue wrappings: Epineurium, Perineurium, Endoneurium
– Meninges
Meninges
– covering of the brain & spinal cord
• Dura mater (hard mother)
– outer most protective layer
• periosteal layer
• meningeal layer
– thick tough sheet of dense connective
tissue
– collagen, some elastic fibers, small
blood vessels, fibroblasts
– inner most layer: flat cells
– 2 layers
• deep layer
• superficial layer
– inner periosteum
– blood vessels
– venous sinuses
• from cerebral veins to internal
jugular
– Dural sheath
▪
– CSF
 • Urinary system
– Kidneys (picture)
• Capsule, Hilum
Capsule
• inner : myofibroblasts --- volume & pressure
variations
• outer : fibroblasts & collagen fibers

• Cortex (renal corpuscles & their associated tubules)

90-95%
• renal corpuscles & their associated tubules
• nephron
– renal corpuscle ----- glomerulus
– renal tubules (convoluted & straight tubules)
– production of urine
• collecting tubules
– cortical labyrinths
– collecting duct
• collecting ducts
– final concentration of urine
• medullary rays
– straight tubules of the nephron & collecting ducts
• cortical labyrinths
– renal corpuscles, convoluted tubules of the
nephron & collecting tubules
• uriniferous tubule : nephron & collecting tubule

• Medulla (………)
• 5-10%
• pyramids
– straight tubules
– collecting ducts
– base faces cortex
– apices faces renal sinus
» papilla (area cribrosa)
» minor calyx
– inner
outer
– lobes
» lobule

• medullary rays & cortical labyrinths (each is composed of ….)

Medullary Rays are straight tubules of the nephron & collecting ducts
Cortical Labyrinths- renal corpuscles, convoluted tubules of the
nephron & collecting tubules

• Nephron
• beginning of the nephron
– an ovoid to spherical filtration unit
– (a) glomerulus
• tuft of 10-20 capillaries
• afferent and efferent arterioles
– vascular pole
– open fenestrae
– mesangial cells & mesangial matrix
» phagocytotic & GF
• filters vast volumes of plasma
• glomerular ultrafiltrate or glomerular filtrate
– nitrogenous waste products
urea & uric acid
– other components
– (b) renal or Bowman’s capsule
• double-layer epithelial cup
– initial portion of the nephron
– visceral or glomerular epithelium
» podocytes
» BM
– parietal layer (capsular epithelium)
» simple squamous epithelium
– urinary pole

• glomerulus & Bowman's Capsule (renal corpuscle)

• renal tubules, collecting tubules, collecting duct (general function and epithelial linings)
• Tubular re-absorption: a.a., glucose, 50% of urea, vitamins and water

Collecting Ducts
cortical & medullary collecting ducts
– Simple squamous or cuboidal – cortical CD
– Simple cuboidal to columnar – medullary CD
• Note: pseudostratified columnar epithelial cell
– Cell types
• intercalated cells (aka dark cells)- MV
• principal cell (aka light or CD cells)- cilium & MV
– most water and salt have been removed
– permeability to water regulated
• ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)
– hypothalamus & pituitary gland
– promotes reabsorption of water from the cortical collecting duct
• Aldosterone
– distal convoluted tubules & cortical collecting ducts
– reabsorb more sodium and water
– CNS--- salt & thirst
– apex of the pyramid
– papillary ducts
– minor calyx
– area cribrosa
• collecting duct

Countercurrent system
hyperosmotic urine
– 3 structures
• loop of Henle
• vasa recta
• collecting ducts

• Juxtaglomerular apparatus (picture)

• Glomerular filtration barrier (picture)

– Ureter
 – 24-34 cm long
– renal pelvis to urinary bladder
– Mucosa
• transitional epithelium
– plaques
– fusiform vesicles
• lamina propria
– no muscularis mucosae
– no submucosal layer
– smooth muscle
• mixed bundles
– smooth muscle & connective
tissue
• 3 layers
– inner longitudinal layer
– middle circular layer
– outer longitudinal layer*
• peristaltic contractions
• minor calyces----ureter----bladder
– adventitia layer
• retro-peritoneal adipose tissue
• nerves & blood vessels

Bladder
distensible reservoir for urine
– pelvis, posterior to the pubic symphysis
– trigone
• ureters
– ureteric orifices
• urethra
– inter urethral orifice
• mesonephric ducts
• cloaca
– smooth & consistent in thickness
– thick & folded (empty)
– bladder: distends
• ureter
• walls
– smooth muscle component
• detrusor muscle
– randomly mixed collagen &
smooth muscle bundles
• internal urethral sphincter
– sympathetic & parasympathetic
» micturition reflex
– sensory: afferent fibers

– Urethra (male and female)

Urethra (Female)
3 to 5 cm
• from bladder to vestibule of the vagina (posterior to the clitoris)
• longitudinal folds
• transitional to pseudo-stratified /stratified columnar epithelium to squamous
epithelium
• external sphincter of the urethra
• urethral glands & paraurethral glands/ ducts

Urethra (Male)
prostatic urethra
– 3-4 cm from neck of bladder
– transitional epithelium*
– ejaculate (ejaculatory ducts)
– prostatic ducts
• membranous urethra
– ~1 cm--from apex of prostate to the
bulb of the penis
– external sphincter of the urethra
» urogenital diaphragm
– pseudo-stratified columnar
epithelium
• spongy urethra (penile)
– ~15 cm*
– corpus spongiosum
– glans penis
– stratified / pseudo-stratified
columnar epithelium
– squamous epithelium
 • squamous follicle (granulosa) cells
• • primary oocytes (prenatal life)
• Female reproductive system – eccentric nucleus
– Balbiani body
• • Cycle, menstrual – meiosis I
– not completed till puberty
– Uterine cycle (yes)
Second Stage
• 28 days----ovulation: release 20 Primary follicle (growing)
oocyte from follicle------corpus – follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
luteum (endocrine gland)---- – oocyte enlarges
involution (scar tissue) @ 10-12 – zona pellucida
days – squamous to cuboidal FC
•fallopian tubes----fimbriae of – cuboidal FC to stratified stratum granulosa layer
infundibulum – granulosa cells
•peristaltic contractions---fertilization – theca folliculi
in amuplla of FT • internal
•uterus-----uterine body, uterine • External
cervix & cervical canal-----external • Early primary vs Late primary follicle
os of the cervix --- vagina 10 follicle contains primary oocyte
•endometrium of uterus sloughs Secondary follicles
away (menstruation) – deeper in cortex
•implantation of fertilized ovum – increases in size
• Ovary – FSH, EGF & IGF-I
– Calcium ions
– antrum
– Stages of follicles (4) • liquor folliculi
– oocyte maturation inhibitor
First Stage 20 follicle contains primary oocyte

Oogenesis (ovum production) Mature follicle aka Graafian follicle

– early stages---prenatal life – cumulus oophorus
– Oogonia cells (yolk sac) – corona radiata
– Primordial follicles – thecal cells-- predominant
• 3rd months FL • LH receptors
• independent of gonadotropin • androgens
• oogonium – Granulosa cells
• FSH receptors • Pancreas –insulin
– Progesterone
• FSH ---estrogen from androgen • ovarian follicles
(aromatization) – ~2 months
• sER • placenta
• FSH-----LH receptors
• inhibin
– Blood supply & innervation of
– glycoprotein hormone ovary
– FSH
Ovarian arteries (a) -- aorta
– suppresses FSH but not LH • Uterine arteries (b)--- iliac arteries
• anastomose --mesoverium----hilum ovary
– helicine arteries

– corpus luteum (luteal gland) • highly coiled

• pampiniform plexus----ovarian vein
• sensory (stroma-lumbar) & autonomic nerve fibers (arteries: cortex & medulla)--
Ovulation- collapsed follicle ovarian plexus
• Corpus hemorrhagicum – w/ a central blood clot • parasympathetic ganglion cells --- medulla
• Granulosa & theca interna cells
– luteal cells
– increase in size
• fat droplets & lipochrome • Fallopian tubes
– Lots of sER & mito (steroid-secreting cells) Uterine tubes or oviducts
– secrete progesterone & estrogen • bilateral extensions of uterus to ovaries-- 10-12 cm
• growth & secretory activity in the endometrium • convey ova to uterus
– implantation • site of fertilization---morula stage
– GLC>TLC – ~3 days
• blood & lymphatic vessels • gross anat.
– theca interna invade granulosa layers – infundibulum
– ampulla
• corpus luteum of menstruation
– isthumus
– ~14 days, degenerates – uterine (uterotubal junction)
• autolysis • wall
• corpus albicans – serosa
– hyaline material – muscularis
» homogeneous translucent – mucosa
material (acidophilic) • simple columnar epithelium
– disappears—months – ciliated cells
corpus luteum of pregnancy » estrogen
– increases in size---- ~3 months – peg cells
– 2-3 cm » progesterone
– Luteotropins • Ciliated cells and tubal fluid
• Ovary - estrogen , IGF-I & II... • move ovum/zygote to uterus
• trophoblast (of the chorion) –hCG • cyclic hypertrophy---follicular phase
• Pituitary - LH & prolactin • cyclic atrophy---luteal phase
 • mid-cycle---watery
• endocervix
• Uterus – simple columnar epithelium
• transformation zone
Zygote (morula) --embryonic & fetal development • ectocervix
• hollow--pear shaped structure – stratified squamous epithelium
• before puberty & after menopause
• pelvis b/w bladder & rectum
– inside external os
• 30-40 g/7.5 cm--flatten lumen
• reproductive years
• gross anat. – outside external os
– body
• fundus • PAP smears
– isthmus –
– cervix
• cervical canal
• external os • Vagina
• wall
• Fibromuscular-walled canal
– endometrium, myometrium & perimetrium – flattened anteroposteriorly
– endometrium* – exterior of the body
• proliferated ---degenerates---menstrual cycle • mucosa
• correlates w/ maturation of ovarian follicles – folds or rugea
• zones – stratified squamous epithelium
• nucleated
– stratum functionale • basal cells
» simple columnar epithelium • estrogen:
» uterine glands – proliferation---epithelia thickening
» no submucosa – pale empty appearance
– stratum basale » glycogen: bacteria fermentation
» lipids
• shed during menstrual phase
– no glands
• Cervix • moist by drainage of cervical mucus
– fibroelastic lamina propria
• bulk of cervix • outer---epithelium
– loose CT
– dense fibrous CT & very little smooth muscle
– cellular
• Endometrium • inner---muscularis
• cervical mucosa – CT papillae
– simple columnar epithelium – plexus of small veins
– large branched glands » simulate erectile tissue
– no spiral arteries • lymph nodules
– little change • smooth muscle coat
• not sloughed off – inner - circular
– secreted mucus under influence of menstrual cycle – outer -longitudinal, cont. w/ uterus
• spermatozoa transport musculature
 • adventitial – vestibule (vestibule of the vagina, bulb of the vestibule, and Bartholin's glands)
– inner • the space between the labia minora (labia majora
Vestibule (vestibule of the vagina, bulb of the vestibule, and Bartholin's glands)
• dense CT---muscularis • the space between the labia minora (labia majora)
• elastic fibers – urethral orifice*
– outer – clitoris
• nerves » small erectile organ at (embryonic homologues to the glans penis)
– few » corpora cavernosa--stroma
– concentrated in lower third » nerve endings--no glands
» pain & stretch sensation » stratified sqaumous epithelium
• blood & lymphatic vessels – vaginal orifice
– white blood cells---menstrual flow – vestibular glands (Skene’s glands):
• vaginal orifice/opening » near clitoris & urethra (periurethral glands)
» analogous to the prostate
– skeletal muscle fibers » pseudostratified mucus-secreting columnar epithelium
– » ducts lined by transitional epithelium.
» merge w/ stratified squamous epithelium of vestibule
• Vulva » produce lubrication in response to stimulation---act to aid in sexual intercourse
– Bartholin’s glands (aka greater vestibular glands)
» b/w vulva and the vagina
• eratinized stratified sqaumous epithelium » embryonic homologues to the bulbourethral gland
• mons pubis » tubuloalveolar structure with mucus-secreting columnar cells (ducts:transitional
– rounded mound anterior to the symphysis pubis epithelium)
– covered by keratinized stratified sqaumous epithelium » produce lubrication in response to stimulation---act to aid in sexual intercourse
• Vulvar lymphatics: drainage for all (except for the clitoris) is to superficial inguinal
(skin) with underlying pad of adipose tissue -- nodes
outer surface covered w/ pubic hair • Nerve endings:
• labia majora – Meissner’s corpuscles---mons pubis & labia majora
– two folds of skin with underlying adipose tissue & SM – Pacinian corpuscles---CT, labia majora & erectile tissues (physiologic response to
– anteriorly as extensions from the mons pubis SA)
– posteriorly to form the posterior labial commissure – free nerve endings ---skin of external genitalia
– laterally in contact w/ thighs
– thin layer of smooth muscle
– outer surface covered covered by keratinized stratified
• Breast
sqaumous epithelium (skin) w/ pubic hair Mammary glands
– inner: no hair
– sebaceous and sweat glands--stroma
• modified apocrine sweat glands
– embryonic homologues of the male scrotum • mammary ridges
• labia minora (aka nymphae) – axial to inguinal regions
– inner highly vascular largely connective-tissue folds • 1% polytheal
• core-- no fat – rudimentary in males
• BV & elastic fibers
• sebaceous glands--stroma • puberty
– no hair follicles, covered by not so keratinized stratified sqaumous epithelium (skin) – estrogen & progesterone
– melanin pigment • maturing ovary
 • inactive epithelium
– 15 to 20 irregular lobes of branched – secretory glands
tuboloalveolar glands • simple cuboidal or columnar
– fibrous bands of CT epithelium
• Cooper’s ligaments ----dermis
– dense CT ---- interlobular spaces • myoepithelial cells
• adipose tissue – ducts
• intralobular CT • menstrual cycle
– loose & less fatty inactive glands
– mammary papilla (nipple) – spares & mostly ducts
• lactiferous duc – cyclic changes
nipple & areola • early
– epidermis
• keratinized squamous epithelium
– ducts---cords
• pigmented – no lumen
– puberty • mid cycle (estrogen)
» predominant--nipple
• wrinkled – secretory cells increase in
• dermal paillae height
– smooth muscle fibers – lumen -- secretions
• radial & cir.---- CT
• longitudinally----lactiferous duct
– fluid in CT
• erect---nipple Active glands
– sensory nerve ending – pregnancy
• nipple • prepare for lactation
• areola
– areola – merocrine
• pregnancy : larger & pigmented » protein
• Glands » rER
– sebaceous glands
– sweat gland » membrane limited
– modified mammary glands secretory vesicle's in Golgi
» aka glands of Montgomery – apocrine
» b/t sweat & mammary
» lactiferous duct » lipid component
areola » free lipid droplets in
– lactiferous duct cytoplasm
• stratified squamous epi » cytoplasm & lipid
– lactiferous sinus • breast --bigger
• stratified cuboidal epithelium • estrogen & progesterone
– ducts system – corpus luteum & placenta
• simple cuboidal or columnar – suppress prolactin
Active glands • stroma, large polygonal, acidophilic
• lipofuscin pigment & crystals
– breast --bigger of Reinke
– estrogen & progesterone – mediastinum - tubuli recti (straight tubule
– proliferation •
• ducts branch
• alveoli develop • spermatogenesis
• secretory glands increase in
number • seminiferous tubules
– differentiation – Seminiferous tubules
– decrease in – mediastinum
CT & adipose tissue – tubuli recti (straight tubule)
– plasma, lymphocytes and • Sertoli cells in a simple cuboidal epithelium to low columnar
esinophiles
• rete testis
Male reproductive system – anatomizing system
– simple cuboidal to low columnar epithelium
– single apical cilium
– Testis – few short microvilli
– conduct immotile sperm
tunica vaginalis
– parietal & visceral layer
– thin cavity w/ little fluid
• tunica albuginea
– fibrous capsule
– excurrent ducts system
– thickened posteriorly (mediastinum) – mesonephric tubules
• septa divides the testis into lobules 250-300 – mesonephric duct
• tunica vasculosa
• seminiferous tubules
– sperm production
– seminiferous epithelium – efferent ductules– ductus epididymis
• stratified epithelium
• Sertoli cells – mesonephric tubules, head
– columnar / crystalloids • simple columnar to pseudo-stratified
• spermatogenic cells epithelium (non-ciliated w/ microvilli &
– developing sperm: germ cells (YS) ciliated)
– layers
– tunica propria • basal and luminal (or principle) cells
• myoid cells (3-5) & collagen fibrils • smooth muscle layer & elastic fibers
• peristaltic movement • highly coiled
– Leydig (interstitial) cells • reabsorb fluid
• coni vasculosi (6-10) • phagocytotic
– highly convoluted ducts, 15-20 • halo cells
mm • smooth muscle layer thickens
– head of epididymis – 3 layer
– ductus epididymis • mature motile sperm
• body & tail – androgen dependent
• single channel – surface-associated
• highly coiled, 4-6 mm decapacitation factor
• pseudo-stratified epithelium » epididymal fluid
• stereocilia » inhibits fertilization
– ductus epididymis » capacitation process
• pseudo-stratified epithelium
• smooth ducts
• stereocilia
– modified microvilli (25 - 10 um)
• basal cells & principle cells (80-40
um)
• highly coiled
• reabsorbed fluid
• secrete acids, glycoproteins & steroids
• phagocytotic
• halo cells
• smooth muscle layer thickens
– 3 layer
• mature motile sperm
– androgen dependent
– surface-associated • Ductus deferens (aka vas
decapacitation factor
» epididymal fluid
» inhibits fertilization
deferens)
» capacitation process
– longest
– pseudo-stratified epithelium
– pseudo-stratified epithelium – long microvilli
• smooth ducts – ducts not smooth
• stereocilia – thick muscular coat (1-1.5 mm)
– modified microvilli (25 - 10 um) – bilateral ligation
• basal cells & principle cells (80-40 • birth control: vasectomy
um) – Course
• highly coiled • abdomen ------ spermatic cords
• reabsorbed fluid – spermatic cords
• secrete acids, glycoproteins & steroids
 » testicular artery, arteries to ductus deferens & cremaster muscle, pampiniform plexus, – testosterone
lymphatic vessels, sympathetic nerves fibers and genitofemoral nerve – lamina propria
» abundant amount of elastin
» fascia
• inguinal canal ------ pelvis ------bladder Smooth muscle
• ampulla – inner circular muscle layer
– seminal vesicle – outer longitudinal layer
– prostate – contracts
– urethra – stored vesicular secretion
– ejaculatory ducts* – seminal fluid (semen)
» do not have a muscularis layer
– thin muscular coat
• fibrous (adventitial) coat
– superior end
• peritoneum
– Accessory sex glands • serosa (serous membrane)

• Seminal vesicles, prostate gland & Prostate Gland

bulbourethral gland externally secreting gland---tubuloaveolar
glands
• weighs about 20 grams (large walnut)
Seminal Vesicles • caudal to the urinary bladder and cranial
evagination of mesonephric duct to the external urethral sphincter
– paired highly tubular glands • composed of glands, muscle and fibrous-
– posterior wall of the urinary bladder/parallel to the connective tissue --encapsulated by CT
ampulla
– duct + ampulla = ejaculatory ducts
• largest of the accessory organs
– Walls: • outpouchings from the urethral epithelium
• mucosa • fibromuscular tissue
– mucosal arches – originally continuous w/bladder
– infolding---secretory surface area & • a major component of semen (seminal fluid)
distention • glands---prostatic ducts-----prostatic urethra---
– tall columnar epithelium (pseudo-
stratified/ simple) body
» basal & luminal cells • secretions function as a vehicle for
» one lumen spermatozoa
– secretions: viscous slightly yellowish & • three zones : peripheral, transitional and
rich in nutrients central zones
» fructose
» prostaglandin (hormone)

peripheral (75%)
– surrounds the posterolateral peripheral
aspect and extends from its apex to its
base
– simple acinar lined by simple or pseudo-
stratified columnar secretory epithelium
– 72 % of PCa
– palpable by DRE
• central (15%)
– ejaculatory ducts
– large, irregularly contoured and lined by
low columnar to cuboidal epithelium
– Little to no PCa & inflammation
– mesonephric ducts cells
• transition (5%)
– bilaterally symmetrical lobules
– ~peripheral zone
– stroma --- more dense & compact
– mucosal glands
– benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)

Bulbourethral Gland
Paired glands aka Cowper’s
gland
• pea-sized
• drain into the initial penile
urethra
• tubuloaveolar glands
• simple columnar epithelium
• testosterone
• clear mucus-like secretion
– galactose, sialic acid and
methylpentose
• sexual stimulation causes
release
• pre-seminal fluid
• lubricant for the penile urethra
Penis
male sex organ
• penile skin moves freely over underlying
– skin over glans penis (sensory receptors)
• bluish color
– prepuce (foreskin)
• retractable protective fold of skin
• Body of the penis
– erectile tissue
– corpus cavernosa (2)
• dorsal
• large
– corpus spongiosum
• ventral
• penile urethra
• glans penis
– tunica albuginea – t. vasculosa
• tough (dense) fibrous sheath of CT
• cavernosa body
– irregular vascular spaces
– vascular endothelium
– trabeculae (partitions): fibroblastic tissue & smooth muscle
– nerve endings & lymphatic vessels

Flaccid- cavernous bodies --- little blood

• Erection
– involuntary response
– parasympathetic post-ganglion efferent nerve impulses
– relax the smooth muscles (trabecular smooth muscle cells)
• thick-walled distributing arteries----dilate
– AV shunt: deep artery of penis & venous system
– close blood corpus cavernosum--erection
– open blood venous system---no erection
– vascular spaces
• blood -------- size and rigidity
– corporal veno-occlusive mechanism
– large veins --------- corpus cavernosa------restricting venous out flow
– corpus spongiosum ---- lesser extent
• t. albuginea : more extendable ----urethra
– sympathetic efferent response
• ejaculation (emission)
• smooth muscles cells
– decreasing blood : cavernous bodies
• somatic & sensory nerve endings (ex. Meissner corpuscles)

• Digestive system
– Oral (buccal) cavity
Vestibule
– space : lips, cheeks & teeth
• Oral cavity proper
– behind teeth
– bound by the hard & soft palates superiorly---floor of the mouth inferiorly-- entrance: oropharynx posteriorly
• Lining mucosa, masticatory mucosa & specialized mucosa

• Lips & cheek

Lips
– vermilion border (or prolabium which is/contains the red margin*)
• area of transition from the skin to the oral mucosa
• epithelium -- thicker
• CT papilla extend deep into the epithelium -- heavily vascularized
• hairs & glands
– outside & inside : lined by skin (KSSE) & oral mucosa (NKSSE) respectively
• LP & submucosa:
– labial vessels, nerves, the orbicularis orismuscle (striated)
– labial salivary glands
– Lining mucosa
• Summary:
– thin keratinized stratified squamous epithelium : outside skin
– thick nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium : inside oral mucosa
– thick keratinized epithelium : transitional zone = vermilion border/ red margin
Cheek
Fleshy area of the face: eyes & btw nose & ears
• outside: thin skin – Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium w/ associated dermis, glands & HF
• Inside:
– Cheek epithelium
– lining mucosa
• Epithelium
– non-keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium & para-keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium
» vermilion border
– cells of the upper layers – clear: fluid
» mechanical damage
» Typical epidermal epithelium layers
» stratum basale, stratum spinosum & stratum superficiale (surface layer of mucosa)
• Lamina propria
– Fewer & shorter papillary layer of LCT w/ BV, LV & nerves
» sensory receptors ie Free nerve ending & Meisner’s corpuscles
• Submucosa
– Collagen & elastic bundles : attachment to muscle
– Minor salivary glands
– Ecopic sebaceous glands -not associated w/ HF (area opposite molar teeth) --- fordyce spots

• Hard and soft palate

Hard Palate
a thin horizontal bony plate of the skull
• roof of the mouth--- arch formed by the upper teeth
• partition between the nasal passages and the mouth
• tongue & hard palate : essential in the formation of certain speech sounds (/t/, /g/, and /k/)
• Masticatory mucosa
– Epithelium
• keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium
– skin
• para-keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium
– surface layer
» nuclei: highly condensed (pyknotic)
» cytoplasm - eosin
– Lamina propria
• thick papillary layer of LCT w/ BV & nerves
– sensory receptors ie free nerve ending & Meisner’s corpuscles
• Reticular layer: DCT
– blends w/ the periosteum of the bone
– No submucosa
– palatine raphe
• midline of the hard palate
• Adipose (Fatty) zone
– Anterior
• Glandular zone
– posterior

Soft Palate
aka velum or muscular palate
• soft tissue --- movable
• muscle fibers sheathed in mucous membrane
• closes off the nasal passages -- swallowing
• no bone
• Snoring --- strong gag reflex
• separates OC from the nose: oral speech sounds
• lining mucosa
– Epithelium
• non-keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium & para-keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium
• thicker
• Stratum basale (on BL), stratum spinosum & stratum superficiale(surface layer of mucosa)
• taste buds
– Lamina propria
• fewer and shorter papillary layer of LCT
– BV & nerves
» sensory receptors ie Free nerve ending & Meisner’s corpuscles
– Submucosa
• collagen & elastic bundles help attach mucosa to underlying muscle
• inferior surface of tongue

• Tongue (papillae)
large bundle of striated voluntary muscles
• hyoid bone, mandible and the styloid processes of the temporal bone
• functions:
– manipulates food for chewing & swallowing
– organ of taste
• taste buds
– sounds of speech
• muscles of the tongue
– extrinsic muscles
• attachment out side
– intrinsic muscles
• inside the tongue
• four pairs
• shape of the tongue: talking & swallowing
• no external attachment
– bundles --- 3 planes ---right angles
– muscular hydrostat
• dorsum of the tongue
– oral part
• Mouth
– pharyngeal part
• oropharynx
– sulcus terminalis (aka terminal sulcus)
• V-shaped groove
anterior two-thirds (oral part)
– specialized mucosa
• small bumpy projections (aka a type of epithelial protrusions called papilla) and taste buds
– four types of papillae:
• Filiform: thread shaped
• Fungiform: mushroom shaped
• Foliate: leaf shaped
• Circumvallate (aka vallate): ringed-circle/dome shaped
• taste buds
– except filiform
• no lingual papillae --- underside
– smooth mucous membrane: lining epithelium
– lingual frenulum (fold)
• upper side of the posterior tongue (pharyngeal part)
– no visible taste buds
– bumpy -- lymphatic nodules lying underneath: lingual tonsil

Filiform Papillae
non-sensory
– rough surface
– smallest
– numerous
– conical elongated projections
– point back
– highly keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
– no taste buds
– mechanical role
Fungiform Papillae
anterior region of the dorsal tongue
– one to several taste buds per papilla
– scattered among filiform papillae
– nonkeratinized or very lightly keratinized
– taste buds
• sweet, salty and sour
– CN VII (facial nerve)
– more numerous near the tip
– red spots
• richly supplied w/ BV

Foliate Papillae
lateral edge of the tongue --
slightly anterior of the V line
– small serous glands
– taste buds
• sour tastes
– CN IX (glossopharyngeal nerve)

Circumvallate Papillae
V-shaped row --- 8 very large papilla
– posterior tongue
• sulcus terminalis
– deep trough (groove in the mucosa)
• stratified squamous epithelium
• taste buds
– Taste buds
• Groove
• sour/bitter sensitivity
• posterior 2/3
– Special serous glands
• von Ebner glands (aka lingual salivary glands)
• base of the troughs
• bitter substances
– taste bud stimulation
– CN IX (glossopharyngeal nerve)
 • Teeth & supporting tissues
Teeth
– major
– primary function:
• tear & chew food
• weapon
– embedded in & attached
• alveolar processes (bone)
– maxilla & mandible bones
– specialized tissues
• enamel
• dentin
• cementum
• pulp
– gingiva & alveolar mucosa
• periodontal ligament
Enamel
– hardest & most mineralized
– acellular mineralized tissue
– renewable
– visible dental tissue
• underlying dentin
– 96-98 % minerals (hydroxyapatite crystals), water & organic
• Enamel rod (aka enamel prism)
– structural unit
– 4 μm wide to 8 μm high
– tightly packed, highly organized mass of hydroxyapatite crystals
» crystalline calcium phosphate
– varies in thickness
• thickest : cusp
• thinnest : cementoenamel junction
– No collagen
– amelogenins & enamelins
• aid development
• framework
• other unknown functions
• ameloblast cell
Enamel
– ameloblast cells
• secretes enamalin & amelogen
– mineralize --- enamel on teeth
• oral epithelium tissue of ectodermal origin
– differentiation ----ectomesencyhmal cells in dental papilla
• enamel organ
– cellular aggregation of the developing tooth
» dental papilla
– function: formation of enamel, initiation of dentin formation, crown shape, and dento-gingival junction
– inner enamel epithelium, outer enamel epithelium & stellate reticulum

Dentin
– enamel
– cementum & pulp
– odontoblasts
• outer surface of the dental pulp
– dental pulp
• dentinogenesis
– creation of dentin
– mineralized connective tissue
• matrix of collagenous proteins
• porous, yellow-hued material
– 70% hydroxyapatite
– organic materials & water
– softer than enamel
– decays & cavities
– dentinal tubules
• micro-canals
• pulp cavity to the exterior cementum border
– functions: protective layer & supports

Cementum
– specialized bony substance
• root
– cementoblasts
• within root : root apex
• lacuna and canaliculi
– cementocytes
– yellowish
– softer
– function:
• periodontal ligaments – tooth
• stability
• collagen fibers (Sharpey’s fibers)
• embed in the bony matrix of the alveolar bone
• bulk of the periodontal ligament
– cemento-enamel junction
• acellular cementum
– 1/3-1/2 of the root base
• cellular cementen
– 1/3-1/2 of the root apex
– binds dentin
• afibrillar cementum
– extends onto the enamel
– Avascular
– 45% inorganic material (hydroxyapatites), 33% organic material (mainly collagen) & water

Dental pulp
– CT compartment
– Dentin
– center of a tooth
• odontoblasts
– outer surface of the dental pulp
– dentinogenesis dentin
– LCT
• vascularized
• nerves
– shape of the tooth

Supporting Tissues
Alveolar bone
– thin layer of compact bone
– alveolar processes of the maxilla & mandible
– periodontal ligament
– bone resorption & deposition
• Periodontal ligament
– supporting tissue of a tooth
– DCT & LCT - periodontal fibroblast
– specialized connective tissue
• teeth (cementum)
• alveolar bone
– 0.2 millimeters --- decreases with age
– large compressive forces
– sensation
• receptors
– differing amounts of tension
– highly vascularized
– type I and Type II collagen fibers

Gingiva
aka gums
• attached & free gingiva
• gingival sulcus
• masticatory mucosa
– keratinized & para-keratinized epithelium
– long rete pegs
– CT papillae
• attached gingiva
– no submucosa
– directly attached to bone

• Salivary glands- Parotiod, submandibular, sublingual

Parotid Gland
Largest --- temporal region of head
• s.p. outside OC
– Acini: serous
• Striated ducts: numerous, large & conspicuous
• excretory ducts: long
– Stensen’s duct: parotid papilla near the upper 2nd molar
• adipose tissues
• CN VII (facial nerve)
– Mumps --- viral infection

Submandibular Gland
under the floor --mandible (submandibular
triangle)
• s.p. outside OC
– Acini: mixed – serous (predominate) &
mucous
• Striated ducts: less extensive
• Excretory ducts: long
– Wharton’s duct:
• sublingual caruncle
• lingual frenulum
• floor of the OC

Sublingual Gland
smallest
• beneath the tongue ---- lingual folds
• s.p. inside OC
– acini: mixed – serous & mucous
(predominate)
• No striated or intercalated ducts --
muscous glands
• excretory ducts: multiple & short
sublingual ducts
– sublingual duct (of Bartholin)
• Wharton’s duct
• sublingual caruncle
• lingual frenulum
– small sublingual ducts
• separately into the mouth
• sublingual fold (plica) --- frenulum
linguae
 – Esophagus
Oesophagus
– mucosa
• stratified squamous epithelium (non-keratinized)
• lamina propria
• muscularis mucosae
– submucosa
• esophageal glands
– mucous secretion -- lubrication
– mucous glands near stomach
» protect from acidic reflux
» cardiac glands
– muscularis externa
• unusual --- striated muscle -- upper one third
• mixture of striated & smooth muscle --middle one-third
• smooth muscle --- lower one-third
– Adventitia
• LCT
• lowest part enters peritoneal cavity
– serosa
– short intraperitoneal
 – Stomach
Cardiac
• cardiac glands- heavily branched tubular glands
• mucus-producing cells
– few secretory cells
2. Fundic-body
• principal or corpus-fundic glands
– gastric juices : HCl, pepsin, mucus, & intrinsic factor
– simple branched tubular gland : isthmus, neck & body
– 4 cell types
– mucous neck cells
» between the parietal cells in neck
» mucous
– parietal cells (or oxyntic cells)
» most frequently: neck & between/below chief cells in lower parts
» hydrochloric acid (sterilizes)
» intrinsic factor -- resorption of vitamin B12 (synthesis of DNA components)
– chief cells (or zymogenic cells)
» most numerous
» primarily -- body
» Pepsinogen : pepsin (collagen)
– endocrine cells
» scattered --- epithelium of the GI
» gastrin-producing cells (G cells) & somatostatin-producing cells (D cells)

Lamina propria
– scant
– LCT (reticular fibers)
• fibroblasts, lymphocytes, plasma cells, macrophages, eosinophilic leukocytes, mast cells & SMC
• Muscularis mucosae
– thin layers
– circular & longitudinal
– variable ---- location
Submucosa
– large blood vessels, lymph vessels & nerves (ganglia-submucosal plexus)
– LCT < DCT
– adipose tissue
• Muscularis externa
– 3 muscles
• inner oblique layer
• middle circular layer
• outer longitudinal layer
– difficult
– bundles of umylenated nerve fibers &
• Adventitia/ serosa
– LCT
– Serosa
• simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium)
• continuous w/ parietal peritoneum of the abdominal cavity

• Cardiac
Cardiac glands- heavily branched tubular glands
• mucus-producing cells
– few secretory cells

• Fundic
Chief cells
•darker pepsin secreting
2. Parietal cells
•lighter acid secreting

• Pyloric
3. Pyloric
• Pyloric glands
• more coiled --- branched
• endocrine cells
– gastrin-producing cells
– more frequent
• parietal cells
• few/no chief cells

– Small intestine
principle site
– digestion
– absorption
Mucosa
– various structural features
• increase the luminal surface area
• support absorption
• Plicae circulares (of Kerkering)
– macroscopically visible, crescent-shaped folds of the mucosa and submucosa
– permanent structures
– duodenum & ileum : well developed in jejunum
• factor of ~ 3
villi & microvilli
• entire intestinal mucosa
– factor 10
• simple columnar epithelium
– Enterocyte (absorption)
» numerous microvilli (factor 20)
– crypts of Lieberkühn: simple tubular glands
» lamina propria ---- muscularis mucosae
» "intestinal juice"
» Undifferentiated cells – regenerate (<1W)
– Paneth cells
» bottom of the crypts
» antibacterial substances (lysozyme)
– Goblet cells
» mucus-secreting
– Enteroendocrine cells
– M cells
» modified enterocytes
» lymphatic nodules
• Lamina propria
• Muscularis mucosa

• Duodenum
duodenum (25-30 cm)
– chyme (partially digested food) ----stomach
– stomach, pancreas, liver and gallbladder --- digestion and absorption
– pH ~ 9 (slightly basic)
– Mucosa
• epithelium
– leaf-like villi- simple columnar epithelium w/ microvilli (striated boarder) -- few plicae
– enterocytes:
» w/ microvilli (striated boarder)
» absorbed metabolites
» enzymes (cell coat: glycocalyx) : terminal digestion of disaccharides and dipeptides
– Goblet cells .....
• lamina propria
– LCT c- BV & lymphocytes
– intestinal glands
• muscularis mucosa
– 2-3 thin layer of smooth muscle cells
– Submucosa
• submucosal glands –Burner’s glands
– alkaline mucus -- neutralize acidic chyme
– simple cuboidal epithelial cells
– Muscularis externa
• inner circular, outer longitudinal
– Adventitia & seros

• Jejunum
Central: btw duodenum & ileum
– pH : 7- 8 (neutral or slightly alkaline)
– mesentery -- great mobility
– primary site for absorption of all nutrients
– Mucosa
• finger-like villi: simple columnar epithelium w/ microvilli (striated boarder)
• well-developed Plicae circulares (of Kerkering)
– macroscopically visible, crescent-shaped folds: mucosa & submucosa -- permanent
• epithelium
– enterocytes ......
– less goblet cells
• lamina propria
– lacteal spaces
» small lymph vessels
» fatty acid & glycerol
• mucosa muscularis
– 2-3 thin layer of smooth muscle cells
– Submucosa
• no submucosal glands (Brunner's glands)
• smaller -- narrow
– Muscularis externa
• less developed than in duodenum
– Serosa

• Ileum
Final section --cecum : ileocecal valve (ICV)
– pH : 7 - 8 (neutral or slightly alkaline)
– absorption vitamin B12 & bile salts
– Mucosa
• villi: simple columnar epithelium w/ microvilli (striated boarder)
– capillaries: amino acids & glucose -- hepatic portal vein & liver
• mild plicae
• epithelium
– enterocytes
» protease & carbohydrase enzymes -- protein & carbohydrate
– goblet cells- more
• lamina propria
– lacteal spaces
• muscularis mucosae
– 2-3 thin layer of smooth muscle cells
– Submucosa
• no submucosal glands (Brunner's glands)
• Larger
• Peyer's patches (extend into LP)
– unencapsulated lymphoid nodules
– germinal centers
» plasma cells -- lamina propria IgA
– Muscularis externa
– Serosa

– Large intestine
terminal part of the digestive system
• 3 main sections
– cecum
– Colon
– rectum w/ anal canal
• primary function:
– water
– inorganic salts
• Mucus--- lubricant
• Mucosa
– relatively smooth
– no plicae circulares or intestinal villi
– Crypts of Lieberkühn
• longer & straighter
– epithelium
• Goblet cells
– lamina propria
• little
– muscularis mucosae
• two layers
• Submucosa
– adipose
• muscularis externa
– inner circular --- sheath
– outer longitudinal
• taenia coli
• Adventitia
– small pouches
– adipose tissue

Cecum
pouch
• ileocecal valve (ICV) or Bauhin's valve
• beginning of the large intestine
• colon
• primary function
– water and salts -- undigested food
• Herbivores --- large
• Carnivores --- smaller or none
• appendix

• colon
aka large intestine or large bowel
• cecum to rectum
• ascending, transverse, descending, & sigmoid colon
• Function: storing waste, reclaiming water, maintaining the water balance and absorbing vitamins
– mucus & bacteria -- feces
– digestive enzymes
– pH : 5.5 - 7 (slightly acidic to neutral)
• Mucosa
– epithelium: crypts
• plicae circulares
• Crypts of Lieberkühn
• Epithelium
– columnar absorptive cells
» tall columnar epithelium lines
– goblet cells -- interspersed (superficial columnar cells) & numerous (crypts)
» copious mucus --- facilitate passage of dehydrated undigested materials
» increase rectum
– No Paneth cells
– Lamina propria: CT (plasma cells, lymphocytes ...)
– Muscularis mucosae: 2 layers of smooth muscle (inner circular & outer longitudinal)
• submucosa
– LCT: vessels & nerves
– fat
• muscularis externa
– inner circular --- sheath
– outer longitudinal with taenia coli
• Serosa /adventitia : adipose tissue

• rectum
– Transverse rectal folds
– Similar to distal colon w/ straight tubular glands w/ goblet cells•
Anal canal
 • 3 zones (epithelial characteristics)
• Colorectal zone- simple columnar epithelium like the rectum
• Anal transitional zone (ATZ)- simple columnar epithelium stratified columnar stratified squamous epithelium
• Squamous zone - stratified squamous epithelium  perineal skin
• Mucosa
• anal columns: start in the rectum  anal canal
• 5-10 longitudinal folds
• superior rectal artery & vein
• anal sinuses: depressions btw anal columns
• pectinate line (aka dentate line): end of the rectum & beginning of anal canal
• anal glands  anal crypts at the pectinate/dentate line
• crypts disappear below the pectinate line
Epithelium: tall, columnar type, stratified squamous epithelium
Lamina propria: houses Anal glands (can extend into submusosa), sebasous glands and hair folicles & large apocrine glands, circumanal
glands
Muscularis mucosa: thin two layersalso present at this site, disappears at pectinate line• Submucosa
• anal glands (superior artery & rectal venous plexus)
• Muscularis externa
• anal glands may extend into it
• No tenia coli
• thicker at the ATZ level (involuntary internal anal sphincter)• external anal sphincter striated muscle of the pelvic floor

– Pancreas
no distinct capsule --- thin layer LCT
• small elongated : head, body and tail
– duodenum & spleen
• 2 functions:
– exocrine : enzymes --- digestible foods (1.5 l/day)
• clear alkaline fluid:
– trypsin, chymotrypsin& carboxypeptidasehydrolyse -- proteins smaller peptides or amino acids
– ribonuclease & deoxyribonuclease split corresponding nucleic acids
– pancreatic amylase hydrolyses -- starch & glycogen glucose & small saccharides
– pancreatic lipase hydrolyses -- triglycerides fatty acids & monoglycerides
– cholesterol esterase --- cholesterol esters cholesterol & fatty acid
– proteolytic enzymes : zymogens (inactive precursors)
» lumen -- enteropeptidase (brush border) -- catalyses trysinogen trypsin
» trypsin --- pancreatic zymogens
– endocrine : hormones -- affect carbohydrate metabolism (~1%)
• Islets of Langerhans
– alpha cells --glucagon
– beta cells -- insulin
– delta cells – somatostatin (decreases glucagon & insulin levels)
– F cells(PP cells)- pancreatic polypeptide (stimulates chief cells)
• 1. exocrine pancreas
– tubuloacinar glands
– single layer of pyramidal shaped cells--- secretoryacini
– apical cytoplasm --- secretoryvesicles --- precursors of digestive enzymes

enzymes --- secretory cells of the pancreatic acini

• fluid & bicarbonate ions --- cells of intercalated ducts
– neutralize acidic
• duct system extends: centre of the acini : centroacinar cells
– intercalated ducts --- low columnar or cuboidal epithelium
– interlobular ducts -- columnar epithelium
– pancreatic duct (of Wirsung) --- tall columnar epithelium
– accessory pancreatic duct (of Santorini)
• very variable
• minor duodenal papilla
• duodenum
• 1. serous cells
• 2. centroacinar cells
– Islets --- parotid gland
– no intralobular ducts
• 3. Islets of Langerhans
– no acinar orientation
• 4. Pancreatic duct
– epithelium
Endocrine: hormones -- affect carbohydrate metabolism (~1%)
– Islands of Langerhans: endocrine cells; scattered throughout the exocrine tissue
– highly vascularized (fenestrated capillaries)
• alpha-cells (20%)- secrete glucagon
– glycogenolysis
– secretory vesicles- fairly electron dense
– typically smaller delta-cells
• beta-cells (75%)- secrete insulin
– stimulates the synthesis of glycogen, protein and fatty acids
– uptake of glucose into cells and activates glucokinase in liver cells
– secretory vesicles – 1to2 crystals
• delta-cells (5%)- secrete somatostatin
– locally acting hormone
– inhibits other endocrine cells
• other endocrine cells
– pancreatic polypeptide
» stimulates chief cell in gastric glands
» inhibits bile and bicarbonate secretion
– vasoactive intestinal peptide:
» effects similar to glucagon
» stimulates exocrine function
– Secretin
» stimulates the exocrine pancreas
– Motilin
» increases GI motility

– Liver
largest internal organ
• under diaphragm -- right side of the upper abdomen
• bed for the gallbladder (stores bile)
• 2 major blood vessels: hepatic artery & portal vein
– hepatic artery ---- off celiac trunk
– portal vein --- venous blood from the spleen, pancreas, and small intestines
• process the nutrients and byproducts of food digestion
– Central veins hepatic veins inferior vena cava
• venous blood -- portal vein (~75%)
• arterial blood -- hepatic artery (~25%)
• well defined, thin capsule of connective tissue
– liver parenchyma : "classical" liver lobules
• portal vein, hepatic artery and bile duct --- porta hepatis
– liver parenchyma
– portal triads : interlobular connective tissue
• The Liver Lobule
– six-sided prism
– interlobular connective tissue
• portal triads
– cords of hepatic parenchymal cells, hepatocytes
– central vein
– vascular sinusoids
– Hepatocytes
• thin discontinuous simple squamous epithelium
• Sinusoids
– macrophages, Kupffer cells
– liver lobule
• central vein
• intercalated or sublobular veins
• hepatic veins

Hepatocytes
– 80%
– large polyhedral cells
– function
• storage; Glucose, vitamin A, vitamin B12, folic acid & iron
• turnover and transport of lipids
• synthesize plasma proteins (albumin, α and β globulins, prothrombin, fibrinogen)
• metabolize/detoxify fat soluble compounds (drugs, insecticides)
• turnover of steroid hormones
• secrete bile
• Kupffer cell
– specialized macrophages --- sinusoids
– accumulations of small brown/black dots
• iron
• bilirubin bile
• Ito cells (aka hepatic stellate cells, lipocytes, or fat-storing cells)
– pericytes -- perisinusoidal space (Space of Disse)
– accumulate lipid droplets
– main source of vitamin A storage
– wound healing - hepatic fibrogenesis
 The following pictures and diagrams should be part
of your study guide as they will appear
in some form on Exam III/Final
Focus on structure (components, location & histological appearance)/function relationships
Focus on structure ( components, location & histological appearance )/function relationships
The following figures will not be used in the exam perse, but
information will be helpful for other questions…..
SNS & ANS
Sample Questions
1. All are true about the stomach except (1pt)
a) functions both as a reservoir and as a digestive organ.
b) its mucosa is composed of pseudostratified columnar epithelium, an extra thick basement membrane, a lamina propria and a well-defined muscularis
mucosae.
c) houses cardiac gastric glands (heavily branched tubular glands), principal gastric glands (simple branched tubular glands) and pyloric gastric glands
(heavily coiled & occasionally branched tubular glands).
d) gastric glands house chief cells which produce pepsinogen, parietal cells which secrete hydrochloric acid & intrinsic factor as well as mucous neck cells
& endocrine cells.
e) pyloric glands have few parietal cells and generally lacks chief cells.
2. Pyramids in the medulla of the kidney are composed of ___________ and ___________ their bases face the cortex and their apices face the renal sinus as the
area cribrosa and drain into the _______________ (1pt)
a) renal tubules, collecting ducts, minor calyx
b) renal tubules, collecting ducts, major calyx
c) straight tubules, collecting ducts, major calyx
d) straight tubules, collecting ducts, minor calyx
3. All are true about the uterine cycle except (1pt)
a) proliferative phase is characterized by the initial formation of the stratum basale
b) secretory phase is characterized by enlargement of glands (to a cork-screw shape) & lengthening & coiling of spiral arteries in the stratum functionale
c) ischemic phase is characterized by necrosis of the stratum functionale due to sporadic interruption of its blood supply.
d) menstrual phase is characterized by the shedding of the stratum functionale.
e) gravid phase replaces menstrual phase if fertilization occurs and is characterized by differentiation of tropoblasts into cytoytropoblast &
syncytiotropoblasts and endometral cells into the decidua.
4. True or False. The hard palate is lined by lining mucosa composed of non-keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium with a well-defined lamina propria &
submucosa.
5. Match items in column A with those in column B. Items in column A may be used more than once.
Column A (>8) Column B (>18)
a) retes testis ___ is composed of highly coiled ducts lined with simple columnar to pseudo-stratified epithelium that ends as a coni vasculosi.
b) Bulbourethral gland
___ composed of tubuloaveolar glands lined with simple columnar epithelium. c)
seminal vesicles
___ composed of highly tubular glands w/ a single lumen lined by tall columnar epithelium (pseudo-stratified to
d) efferent ductules simple) which exhibits extensive infolding to increase its secretory surface area & for distention.

And more …… ___ conveys sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the efferent ductules. And more ……