1.

traction systems

Traction forms are usually categorised according to the manner in which the energy is
brought to the traction vehicle.

1.1 electrical traction

The traction vehicles are supplied with electric current from a fixed power supply (traction
substation). The traction vehicle is not autonomous. This form of traction is popular because
in many different ways it is comfortable and because there is a lot of potential for the
production of energy, such as renewable or nuclear production.

An exceptional traction form is traction by means of traction batteries. The traction batteries
can, but do not have to, be charged under a catenary and they release their energy without
catenary. This way short parts of non-electrified railway without catenary can be used, for
instance in a freight station. This is easy in freight stations due to the limited speed and short
distances.

Electrical traction typically has a high power density of 50 to 70 kW/t.

1.2 diesel traction

In diesel traction the energy is generated by a diesel engine on the traction vehicle. The
transfer can be electrical, hydraulic or mechanical. The traction form is energetically
autonomous and does not demand special installations, such as catenaries. It only depends
on a single energy source: petroleum. The emissions and the noise decrease the level of
comfort. For long underground connections (Antwerp , the North-South connection in
Brussels, …) diesel traction cannot/can hardly ever be used.

Diesel traction is much cheaper than electrical traction. The price per kilometre of electrical
traction is about twice as high as the price of diesel traction. For the greater part, the surplus
can be accounted for by depreciations of the fixed infrastructure.

Although this traction form delivers superb results, in Europe it is not considered modern,
especially not in comparison to electrical traction. In the USA diesel traction for freight
transport is popular based on economic considerations. A limited amount of electrical lines in
the USA have been dismantled and re-used for diesel traction. Aside from the cost, the
limited height of the container waggons was most decisive.

In diesel traction, the power density is around 25 kW/t. Diesel traction is typically les reliable
than electrical traction.

1.2.1 steam traction

After horsepower, steam traction is the oldest traction form. Today steam traction can still be
found in China, India, the former German Democratic Republic, … In these countries steam
traction increasingly ends up in museums. The lack of comfort and power in particular
encouraged operators to switch. Only picturesque touristic lines still make use of steam
traction.

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1.3 gas turbine traction

A gas turbine (turbo engine) delivers the power. The traction form is light compared to the
installed power. As a result it was largely used for the construction of prototypes for the high
speed train, for instance for the French TGV (TGV 001 Turbo train, 318 km/h on 8/12/1972).
This concept for TGV was abandoned due to the oil crisis.

As a comparison:
- a high-speed diesel engine of 1,200 kW weighs about 3,600 kg;
- a gas turbine engine of 1,230 kW only weighs 500 kg.

In 2000, Amtrak (USA) started operation of the Acela. The Acela is driven by a gas turbine
(3.7 MW) and reaches 240 km/h. The turbine drives an alternator that feeds three-phase
traction engines. Moreover, an electric flywheel buffers energy in order to take off faster, to
take slopes faster and to make sure the gas turbine slowly changes its operation. The
flywheel can deliver 2.2 MW in 3 minutes (= 110 kWh). The fuel for the gas turbine is
delivered by a gasifier with diesel fuel. The exploitation cost is therefore feasible, in
comparison to kerosene.

1.4 maglev trains

In the classic wheel-rail system the commercial speed is restricted to about 400 km/h, due to
restrictions of adhesion and running stability. In extreme situations 574.8 km/h has been
reached.

The maglev train was designed for the commercial speed field higher than 400 km/h. There
is no physical contact between the fixed infrastructure and the train. Therefore new systems
had to be developed in order to fulfil the main functions:
- carrying;
- conducting;
- propelling.

The absence of mechanical contact between the fixed infrastructure and the vehicle makes
sure the maglev trains are silent and do not have contact wear.

From a technological point of view, principally one can at least choose from the following
supporting and guiding systems:
- the air cushion system;
- the electromagnetic suspension: electronically controlled electromagnets in the train
attract to a magnetically conductive (usually steel) track;
- the electrodynamic suspension uses superconducting electromagnets or strong
permanent magnets that create a magnetic field, which induces currents in nearby
metallic conductors when there is relative movement, which pushes and pulls the
train towards the designed levitation position on the guideway;

The propulsion can be done by linear motors or by means of an air jet. Jet engines and air
cushion suspension were tested several times. However, mainly due to the noise, the idea
was abandoned.

Currently there are two systems:

- the German Transrapid system with electromagnetic suspension and a linear motor
for propulsion;

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 - the Japanese Maglev with electrodynamic suspension and a linear motor for
propulsion.

Maglev trains are very expensive; they cost up to 50% more than a traditional train system.
The infrastructure in particular is very complex. Moreover it is not compatible at all with
existing railway infrastructure. For longer courses, HSL’s can offer comfortable travels at a
slightly lower speed. An additional downside is the energy consumption of a Transrapid:
more than twice the average of a high speed train. Maglev trains are only slightly faster than
the current generations of HST. Therefore the use so far is restricted to short lines as people
mover, typically for airport connections. Only in Japan longer courses will be done with
maglev trains.

1.4.1 The Transrapid

The Transrapid is a maglev train with an electromagnetic suspension. The lifting is done
by means of an electromagnet on the undercarriage of the vehicle that pulls the vehicle
upwards towards the ferromagnetic material that is attached to the fixed infrastructure. This
system is unstable and therefore needs to be adjusted very quickly (100 kHz). A sensor
measures the distance and the current controller levels it at about 1 cm by -driving the field of
the magnet (figure 1). The same magnet also ensures the guidance.

figure 1: electromagnetic suspension

The propulsion is done by a linear synchronic motor, the three-phase winding of which is in
the infrastructure. The magnetic field hauls the vehicle. A frequency controller of the linear
stator winding controles the propulsion. It is unique that the fixed infrastructure drives the
train.

The energy for the “rotor poles” and the auxiliary systems on board is supplied by a linear
generator that is integrated in the magnets and is excited by a winding in the stator. For
speeds lower than 100 km/h the energy supply is done by batteries.

On the test site in Emsland, the Transrapid was successfully tested to a speed of 450 km/h.
Only in China a commercial connection of 31 km was built between Shanghai and its airport
Pudong. The speed and the relative silence were decisive factors for the investment.

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The poor success of the Transrapid was brought down even more by the crash of a
Transrapid with a neglected maintenance vehicle. It caused 23 deaths and 11 injured. The
Transrapid is indeed clammed around the fixed infrastructure. In case of a collision, the
vehicle cannot leave the course to direct its energy towards the environment as a traditional
train would do.

The Transrapid can speed up to 3 times faster than a classic railway vehicle. It can also
handle slopes that are steeper. In mountainous areas the cost of building tunnels can
therefore be restricted.

In the whole world there are a number of similar applications of ‘trams’ with electromagnetic
suspension in its own bedding. The courses are generally short, which means that the
surplus cost for the silent system is feasible. In China plans exist to construct courses of
some dozens of kilometres. The idea to construct a maglev train in Tenerife was inspired by
the steep landscape.

1.4.2 The Maglev

The Japanese maglev train Maglev functions according to

the principle of electrodynamic suspension. When an excited
coil or electromagnet moves over an electrically conducting
reaction plate, a repulsive force occurs (Lenz’s law). This will
cause the electromagnet to float at a certain speed. When
stationary, nothing happens. Hence: electrodynamic.

Given the fact that large repulsive forces are needed in order
to support the vehicles, very strong magnets are needed.
Therefore, superconductive high temperature coils with figure 2: repulsion of
strong magnetic fields are used. In reality no conducting conducting reaction plate
reaction plate is used, but coils that are placed vertically in
the infrastructure. At low speeds, the vehicle runs with a
landing gear on a running course.
From about 100 km/h the vehicle is carried
by the magnetic field.

figure 3: supporting principle of the Maglev

The three-phase stator winding for the propulsion of the vehicle is positioned laterally in the
infrastructure (figure 3).

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figure 4: Maglev – Infrastructure and vehicle

The fixed infrastructure is concave upwards, which makes it more sensitive to objects that
touch it unexpectedly.

In the ‘bogie’
there’s a cooling
installation with
helium for the
superconductivity.
This is a weak
point of the
Maglev system.

The speed record

of the Maglev is
set at 603 km/h.

In 2020 Japan
Rail wants to
transport the first
passengers in a
Maglev at 500
km/h. Japan is an figure 5: bogie of a Maglev
elongated country
and can therefore
use even more high speed line connections. The many earthquakes that strike Japan,
however, pose an additional problem to the Maglev.

In 2027 the Japanese railways are planning to exploit the course between Tokyo and
Nagoya with Maglev. In 2045 they want to do the same with the course Tokyo-Osaka (550
km).

1.5 the future

According to a Norwegian study it is possible to develop a maglev train that drives with a
speed of 6,000 km/h through an airless tube between London and New York. The tube would
float under the sea level. It would have to be airless in order to decrease the air resistance
and so the sound barrier wouldn’t have to be broken. To limit the costs of a transportation
system, however, operators tend to opt for a familiar technology.

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2. identification of voltage systems

To identify a voltage system, we distinguish the following:

- the number of transported phases (in the case of AC);
- AC or DC;
- the voltage on which the power is transported (if different from the voltage on which
the traction vehicle is supplied);
- the voltage that is supplied to the traction vehicle;
- the frequency (in the case of AC).

An example: 2 AC 50/25 kV 50 Hz. The power is transported with a frequency of 50 Hz on 50

kV over two phases and delivered to the traction vehicle at 25 kV. Sometimes, only parts of
the identification is given, 25 kV e.g.

3. traction systems in Europe

Currently there are 4 large power systems:

- 25 kV 50 or 60 Hz [48%];
- 3.000 V direct voltage [26%];
- 15 kV 16,7 or 25 Hz [13%];
- 1.5 kV DC [8%].
In between the square brackets there is a guiding percentage of the global lengths of
electrified lines in kilometres.

Many of the choices that have been made by companies and countries, were made based on
the actual development of the technology. Consequently the voltage diversity in traction
systems and signalisation can be explained by the moment of choice for a certain system.
If all systems could start over again, nearly all of them would opt for the technically superior
AC 25 kV 50 Hz, for the following reasons:
- a simple power supply;
- a light catenary;
- possibility of high power;
- a low power loss.

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 figure 6 shows the
geographical
distribution of the
voltage systems in
Europe.

Before 1990, the DC 3

kV-system globally was
the most common.
Now it is the AC 25 kV
50 Hz-system. In
Europe 1 AC 15 kV
16,7 Hz is the most
common.

The cost of a
conversion to AC 25 kV
50 Hz is high: rolling
stock as well as the
fixed installations
(traction energy,
gauge, …) need to be
converted.
figure 6: geografical distribution of voltage systems (Europe)
Based on a EU ruling, conversion is done when installing a new line in countries where an
older system still exists. In Belgium, for instance, the Athus-Meuse-line and the high speed
lines to France, the Netherlands and Germany are equipped with the AC 25 kV 50 Hz-
system. In practice, a gradual conversion is possible with multivoltage rolling stock. This
rolling stock can use several voltages.

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