HMEE5033 School Effectiveness & School-Based MGMT - Smay19 (MREP) (2) - Removed - Removed

134  TOPIC 7 LEADERSHIP FOR THE SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT MECHANISM
7.4 THE LAYER LEADERSHIP

Do you remember the concept of layer management that we discussed in Topic 6?
In this subtopic, we will be revisiting this concept but this time our focus will be on
school leadership based on the administrator layer at the individual, group, and
school levels, and the affective, behavioural, and cognitive domains. This can be
referred to as the layer leadership where leadership influence moves from the
leader layer to the matrix of school constituencies. Are you ready to learn more
about these concepts? Let us move on to the next subtopic.
7.4.1 The Leader Layer

Leader in this discussion may refer to the principal, individual administrator
(teacher), a group of administrators (teachers), or all the administrators in school.
In a school where participative management is practised, most of the teachers
may be involved in some form of managerial activities, hence establishing what
Barth (1988, as cited in Cheng 1996) refers to, as a community of leaders.
In the layer notion:

(a) Leadership is exhibited through their affective, behavioural, and cognitive
actions;
(b) Affective performance relates to personal commitment at the individual
level to team spirit, social norms, and interpersonal relations at the group
and school levels;
(c) Behaviour performance can be associated with general leadership
behaviour and management practices at all three levels;
(d) Cognitive performance refers to the process of understanding, developing
meaning, clarifying uncertainties, and developing values and beliefs about
education and management;
(e) Affective and cognitive performance is usually communicated in terms of
human, cultural, symbolic, or charismatic leadership; and
(f) Behavioural performance is commonly referred to as technical or structural
leadership.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 7 LEADERSHIP FOR THE SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT MECHANISM  135
Generally, behavioural performance attributes are more aligned with traditional

concepts of leadership, whereas affective and cognitive performance has more
similarities with transformational and cultural leadership.
7.4.2 The Matrix of Constituencies

Layer leadership affects the school staff and students in the school and also
school constituencies outside the school parameters such as parents, school
management board, education authorities, the community, and the public in
general. This is something that has been discussed in depth in Topic 2. Can you
remember the models of school effectiveness? The resource-input model,
strategic constituencies model, legitimacy model, and total quality management
models are especially relevant to our discussion in this subtopic. Do you know
why? Yes, because these external constituencies are important in ensuring school
effectiveness in relation to resource support, expectations of school goals, and
legitimacy for long-term survival.
Therefore, it is important for you to remember that school leaders do not only
work for internal constituencies, they also work to satisfy external
constituencies to ensure continued support for development and survival in an
uncertain environment.
As discussed earlier, internal and external constituencies can also be described

in terms of the individual, group, institutional, and community levels.
Although leadership at the community level is not a novice concept in
educational management, it is usually not emphasised in traditional
approaches to management.
According to Cheng (1996) layer leadership affects how school constituencies

behave, what they feel and think, and what they value and are committed to
attaining. The layer concept views leadership as an influencing process,
beginning from the entire leader layer to the entire matrix of school
constituencies. This is actually one of the significant differences between layer
management and the traditional concept of leadership. A summary of the
differences is provided in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1: The Traditional Leadership Concept and the Layer-Leadership Concept
The Traditional Leadership The Layer-Leadership

Issue
Concept Concept
Level of leader  Individual leaders  Individual leaders
 Groups of leaders
 A school of leaders
Category of leader  Mainly behavioural  Affective performance
performance  Behavioural performance
 Cognitive performance
Level of  Often at the individual  Individual level
constituencies level or the group level  Group level
 School level
 Community level
Category of  Internal constituencies  Internal constituencies
constituencies (teachers, students, etc.)  External constituencies
(parents, officers of
Education Authority,
members of school
management board, people
of social service, business
and industrial organisations,
and the public, etc.)
Domain of leadership  Mainly behavioural aspect  Affective aspect
of effect  Behavioural aspect
 Cognitive aspect
Nature of leadership  Based on the separate cells  Based on the whole layer
 Composed of individual  Composed of multi-levels,
level, behavioural multi-performance, and
performance, and multi-effect domains
behavioural effect domain  Related to the
 Related mainly to the technical/structural, human,
technical/structural cultural, political, and
aspects of management educational aspects of
management
Process of leadership  Leadership is an  Leadership is an influencing
influencing process from a process from the whole
cell of the leadership layer leadership layer to the whole
to some cells of the matrix matrix of constituencies
of constituencies
Source: Cheng (1996)

7.5 STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP

Can you recall the important role of strategic management in the school-based
management mechanism? In this subtopic, we will talk about the contribution of
multi-dimensional leadership towards the strategic management process. We
will begin by understanding the concept of strategic leadership before moving on
to the contributions of the five dimensions of the leadership model toward the
strategic management process.
7.5.1 The Concept of Strategic Leadership

According to Caldwell and Spinks (1992), „strategic leadership can be
distinguished from ongoing, routine, day-to-day leadership on three dimensions:
time, scale of issue, and scope of action.‰ Time, within the context of strategic
management refers to longer term than shorter term, whereas the scale of issues
tend to be national, international, and local. The scope of action in strategic
management is more school-based rather than programme-focused.
Caldwell and Spinks (1992) further posit that the best way to define strategic
leadership is by focusing on what leaders who are engaged in strategic
management actually do. Based on the school as an organisation, school leaders
exercise strategic management by:
(a) Keeping up with developments in the internal and external environments;
(b) Sharing knowledge with other members of the school community;
(c) Developing structures and processes to enable the school to formulate
strategies in line with current and future needs; and
(d) Focusing attention of school community on issues of strategic importance.
Davies and Davies (2005) take a closer look at the activities and behaviours of
strategic leaders and conclude that they have the following organisational
abilities (depicted in Figure 7.6):

Figure 7.6: The organisational ability

Source: Davies and Davies (2005)
They further explain that strategic leaders generally display the following
personal characteristics (see Figure 7.7):
Figure 7.7: Characteristics of strategic leaders


The development of strategic leadership abilities and characteristics plays a

critical role in ensuring the long term sustenance of school effectiveness. A model
of strategic leadership is illustrated in Figure 7.8.
Figure 7.8: A model of strategic leadership

Cheng (1996) suggests that the five-dimension leadership model comprising

cultural leadership, political leadership, human leadership, technical leadership,
and educational leadership is a comprehensive and significant tool to facilitate
the strategic management process. In the next subtopics, we will discuss the
contributions of each dimension in more detail.
ACTIVITY 7.4
Can you describe the culture of your school? Do you agree that school
leaders play important roles in creating and sustaining school culture?
Clarify your statement.

7.5.2 The Contribution of Cultural Leadership

In recent years, a lot of emphasis has been placed on the significant role played
by school culture in ensuring school effectiveness, and the role played by school
leaders in establishing and sustaining a culture of excellence in schools. Culture
is commonly referred to as „the way we do things around here‰ (Deal, 1985, as
cited in Caldwell and Spinks, 1992).
This is just a starting point because culture includes tangible expressions and
symbols and intangible aspects such as values, philosophy and ideology. It is up
to the school leader to ensure that the tangible and intangible aspects of culture
are sustained and practiced by the entire school community. This is the cultural
leadership role played by school leaders, and in this subtopic we will discuss the
role of cultural leadership towards the strategic management process in school.
The role of cultural leaders in the strategic management process can be

summarised as:
(a) Environmental Analysis

(i) Keep members informed of internal and external changes that can
affect the school;
(ii) Explain to members the importance of environmental analysis to
school;
(iii) Create awareness of environmental changes on which school is
dependent on; and
(iv) Guide environmental analysis to make it meaningful for overall
development of the school.
(b) Planning and Structuring

(i) Use results of environmental analysis to guide members towards
priorities for the future;
(ii) Encourage members to pursue excellence; and
(iii) Help members to develop school mission and school goals and be
committed to actualising them.

(c) Staffing and Directing

(i) Relate professional growth and school development in terms of the
schoolÊs future;
(ii) Act as role model for members by adhering to high ethical and moral
standards of conduct; and
(iii) Ensure staffing and directing processes are in line with the schoolÊs
mission and goals.
(d) Monitoring and Evaluation

(i) Explain the importance of monitoring and evaluation to the schoolÊs
development;
(ii) Focus on the value of learning and continuous development; and
(iii) Guide monitoring and evaluation activities to ensure development of
individuals, groups, and the school.
7.5.3 The Contribution of Political Leadership

The contribution of political leadership is apparent in resolving conflicts among
teachers or groups by focusing on the positive side of politics. A role of political
leaders in the strategic management process can be summarised in the
following way:

(i) Promote positive attitudes among members to resolve conflicts;
(ii) Create awareness on how environmental impacts can affect everyone
in school;
(iii) Help members learn the importance of working together to face
internal and external challenges; and
(iv) Guide members to work towards a common goal.


(i) Promote constructive views and attitudes in overcoming conflict in
planning and structuring;
(ii) Strengthen relationships among different groups to support
development of school goals; and
(iii) Help members to understand and manage diversity

(i) Manage conflicts of interest among groups;
(ii) Encourage teamwork and collaboration among staff; and
(iii) Focus on common interests of concerned parties when resolving
conflicts.

(i) Reduce internal and external resistance to quality assurance by
introducing appropriate legitimacy;
(ii) Gather strong support from different constituencies to support
monitoring and evaluation programmes; and
(iii) Encourage a „win-win‰ situation in resolving conflicts.
7.5.4 The Contribution of Human Leadership

According to Bolman and Deal (1991, as cited in Cheng 1996), from the human
perspective, „an effective school is one characterised by highly motivated
individuals who are committed to school objectives from which they derive
satisfaction. These individuals are linked together into highly effective work
groups.‰ Common denominators of the group are characteristics such as
common objectives, group loyalty, and mutual support.

Human beings are naturally social beings who are motivated by social needs and
derive satisfaction from their relationships with others. On this basis, human
leadership places priority on enriching teachersÊ commitment, personal growth,
and interpersonal relationships. The role of leaders in the strategic management
process is as follows:

(i) Create conducive environment for members to be productive;
(ii) Carry out environmental analysis without affecting interpersonal
relationships;
(iii) Motivate participation of all members in analysis of environmental
impact on the schoolÊs future; and
(iv) Turn environmental analysis into a learning experience for all
members.

(i) Create conducive climate to discuss and develop school mission and
goals;
(ii) Encourage all members to participate in planning and structuring for
school improvement;
(iii) Foster team spirit among school members; and
(iv) Turn planning and structuring activities into learning opportunities
for all members.

(i) Recognise and acknowledge importance of all members in this
process;
(ii) Emphasise importance of developing interpersonal relationships and
team spirit among all members;
(iii) Match tasks with membersÊ abilities; and
(iv) Encourage creativity and innovation in achieving goals.


(i) Promote cooperation and teamwork in carrying out this process;
(ii) Educate members on the importance of this process in the overall
development of human resources in the school;
(iii) Create a conducive climate for learning to take place as a result of the
monitoring and evaluation process; and
(iv) Provide positive reinforcement and recognition of staff at all levels.
7.5.5 The Contribution of Technical Leadership

Technical leadership refers to the provision of appropriate technical support to
implement the teaching and learning activities in school. Technical leaders must
possess the necessary skills to manipulate strategies and situations to optimise
school effectiveness. The role of the technical leader in the strategic management
process is summarised below:
(i) Help members with the technical aspects of carrying out this analysis;
and
(ii) Provide opportunities for members to discuss and address problems
or needs of the school, and accumulate information on internal and
external issues that affect the school.

(i) Create a conducive environment for members to respond to the
findings of the environmental analysis;
(ii) Structure human resource needs of the school in effective and efficient
ways;
(iii) Provide technical knowledge on the process of developing school
policies, programmes, and regulations; and
(iv) Ensure all members are aware of their respective roles in the
organisational structure.

(i) Provide technical assistance for membersÊ professional development

to ensure effective implementation of school programmes;
(ii) Give members some autonomy to carry out tasks, responsibilities, and
decision making;
(iii) Ensure clarity of roles and match competence with task; and
(iv) Create appropriate communication network for school members to
implement the school plan.

(i) Provide technical knowledge to enable members to gather
appropriate information on school performance;
(ii) Delegate tasks to relevant members to ensure smooth implementation
of the monitoring and evaluation process;
(iii) Coordinate implementation of monitoring and evaluation process to
minimise technical glitches; and
(iv) Utilise findings for continuous improvement of the school and all
members.
7.5.6 The Contribution of Educational Leadership

„The core activity of a school is learning ... and it is not just the students who
learn‰ (Bowring-Carr, 2005). Many scholars now refer to learning as a social
activity that involves individuals and the community where they learn with and
from one another.
Butler (1990, as cited in Bowring-Carr, 2005) has this to say about learning:
Real learning is dynamic, dangerous, exhilarating. It is built on curiosity not

knowledge.

For real learning to take place in school, we need educational leaders to engage
in „nurturing a learning community‰ (Caldwell & Spinks, 1992). These writers
also suggested that there are three distinct communities in school, as shown in
Figure 7.9.
Figure 7.9: Three distinct communities in school
School leaders need to deal with all three communities in order to optimise
learning and overall school effectiveness. For this to happen, educational leaders
must have the ability to bring the entire school community together in pursuit of
a single mission and goal. The leadership required for this to happen must be
transformational, nurturing and empowering, based on a vision of excellence
(Caldwell & Spinks, 1992).
For this to happen, educational leaders play a significant role in the strategic
management process in school, which can be summarised as follows:

(i) Ensure school members are aware of the social, economic,
technological, and political changes that affect education in general;
(ii) Bring members up-to-date on instructional and educational issues;
(iii) Ensure members are aware of strengths, weaknesses and
opportunities in the schoolÊs educational practices; and
(iv) Identify specific needs of students and teachers.

(i) Use results of environmental analysis to develop relevant educational

mission and goals for all school members;
(ii) Coordinate planning and instructional programmes according to
established educational goals; and
(iii) Provide suitable structures to maximise whole school learning.

(i) Maximise learning opportunities for students and teachers;
(ii) Match staffing and directing to educational and instructional needs;
(iii) Ensure activities enable professional development for teachers and
effective learning for students; and
(iv) Promote teacher professionalism through appropriate activities.

(i) Help members understand the purpose of monitoring and evaluation,
and how it can enhance educational effectiveness and professional
growth of teachers; and
(ii) Help members to relate the monitoring and evaluation process to
instructional goals.
7.6 LEADERSHIP AND DIFFERENT MODELS OF

SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS
In this subtopic, we will look at the eight models of school effectiveness,
discussed in Topic 2, and discuss the relationship between leadership roles and
the models of school effectiveness. You may have to revisit Topic 2 to refresh
your memory on the different concepts of effectiveness and the different
approaches to attain school effectiveness. Table 7.2 will help you to understand
the relationship better.

Table 7.2: Models of School Effectiveness and Leadership Roles
Concept of School
Model Leadership Role
Effectiveness
Goal Model  Achievement of stated  School goal developer
goals  School goal leader
 School planning facilitator
Resource-Input Model  Achievement of needed  Resource developer
resources and inputs  Resources allocator
Process Model  Smooth and healthy  Process engineer
internal process  Process facilitator
Satisfaction Model  Satisfaction of all powerful  Social leader
constituencies  Social satisfier
Legitimacy Model  Successful legitimate or  Public relations manager
marketing activities for  Environmental leader
school survival
 Accountability builder
Ineffectiveness Model  Absence of characteristics  Supervisor
of ineffectiveness in school  Dysfunction detector
 Learning promoter
 Organisational developer
Total Quality  Total management of  Total quality leader
Management Model internal staff and process
to meet strategic
constituenciesÊ needs
Let us take a closer look at the leadership roles in relation with the different
models of school effectiveness (Cheng, 1996):
(a) School Goal Developer

(i) Goal developer – develop appropriate mission and goals;
(ii) Goal leader – direct members to achieve goals; and
(iii) School planner and facilitator – ensure setting of priorities of school
goals, outcomes, and effectiveness criteria.

(b) Resource Developer
(i) Resource developer – clarify link between input and output;

determine resources that are critical for school survival; and
(ii) Resource allocator – allocate scare resources to support effective
internal functioning and ensure high quality school outcomes.
(c) Process Engineer

Ensure smooth and healthy internal functions and facilitate effective
communication, participation, and social interaction in the school.
(d) Social Leader and Satisfier
(i) Social leader – help internal and external constituencies to

communicate their expectations and understand the strengths and
weaknesses of the school; and
(ii) Satisfier – set suitable targets for the school to satisfy the needs and
expectations of all constituencies.
(e) Environmental Leader

Manage schoolÊs external environment; establish good relation with
external constituencies; market schoolÊs strengths and achievements to the
community, and establishing the schoolÊs public image and accountability
to the public.
(f) Supervisor
Supervise school activities and help members to resolve conflicts and
eliminate problems.
(g) Organisational Developer

Help school constituencies to keep track of environmental changes, identify
weaknesses and strengths, establish strategies, and plan actions to develop
the school.
(h) Total Quality Leader

School leader should be able to play a combination of all the above seven
roles to manage the internal environment and processes to meet the needs
of all school constituencies.

SELF-CHECK 7.1
Mannz and Sims (1994, as cited in Sawatzki 2005), conclude that

leadership which is required today can best be described as leading
others to lead themselves.
(a) Based on what has been discussed in this topic, how would you
respond to this statement?
(b) Can you identify elements of leading others to lead themselves in

the different approaches to leadership discussed in this subtopic?
Elaborate with appropriate examples.
 The role of leadership is critical for school effectiveness and reforms.
 The concept of leadership itself is open to different perspectives among

different scholars.
 Each definition of leadership is limited in its own right, with some focusing
on „exercise of authority‰, others on „task of directing‰, „influencing
activities‰, and „making activities meaningful‰.
 Early conceptualisation of leadership focused only on two separate categories

of leader behaviour – one on people, interpersonal relations, and group
maintenance; the other on production, task completion, and goal
achievement.
 The new perspective of leadership suggests that a leader adapts his

behaviour to the situation and eventually transforms it.
 Leaders who are most successful in bringing about changes or new levels of
achievement exhibit elements of transformational leadership.
 Transformational leaders are able to build commitment to the organisationÊs

objectives and empower followers to attain these objectives.

 Leadership is a process to change attitudes, values and beliefs at individual

and organisational levels, and to create opportunities for followers to develop
goals and enrich existing organisational culture.
 The five-dimension model enables us to describe and understand the school

leadership process by using five important dimensions: human leadership,
political leadership, cultural leadership, technical leadership, and educational
leadership.
 Studies on the relationship between leadership and school performance at the

student, teacher, and organisational level support the importance of strong
leadership in all aspects in ensuring organisational performance.
 School leadership based on the administrator layer at the individual, group,

and school levels, and the affective, behavioural, and cognitive domains can
be referred to as the layer leadership.
 Layer leadership affects how school constituencies behave, what they feel and
think, and what they value and are committed to attaining.
 The layer concept views leadership as an influencing process, beginning from

the entire leader layer to the entire matrix of school constituencies.
 According to Caldwell and Spinks (1992) the best way to define strategic
management is by focusing on what leaders who are engaged in strategic
management actually do.
 The scope of action in strategic management is more school-based rather than

programme-focused.
 The five-dimension leadership model is a comprehensive and significant tool

to facilitate the strategic management process.
 Cultural leadership, human leadership, political leadership, technical

leadership, and educational leadership play important roles in the strategic
management process in schools.
 Leadership roles can also be explained within the context of the eight models
of school effectiveness (Topic 2).

Alternative perspective of leadership Political leadership

Cultural leadership School performance
Educational leadership Strategic leadership
Human leadership Technical leadership
Leadership The layer leadership
Multi-dimensions of leadership Traditional leadership
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1991). Reframing organisations: Artistry, choice and
leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bowring-Carr, C. (2005). „Leading learning‰, in Davies, B., Ellison, L., &
Bowring-Carr, C. School Leadership in the 21st Century: Developing a
Strategic Approach, London: Routledge Falmer.
Caldwell, B. J., & Spinks, J. M. (1992). Leading the self-managing school. London:
Falmer Press.
Cheng, Y. C. (1996). School Effectiveness and school-based management: A
mechanism for development. London: Routledge.
Davies, B. J., & Davies, B. (2005). „The strategic dimensions of leadership‰, in
Davies, B., Ellison, L., & Bowring-Carr, C. School Leadership in the 21st
Century: Developing a Strategic Approach, London: Routledge Falmer.
Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (2012). Educational administration: Theory, research,
and practice (9th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Sawatzki, M. (2005). „Leading and managing staff in high performance schools‰,
in Davies, B., Ellison, L., & Bowring-Carr, C. School Leadership in the 21st
Century: Developing a Strategic Approach, London: Routledge Falmer.
Sergiovanni, T. J. (1984). „Leadership and Excellence in Schooling‰, Educational
Leadership, 41(5): pp. 4–13.

Topic  Management
8 of School-
based
Professional
Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the importance of professional development in
organisations;
2. Discuss differences between the old and new concepts of
professional development;
3. Explain the matrix conception of school-based professional
development in terms of levels, domains and content; and
4. Outline the major elements involved in establishing a professional
development programme.
 INTRODUCTION
A profession is not created by certificates and censures but by the existence
of a substantive body of professional knowledge as well as a mechanism for
improving it, and by a genuine desire of the professionÊs members to improve
their practice.
Stigler & Hiebert (1999)

154  TOPIC 8 MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOL-BASED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
In the previous topics, we talked about the various aspects of the school-based
management mechanism. You may have realised from all our discussions that a
lot of emphasis is placed on the human initiative in developing self-management
at the individual, group, and school levels. Therefore, this topic will focus on the
management and practice of professional development within the context of the
school-based management approach for long-term school effectiveness.
Professional development in schools is also referred to by other names, such as,

staff development, in-service training, professional learning, or continuing
education. The term professional development will be used in the discussions in
this topic.
ACTIVITY 8.1
1. Do you remember the last professional development programme
you attended? What did you find interesting about it?
2. Do you think there were any changes in your approach to work

as a result of the professional development programme you
attended?
Share your thoughts on these matters in the myINSPIRE online forum.
8.1 THE NEED FOR PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT
Is there really a need for professional development? Do professional development
programmes really make a difference to teachersÊ work performance? Does
professional development produce better, more motivated teachers?
These are some questions that may be playing in your head. Are you interested
in finding out the answers to these questions? Well, let us start by looking at
some reasons why professional development should be given more emphasis.
Before we go further into this, Figure 8.1 shows an overview of what professional
development is concerned with.

TOPIC 8 MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOL-BASED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT  155
Figure 8.1: Overview of professional development
There are many reasons why professional development is carried out in schools.
It could be a result of a school-wide innovation programme, requirements of the
Ministry of Education guidelines, instructions from the schoolsÊ senior
management, or the need to enhance student outcomes.
Do you know that even experienced teachers face numerous challenges in the
classroom? What type of challenges do you think they face? The challenges can
be changes in subject content, new instructional approaches, advances in
technology, and changing student needs.
Professional development is the only platform and strategy that school systems
have, to enhance teachersÊ performance levels, and it is the only avenue for
teachers to learn so that they can refine their craft and raise student achievement.
Educators who are not given the opportunity to experience effective professional
development „do not improve their skills, and student learning suffers‰ (Mizell,
2010).
Effective professional development deepens participantsÊ understandings,

beliefs, and skills. For many teachers, engagement in professional development
also enhances job satisfaction, as teachers seek to do their best in the classroom
and to improve student achievement.
Joyner (2012), makes a general observation that the context of staff development
today is „drive-by staff development ⁄ where external trainers parachute in to
offer their new methods for teaching ⁄ they donÊt know what the staff already
knows, what challenges they face in educating the young people ⁄ or anything
else about the school or district ⁄ they merely offer their new method for
teaching ⁄ no time is allotted for reflection or active participation.‰
Consequently, after the staff development sessions, participants tend to move

immediately back to their previous approach and their previous comfort level,
because nothing or no one enforces the techniques or approaches that are learned
in the sessions.

In most cases, principals and administrators are left out of the training sessions,
or choose not to participate in the sessions.
Joyner (2012) proposes an alternative, generative staff development process that

incorporates educatorsÊ existing knowledge and skills, and helps them to
improve as much as they can in the face of challenges in their environment. This
form of staff development approach attempts to improve the capabilities of the
whole school by providing educators a platform to learn from and work with
each other.
Fullan (2007) also emphasises the importance of staff development because

educational change is dependent on „what teachers do and think.‰ According to
him, classrooms and schools as a whole become more effective when quality
people are recruited to teach, and when the workplace is organised in a way to
rejuvenate teachers and acknowledge their accomplishments.
Cheng (1996) suggests that professional development is necessary for the

following three reasons:
(a) Change in Educational Environment
(i) To remain relevant to the rapidly changing environment and develop

new competencies to keep up with the challenges of change, and fulfil
the expectations of all educational constituencies; and
(ii) To keep abreast with changes to the curriculum and approaches to

teaching.
(b) Change in School Values and Personal Value

To keep up with changes in attitude towards education and changes in
school and personal values in establishing long-term effectiveness,
educational professionalism, capacity for decision making, good rapport
with the community, and fulfilling the needs of all constituencies.
(c) Change in School Management
(i) Change in management especially by implementing school-based

management which changes the roles of teachers and school leaders;
and
(ii) Self-management that demands participation of staff and readiness to

accept more responsibilities.

In conclusion, professional development is crucial for teachers to meet todayÊs

educational demands. As Guskey (2000, as cited in Joyner, 2005) points out, „One
constant finding in the research literature is that notable improvements in
education almost never take place in the absence of professional development.‰
ACTIVITY 8.2
Who do you think should be responsible for professional development

in schools? Discuss with your coursemates on myINSPIRE.
While the end result of all education reform should be student improvement,
every reform initiative, if it is to succeed, must begin with recognition of the
importance of teachers in raising student performance.
Sandra H. Harwell (2003)
8.2 CONCEPTS OF PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT
There are many misconceptions on professional development, its purpose
and functions. In this subtopic, we will look at some of the ways in which
professional development has been conceptualised before we move on to the
functions of staff development.
8.2.1 General Ideas

So, what constitutes professional development? Generally, when we talk about
professional development, we refer to a formal process such as a conference,
seminar, workshop, and courses at colleges or institutes of higher learning.
However, you will be surprised to learn that professional development can
also take place in informal situations such as discussions among colleagues,
individual reading and research, observation of other colleaguesÊ work, or
learning from a peer (Mizell, 2010).
Schools have to be turned into places where teachers learn collectively every day.
„Professional learning is not about workshops and courses ⁄ meeting high
standards and qualification framework ⁄ These are important inputs, but they

represent only a portion of the solution ⁄ The main concern is whether teachers
are learning every day, continuously improving their craft, collectively ⁄ The
teaching profession must become a learning profession‰ (Fullan, 2007).
Before we continue our discussion on professional or staff development, let us look

how the concept of professional development is presented by different scholars:
Professional development generally refers to ongoing learning opportunities

available to teachers and other education personnel through their schools and
districts.
Rebora (2011)
Professional development that is most relevant for teachers is focused on

teachersÊ real work, provides teachers with opportunities to make choices
about their own learning, happens over time, and contributes to building a
professional culture of collaborative learning.
Kathy A. Dunne (2002)
Professional development is defined as the process of improving staff skills and

competencies needed to produce outstanding educational results for students.
Emily Hassel (1999)
All the definitions focus on continuous learning and improvement of teachers to

help students learn better.
8.2.2 Alternative Concepts of Professional

Development
Professional development of teachers has traditionally been externally controlled,
planned and implemented by education authorities outside the school
environment. In this subtopic, you will be introduced to an alternative approach
to professional development of teachers, which is more school-based, planned,
and implemented by teachers themselves.

This is in line with the concept of professional development which refers to the
development of an individual in his or her professional role. Therefore it is the
individuals themselves who should be responsible for their professional
development. As a result of this new approach to professional development, a
new concept was established, focusing on a school-based format that saw the
staff themselves involved in the conception, implementation, and evaluation of
professional development programmes.
This new perspective of professional development has certain characteristics.

Villegas-Reimers (2003) provides the characteristics of the new perspective of
professional development for teachers based on the works of writers such as
Lieberman (1994), Darling-Hammond and Mclaughlin (1995), King and
Newmann (2000), Ganser (2000), Mclaughlin and Zarrow (2001), Cochran-Smith
and Lytle (2001), Dadds (2001), and Clement and Vaderberghe (2003). The
characteristics can be summarised as follows:
(a) It is based on constructivism rather than on a transmission oriented model.
In this way, teachers are regarded as active learners who are constantly
engaged in the process of teaching, assessment, observation, and reflection;
(b) It is recognised as a long term process where teachers learn over a long
period of time. Consequently, teachers are provided with a series of
relevant experiences rather than one-off presentations;
(c) It is perceived as a process that takes place within a particular context –
based in schools and relevant to the daily activities of teachers and learners;
(d) Professional development plays a significant role in school reforms because
it has elements of culture building and not merely skills building;
(e) Teachers are acknowledged as reflective practitioners who come into the
service with a certain knowledge base, and build upon that knowledge
through new knowledge and experiences they accumulate over the years.
Professional development therefore assists them to build new pedagogical
theories and practices; and
(f) Professional development is a collaborative process that involves teachers,
administrators, parents, and other members of the community.

An important feature of the new approach is the transition from the external
control tradition to a school-based development mode. A comparison between
this new concept and the traditional approach is also provided by Cheng (1996),
which has been summarised in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Traditional Concepts and New Concepts of Professional Development
Traditional Concepts of Staff Development New Concepts of Staff Development

1. Externally controlled 1. School- based
 The central education authorities  The staff plan and manage the
plan and manage the activities activities and the content is
with emphasis mainly on policy designed according to the needs of
concern the staff of each school
 Staff are not willing to participate  Staff are willing to participate and
and give opinions contribute their ideas
 Activities cannot meet the needs  Activities meet the needs of the
of the staff staff
 Activities are held outside the  Activities are mostly carried out in
school, participants must be the school, teachers need not be
absent from their duty and normal absent from their duty and can
school work is affected have immediate practice
2. Remedial 2. Development
 Activities are arranged for  Activities are planned for
remedial purposes when the development purposes on the
education process goes wrong needs of the school, groups and
 Only take care of problems in individuals
general, not particular needs of  Serve the needs of the school
each school
3. Temporary, not systematic 3. Continuous, systematic
 Activities are mainly temporary,  Activities are included in the
planned and carried out by annual school plan, fully
outside experts supported by school
 Has no long-term strategy for administration
development and no systematic  Has long-term strategies and
management systematic management

4. Content 4. Content
 Fragmentary  Continuous and comprehensive
 Stress too much on achievement of  Development of techniques,
technical knowledge and affects, values and beliefs are all
behavioural changes taken into account
5. Focus on individuals 5. Focus on individuals, groups, and the
 Emphasise improvement of school
individual members, but ignore  Emphasise development at all
the development of groups and individual, group and whole
the whole school school levels
6. For teachers only 6. Not only for teachers, but also
administrators and support staff
7. External speakers mainly 7. Both internal and external speakers
 They are not familiar with the  The content fits the needs of
school situation, and irrelevant participants and the real cases
examples are used they share are helpful in practice
8. The role of staff is passive 8. The role of staff is active
9. Simplistic types of activities 9. Various types of activities
 Lectures mainly  Seminars, talks, workshops,
coaching, quality circle, classroom
research, evaluation, etc.
10. Motivation 10. Motivation
 Encourage staff participation by  Staff participation is self-
extrinsic rewards such as motivated by intrinsic rewards
promotion and reduction of work such as professional growth and
load ownership
ACTIVITY 8.3
Teachers are the midwives of the knowledge society. Without them, or

their competence, the future will be malformed and stillborn.
Hargreaves and Goodson (2002)
What are your thoughts on the above statement by Hargreaves and

Goodson? Share on myINSPIRE.

8.3 THE FUNCTIONS OF PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT
There is universal agreement that the underlying purpose for professional
development is the enhancement of teaching and learning practices for the
benefit of learners (Poskitt, 2005).
Cheng (1996) provides a summary of the essential functions of professional

teacher development, as shown in Figure 8.2:
Figure 8.2: The essential functions of professional teacher development
(a) For Individual Development and Effectiveness

(i) To encourage staff to be more committed to their work;
(ii) To contribute towards the development of knowledge, skills, and
expertise;
(iii) To assist individual staff in their career development;
(iv) To develop the potential of every individual; and
(v) To improve personal job satisfaction.
(b) For Group Development and Effectiveness

(i) To encourage cooperation in the group;
(ii) To build team spirit;
(iii) To foster friendship;
(iv) To learn from other members;
(v) To understand and accept alternative ideas;
(vi) To solve group conflicts;
(vii) To improve communication among members; and
(viii) To enrich the pool of ideas, solutions, and decisions in the group.
(c) For School Development and Effectiveness

(i) To enhance quality of teaching-learning process
(ii) To improve staff management;
(iii) To strengthen school culture;
(iv) To develop positive patterns of relationship;
(v) To provide opportunities to participate in school mission and goals
development;
(vi) To help implement change;
(vii) To meet long-term development needs; and
(viii) To increase participation and involvement.

8.4 SCHOOL-BASED PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT
School-based professional development helps to strengthen and maintain the
school community, because teachers, administrators and the community work
together to plan, implement, assess and reflect on their practices to improve
teaching and learning in the classroom and the all other school activities.
This is possible because school-based professional learning is well-organised,
structured, focused, and uses a collaborative approach that establishes shared
responsibilities and mutual trust among teachers.
Cheng (1996) relates school-based professional development with the school

process matrix which was introduced to you in Topic 6, by proposing a school-
based staff development matrix. Basically, this matrix views professional
development of teachers from three different domains, levels of development,
and categories of actors (as depicted in Figure 8.3):
Figure 8.3: Three domains of professional development of teachers based on the school
process matrix

According to the matrix conception, professional development should include

multi-actors, multi-development domains, and multi-development layers. The
development models and functions at all three domains should be supportive of
one another and help to reinforce the activities and objective of professional
development as a whole. To understand how professional development affects
the different actors, levels, and domains, you will have to go back and look at
the subtopic on the need for professional development and the functions of
professional development. See if you can match the objectives and function with
the different category of actors, levels, and domains.
ACTIVITY 8.4
If you were a teacher, what elements would you want to be included in

your professional development sessions? Make a list by prioritising the
most crucial elements and post it on myINSPIRE.
We have established the fact that professional development must be relevant to

teachers and administrators in a school, if it is going to improve student learning
outcomes. If that is the case, how can we design professional development
activities that can benefit teachers and administrators at the individual, group,
and school levels of development?
In reality, „professional development cannot succeed without strong content‰

(Harwell, 2003). So, what do you think should be included in professional
development for teachers?
Harwell (2003) suggests that the content of professional development should

focus on subject matter, pedagogical weaknesses, measurement of student
performance, and professional questions that are relevant to the setting in which
the professional development is delivered.
Cheng (1996) provides examples of various forms of activities to achieve different

development objectives for teachers and administrators at different levels. A
summary of these is provided in Table 8.2.

Table 8.2: Activities and Objectives for Professional Development of Teachers

Iss
ue
For Teachers For Administrators
Technique (a) Increase knowledge, (a) Enhance administrative
techniques and specialty of efficiency
teaching and learning (b) Improve leadership
(b) Find out the factors hindering (c) Master techniques of
the full play of teacherÊs planning and management
competence (d) Improve supervision style
(c) Improve teaching performance (e) Encourage open mind and
(d) Encourage participation and learning
development (f) Assist the development of
(e) Assist the work of colleagues colleagues
Affective (a) Reinforce confidence as (a) Reinforce confidence as
teaching professional administrative leader
(b) Enhance satisfaction in (b) Enhance satisfaction in
teaching administration
(c) Increase personal commitment (c) Increase the concern and
to education support for colleagues
INDIVIDUAL
(d) Increase personal

commitment to education
and administrative work
Cognition (a) Understand current (a) Understand current
educational trends educational trends
(b) Understand current school (b) Reflect on current school
policies and objectives of policies and objectives of
school functions school functions
(c) Recognise the value of teaching (c) Recognise ethical and moral
and establish personal beliefs issues on administration
about education (d) Recognise values of
(d) Provide teachers with administration
opportunities for role (e) Establish personal beliefs
clarification about leadership
(e) Identify with the school (f) Clarify the role of
mission administration
(f) Self-evaluate and reflect on (g) Self-evaluate and reflect on
educational work administration
(g) Responsible for outcomes of (h) Be responsible for
teaching colleaguesÊ performance and
administrative results

Issue For Teachers For Administrators
Technique (a) Provide opportunities for (a) Solve internal conflicts and
members to learn from each improve communication
other (b) Lead group/team work
(b) Work together to teach and (c) Learn to delegate to delegate
develop curriculum and distribute work
(c) Provide inter-class visits
(d) Learn to share and
participate
Affective (a) Establish team spirit (a) Establish team spirit
(b) Encourage mutual trust of (b) Encourage mutual trust of
members members
GROUP
(c) Foster friendship (c) Foster friendship

Cognition (a) Discuss and understand the (d) Discuss and ensure the
relationship between group relationship between groups
work and school policies and school policies
(b) Evaluate the effectiveness of (e) Recognise the values of
group work collaborative management
(c) Analyse strengths, and participative decision
weaknesses, and making
development of the group (f) Evaluate strengths and
(d) Ensure the role and value of weaknesses of each policy
group work (g) Ensure the role and value of
(e) Commitment to group the administrative group
effectiveness (h) Commitment to policy
effectiveness

Issue For Teachers For Administrators

Technique (a) Provide opportunities (a) Provide opportunities for whole-
for whole-school school collaboration for teaching
teaching collaboration and management
(b) Improve the use of (b) Improve the management of the
whole-school resources whole-school resources
(c) Find out whole-school (c) Find out and prevent factors
factors unfavourable for unfavourable for the full
teaching development of staff
(d) Develop the whole-school image
Affective (a) Foster a sense of (a) Establish whole-school climate
belonging to the school and a sense of belonging
(b) Establish whole-school (b) Establish close relationship
SCHOOL
collaborative climate between administrators and

among teachers teachers
(c) Develop a homely (c) Develop a homely atmosphere in
atmosphere in the school the school
Cognition (a) Evaluate school (a) Lead the discussion and reflection
effectiveness on school policies
(b) Participate in (b) Lead the staff to develop school
developing school mission and goals
mission and goals (c) Lead and ensure the values of
(c) Ensure the values of school education
school education (d) Lead and ensure the unique
(d) Identify with the unique mission and vision of the school
mission and vision of the
school

Effective Professional Development

How can we ensure that teachers really benefit from professional development
activities that are carried out in schools and reflect it in their classroom practices?
Do you have any suggestions? Let us look at what some experts in this area have
to say about successful professional development endeavours.
Day (1999, as cited in Galanouli 2010), believes that there are two principles
which are crucial to teachersÊ professional development:
(a) Teachers develop actively, so it is crucial that they be involved in any
decisions related to the direction and process of their own learning; and
(b) The process of planning and supporting career development is the joint
responsibility of teachers, schools, and the authorities concerned.
The pivotal role of teachers in the professional development process is further

emphasised by Fink (2001, as cited in Galanouli 2010), who stated that the
effectiveness of teacher development activities is based on the extent to which
teachers are convinced that it is going to benefit their students in the classroom
setting and the school setting.
For this reason, Galanouli (2010) in her report recommends school-based

professional development as the most suitable approach to tailor professional
development to fulfil the needs of the individual teacher and of the school,
focusing on peer-to-peer professional development and support for teacher
development activities within the school context.

Dunne (2002) highlights a set of principles for effective professional

development, which can be summarised in Figure 8.4:
Figure 8.4: Principles for effective professional development

Source: Dunne (2002)

Harwell (2003) provides a more comprehensive view of effective professional

development by summarising the characteristics of effective professional
development for the whole school (Table 8.3):
Table 8.3: Characteristics of Effective Professional Development for Teachers
Elements Characteristics
Context (a) Supports professional development and the changes it is
(setting) intended to bring about
(b) Is characterised by a shared sense of need for change
(c) Its teaching professionals agree on answers to basic questions
regarding the nature of learning and the teacherÊs role in the
classroom
(d) Its teaching professionals consider learning a communal activity
Content (a) Deepens teachersÊ subject matter knowledge
(b) Sharpens classroom skills
(c) Is up to date with respect to both subject matter and education in
general
(d) Contributes new knowledge to the profession
(e) Increases the ability to monitor student work
(f) Addresses identified gaps in student achievement
(g) Centres on subject matter, pedagogical weaknesses within the
organisation, measurement of student performance, and inquiry
regarding locally relevant professional questions
(h) Focuses on (and is delivered using) proven instructional
strategies
Process (a) Is research based
(b) Is based on sound educational practice such as contextual
teaching
(c) Supports interaction among master teachers
(d) Takes place over extended periods of time
(e) Provides opportunities for teachers to try new behaviours in safe
environments and receive feedback from peers
Source: Harwell (2003)

Next, we will view two key points that are vital for professional development,
which are:
(a) Model for Effective Professional Development

Figure 8.5 presents a model for effective school-based professional
development. Each element in this model plays a vital role in the
professional development process. So, let us take a closer look at each
element to see how it functions in this model. A summary of the steps is
provided for you in Table 8.4.
Figure 8.5: Model for effective professional development

Source: J. D. Cooper
Table 8.4: Summary of the Steps in the Model for Effective Professional
Development
Step Definition
Theory Present underlying definitions, research base and rationale for
new instructional strategy, skill, or concept being presented.
Demonstration Show teachers how „it‰ is done by providing them the
opportunity to observe a model of what is being taught.
Practice and Give teachers time to try out the procedure and provide a
feedback critique of their efforts.
Coaching and Provide observation, feedback, and additional support to
follow-up ensure that the teacher maintains the strategy, skill, or concept
and makes it a part of his/her classroom repertoire.
Source: J. D. Cooper
(b) Principles of Congruence for Professional Development

Cheng (1996) proposes the principle of congruence to ensure effectiveness
in professional development activities. The principle of congruence was
discussed in detail in Topic 6. Revisit Topic 6 if you need to refresh your
memory on the fundamentals of the principle of congruence.
Generally, three types of congruence exist in the matrix of professional

development. They are:
(i) Category Congruence

The purpose of activities for administrators and teachers in the three
domains at different levels must be congruent with that of students.
(ii) Level Congruence

The development of activities at the different levels must be
congruent with each other.
(iii) Domain Congruence

The influence of professional development activities on behavioural,
affective, and cognitive developments of participants must be
concurrently congruent with one another.
Category congruence, level congruence, and domain congruence can be used to

assess the effectiveness of professional development in a school. Besides these,
Cheng (1996) also suggests the concept of professional development cycle at the
actor layer and the level layer to enable us to view professional development
from a dynamic perspective. This idea is based on the dynamic perspective of
school effectiveness which was discussed in Topic 3. Professional development
should be included as a vital element in strategies to help schools to attain
dynamic effectiveness and development.
For instance, within actor-layer congruence can be achieved by formulating a

development cycle which allows school personnel to perform consistently at all
the three domains at all the three levels.
Likewise, development activities intended for administrators, teachers, and

students at the individual layer must be able to meet their behavioural, affective,
and cognitive needs. Development activities meant for the group-layer must
fulfil the needs of the group, whereas development activities meant for the
school-layer should be able to meet the needs of the whole school (Cheng, 1996).

8.5 ESTABLISHING A PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
Effective professional development should have the capacity to:
(a) Deepen teachersÊ knowledge of the subjects being taught;
(b) Sharpen teaching skills in the classroom;
(c) Keep up with developments in the individual fields, and in education
generally;
(d) Generate and contribute new knowledge to the profession; and
(e) Increase the ability to monitor studentsÊ work, in order to provide
constructive feedback to students.
Effective professional development process begins right from the planning

process which is guided by a comprehensive development framework. Poskitt
(2005) advocates nine crucial factors in the planning process that ensures the
success of professional development programmes:
(a) Personnel – attention given to personnel involved, including suitability of
expertise, interest, ability to lead, or remain committed to a project;
(b) Workload – allocation of reasonable workload, particularly for those
leading the project;
(c) Teacher Release – transparent systems of teacher release for all involved in
the project;
(d) Difficulties – difficulties recognised; e.g., creative use of release time;
(e) Communication – communication considered, including avoiding
overload, but keeping relevant people informed;
(f) Support Staff – provision of support staff to deal with administrative
details;
(g) School Commitment – commitment by the school to the projectÊs priority,
despite competing school demands;
(h) Early Reservations – reservations made for consultants/providers/
technicians and venues as early as possible; and
(i) Data Collection – collection of relevant data prior to, during and after the
project to monitor differences.

These factors provide a simple framework to design an effective professional

development programme for teachers based on the following steps, as depicted
in Figure 8.6.
Figure 8.6: Steps on framework to design an effective professional development

programme for teachers
Source: Alberta Education (2005)
Step 1 – Conduct Environmental Scan and Participant Needs Analysis

The following questions could serve as a guideline for data collection and
analysis:
(a) What are the districtÊs priorities?

(b) What are the schoolÊs needs and priorities?
(c) Are there particular contextual issues that need to be addressed?
(d) What do we know about student learning? What are the individual
professional development needs of staff?

Step 2 – Develop Professional Development Goals

Priorities should be established based on the analysis:
(a) What are the top priorities based on the analysis?

(b) Have the goals been developed using the SMART (specific, measurable,
achievable, realistic, and time-targeted) approach?
(c) Are resources available to address the goal?
Step 3 – Identify Possible Professional Development Strategies

Select professional development strategies, guided by the following questions:
(a) Which delivery model best addresses the goals and participantsÊ needs?
(b) What resources must be designated to achieve the goals?
(c) How will professional development be on-going?
(d) How will the impact of the professional development be measured?
Step 4 – Finalise Action Plan and Measures

The plan has to be comprehensive enough to serve as a guide for implementation
and evaluation. The following question can determine that:
Does the plan include evidence-based goals and strategies, timelines, evaluation
strategies, data sources, and the necessary resources?
Step 5 – Implement Action Plan

Careful attention to details during implementation will determine the success of
the plan. The following questions may be used as a guide:
(a) What strategies are in place to support the professional development

committee?
(b) How will communication with participants be maintained?
(c) How will the committee maintain communication with the professional
development providers?
(d) How will the committee recognise and acknowledge success along the
way?

Collecting formative data to monitor the implementation of the plan is also vital
to ensure success. You may want to ask the following questions:
(a) What is the response of participants to the programme?

(b) What did participants learn from the programme?
(c) What were the resources used to support the programme? Were they
adequate?
Step 6 – Revise Action Plan as Required

The action plan may need to be revised based on the information already
collected. The following questions may help:
(a) What does the formative evaluation data indicate?

(b) Should the programme strategies be adjusted?
Evidence of the programmeÊs success can be collected by addressing the

following questions:
(a) Are participants applying their new knowledge and skills?
(b) Is the programme influencing classroom practice and student learning?
Step 7 – Undertake Summative Evaluation

The professional development programme planning cycle can be completed by
collecting summative data pertaining to these questions:
(a) Did the programme meet its goals? (student learning)

(b) Did the programme meet participantsÊ needs?

The final report should include an overview of the programme, its success and
recommendations for future programmes. These need to be communicated to all
school constituencies. Refer to Table 8.5 for more detailed information on how to
evaluate professional development programmes.
Table 8.5: Evaluating Professional Development
Evaluation Level Questions Addressed

ParticipantsÊ reactions (a) Did they like it?
(b) Was their time well spent?
(c) Did the material make sense?
(d) Will it be useful?
(e) Was the leader knowledgeable and helpful?
(f) Were the refreshments fresh and tasty?
(g) Was the room the right temperature?
(h) Were the chairs comfortable?
ParticipantsÊ learning (a) Did participants acquire the intended knowledge and
skills?
Organisation support and (a) What was the impact on the organisation?
change (b) Did it affect organisational climate and procedures?
(c) Was implementation advocated, facilitated, and
supported?
(d) Was the support public and overt?
(e) Were problems addressed quickly and efficiently?
(f) Were sufficient resources made available?
(g) Were successes recognized and shared?
ParticipantsÊ use of new (a) Did participants effectively apply the new knowledge
knowledge and skills and skills?
Student learning outcomes (a) What was the impact on students?
(b) Did it affect student performance and achievement?
(c) Did it influence studentsÊ physical or emotional well-
being?
(d) Are students more confident as learners?
(e) Is student attendance improving?
(f) Are dropouts decreasing?
Source: Guskey (2000, as cited in Dunne 2002)

One of the most commonly used indicators of school effectiveness is student

performance. In view of this, it is crucial for us to keep in mind that it is the
classroom teacher who makes a difference in student performance. Hence, it is
crucial that teachers be equipped with the knowledge and skills that would
enable them to carry out their tasks to the best of their abilities. One way to
ensure that this happens is by providing effective professional development that
would allow them to succeed in the present and grow over time (Harwell, 2003).
Professional development programs in schools should focus on how people learn

in a world of unlimited information, and they should give teachers time to reflect
and interact within learning communities. These recommendations are consistent
with the one provided by Sparks and Hirsch (nd, as cited in Harwell 2003), who
recommend the following national professional development model for teachers:
(a) Create learning schools in which all staff are involved in „sustained,
rigorous study of what they teach and how they teach it‰;
(b) Provide time for teachers to work together and to collaboratively plan
lessons and share information; and
(c) Base professional development on the collaboration model – teachers

learning from each other.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. The purpose of professional development is to improve learning
for educators and students. Discuss this statement with
appropriate examples.
2. List the characteristics of effective professional development.
3. What do you think is the best way to evaluate the success of a

professional development programme for teachers?

 Professional development is the only platform and strategy that school

systems have to enhance teachersÊ performance levels.
 Effective professional development deepens participantsÊ understandings,

beliefs, and skills.
 Professional development is crucial for teachers to meet todayÊs educational

demands.
 The underlying purpose for professional development is the enhancement of

teaching and learning practices for the benefit of learners.
 Traditionally, professional development referred to a formal process such as

a conference, seminar, workshop, and courses at colleges or institutes of
higher learning.
 Professional development can also take place in informal situations such as

discussions among colleagues, individual reading and research, observation
of other colleaguesÊ work, or learning from a peer.
 Alternative concepts of staff development focus on a school-based format

where staff themselves are involved in the conception, implementation and
evaluation of professional development programmes.
 School-based professional development helps to strengthen and maintain the

school community.
 School-based professional learning is well-organised, structured, focused and

uses a collaborative approach that establishes shared responsibilities and
mutual trust among teachers.
 Professional development must be relevant to teachers and administrators in

a school if it is going to improve student learning outcomes.
 The content of professional development should focus on subject matter,

pedagogical weaknesses, measurement of student performance, and
professional questions that are relevant to the setting in which it is delivered.

 The effectiveness of teacher development activities is based on the extent to

which teachers are convinced that it is going to benefit their students and the
school.
 Cheng (1996) proposes the principle of congruence to ensure effectiveness in

professional development activities.
 Effective professional development begins right from the planning process

based on participantsÊ needs analysis, school priorities, student performance,
and challenges faced by individual schools.
 Professional development programmes must be constantly monitored and

evaluated to ensure success of activities carried out.
Continuous learning Professional development model

Effective professional development Staff development
Evaluation of professional development School improvement
Professional development process School-based professional
development
Professional development programme
Alberta Education. A guide to comprehensive professional development

planning http://www.teachers.ab.ca/SiteCollectionDocuments/ATA/
Professional%20Development/PD%20Resources/A%20Guide%20to%20Co
mprehensive%20PD%20Planning.pdf
Cheng, Y. C. (1996). School effectiveness and school-based management: A
Cooper, J. D. (n.d). Professional development: An effective research-based model.
USA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

Dunne, K. A. (2002). Teachers as learners: Elements of effective professional

development. Learning Innovations at WestEdin Stoneham, Massachusetts.
Fullan, M. (2007). The new meaning of educational change (4th ed.). New York:
Teachers College Press.
Galanouli, D. (2010). School-based professional development: A report for the
general teaching council for Northern Ireland. GTCNI.
Harwell, S. H. (2003). Teacher professional development: ItÊs not an event, itÊs a
process. Waco, TX: Cord.
Hassel, E. (1999). Professional development: Learning from the best. Oak Brook,
IL: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL).
Joyner, E. T. (2012). „No more drive-by staff development‰, in Senge, P.,
Cambron-McCabe, N., Lucas, T., et al. Schools that learn, New York: Crown
Business.
Mizell, H. (2010). Why professional development matters. Retrieved from
http://learningforward.org/docs/pdf/why_pd_matters_web.pdf?sfvrsn=0
Poskitt, J. (2005). Towards a model of New Zealand school-based teacher
professional development, New Zealand Journal of TeachersÊ Work, 2(2).
136–151.
Rebora, A. (2011, June 29). Professional development. Education Week. Retrieved
from https://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/professional-development
Stigler, J. W., & Hiebert, J. (1999). The teaching gap: Best ideas from the worldÊs
teachers for improving education in the classroom. New York, NY: The
Free Press.
Villegas-Reimers, E. (2003). Teacher professional development: an alternative
review of the literature. Paris: IIEP, UNESCO.

Topic  Management
;
9 of School-
based
Curriculum
Change
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the concept of curriculum effectiveness;
2. Discuss the approaches to curriculum change;
3. Evaluate the contribution of school-based mechanism to curriculum
change; and
4. Discuss leadership and teacher participation in curriculum change.
 INTRODUCTION
In the previous topics, we talked about school effectiveness, the school-based
management as a mechanism to ensure improvement of school processes, and
the role of school leaders and teachers in ensuring effectiveness of school
processes in self-managed schools.

184  TOPIC 9 MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOL-BASED CURRICULUM CHANGE
In this topic, the focus will be on the management and effectiveness of school-
based curriculum change. The discussions in this topic will be carried out within
the context of concepts and approaches to school effectiveness and school-based
management highlighted in the previous topics.
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. Can you remember the last time the curriculum for primary and
secondary schools (in an education system you are familiar with)
went through a major change process?
2. Do you know why?
3. What were the consequences of the curriculum change?
Post your answers on myINSPIRE.
9.1 THE NEED FOR CURRICULUM CHANGE

Before we move on with our discussion, it would be a good idea for you to reflect
on the following questions (as depicted in Figure 9.1):
Figure 9.1: Reflection on the need of curriculum change

TOPIC 9 MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOL-BASED CURRICULUM CHANGE  185
Why is curriculum important? It is one of the most important elements of effective

schooling and teaching. For that reason, the curriculum is always the focus of
education reforms and change. Curriculums must change in order to remain
current especially in todayÊs rapidly changing environment where new discoveries
are made on a daily basis. To prepare students and ensure that the education
provided to them remains relevant, curriculum must change to reflect the most
current thoughts and developments (Managing curriculum change, 2013).
According to Cheng (1996), curriculum change can also be initiated by diverse

educational needs of students, demands from stakeholders, and recommendations
from education policy reviews. Curriculum change may take place not only at
the education system level but also at the school-based level. Cheng also
emphasises the need for a theoretical model linking organisational factors and
curriculum change, in order to understand the dynamics and effectiveness of
curriculum change.
9.2 CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM

EFFECTIVENESS
ACTIVITY 9.2
1. What do you think makes a curriculum effective?
2. How would you determine that a particular curriculum is

effective?
Discuss these matters with your coursemates on the myINSPIRE online

forum.
9.2.1 What is Curriculum

The term curriculum is widely used by educators, education policy makers,
parents, and the general public. From the definition stated, do you know what
curriculum really refers to? You will be surprised to learn that curriculum may
be defined in so many different ways. Some professionals in the field of
education view curriculum in terms of subject matter, others define it as school
experiences, while a more modern definition may define it as a plan linked to
educational goals and related objectives (Wiles, 2009).

Let us get familiar with some of the definitions of the concept of curriculum.
The term curriculum:
... typically refers to the knowledge and skills students are expected to learn
which includes the learning standards or learning objectives, they are
expected to meet, the units and lessons that teachers teach, the assignments
and projects given to students, the books, materials, videos, presentations,
and readings used in a course, and the tests, assessments, and other methods
used to evaluate student learning.
Hidden curriculum (2014)
Curriculum could also include a schoolÊs academic requirements for graduation

such as the courses students have to take to pass, the number of credits they
have to complete or other requirements. Generally, curriculum takes many
different forms in schools and comprises a wide array of possible educational
and instructional practices (Hidden curriculum, 2014).
Cheng (1996) defines curriculum as „a set of activities and content planned at

the individual level, the programme level, or the whole-school level to foster
teachersÊ teaching and studentsÊ learning.‰
Wiles (2009) suggests a more dynamic and flexible definition of curriculum

which is stated in the following manner:
The curriculum represents a set of desired goals or values that are activated
through a development process and culminate in successful learning
experiences for students.
Wiles & Bondi (2007, as cited in Wiles 2009)

What can you conclude from these definitions? The overall design and goals
of the curriculum reflect the educational philosophy that guides the entire
education system (Hidden curriculum, 2014). Three key components of the
curriculum are shown in Figure 9.2:
Figure 9.2: Three key components of the curriculum
So, how do we ensure that these three components are effective? How do we
measure their effectiveness?
9.2.2 Indicators of Curriculum Effectiveness

Curriculum has a significant effect on student performance and teacher quality.
Therefore, if the curriculum is expected to improve student learning, it must
contain elements that lead to effective learning and teaching processes. Can you
name some indicators of curriculum effectiveness?
Cheng (1996) suggests that a curriculum is effective if it can:
Appropriately interact with teachersÊ competence to facilitate teacher

performance, help students gain learning experiences that fit their needs, and
produce expected outcomes under the constraints of pre-existing characteristics.

A lot of thought goes into the planning process of an effective curriculum. It has
to be challenging, engaging, developmentally apt, culturally and linguistically
reactive, holistic, and have the capacity to promote positive outcomes for learners
(National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and the
National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in the State Department of
Education (NAECS/SDE), 2009).
These associations also provide the following indicators of effective curriculum:
(a) Children are active and engaged.

(b) Goals are clear and shared by all.
(c) Curriculum is evidence based.
(d) Valued content is learned through investigation and focused, intentional
teaching.
(e) Curriculum builds on prior learning and experiences.
(f) Curriculum is comprehensive.
(g) Professional standards validate the curriculumÊs subject-matter content.
(h) The curriculum is likely to benefit children.
According to Seif (2003), an effective curriculum enhances studentsÊ

understanding of the world around them and prepares them for the challenges
of the 21st century. An effective curriculum also helps students to appreciate
the value of scientific inquiry based on empirical evidence. It broadens their
experience and increases their awareness besides helping them to:
(a) Deal with crucial issues through great literature;

(b) Become effective citizens through an understanding of important historical
events and ideas;
(c) Explore varying perspectives and points of view; and
(d) Understand freedom, democracy, and responsibility.

9.3 APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM CHANGE

In this subtopic, we will discuss the different approaches to optimise the
effectiveness of the teaching and learning processes through three types of
curriculum change as suggested by Cheng (1996).
(a) The Simplistic Curriculum Change Approach

Change should fit in with teacher competence and student characteristics
and is based on the following assumptions:
(i) Teachers are passive;

(ii) Teacher competence is static; and
(iii) Administrators/external experts can effectively plan and implement
change.
(b) The Teacher Competence Development Approach

Teacher competence needs to be developed in order to cope with
curriculum changes. This approach is based on the assumption that:
(i) Change is imposed by administrators/external experts; and

(ii) TeachersÊ competence can be easily developed to fulfil needs of the
changed curriculum.
(c) The Dynamic Curriculum Change Approach

It is a long-term perspective that is consistent with the concept of school
self-management at multi levels. It proposes that curriculum and teacher
competence need to be developed to ensure curriculum effectiveness. The
assumptions made are:
(i) Curriculum effectiveness is a dynamic concept – continuous and

cyclic process to develop the curriculum and teacher competence;
(ii) Teacher participation is crucial for successful and effective change of
the curriculum;
(iii) Development of teacher competence should enable them to ensure
that the changes made to the curriculum fits studentsÊ characteristics,
school goals and existing school conditions;
(iv) Should involve teachers in the curriculum planning and decision-
making processes.

Generally, the dynamic curriculum change approach seems more aligned

towards effective teaching and learning, by focusing on the development of
teacher competence, teacher participation as well as change in the curriculum.
A comparison of the three approaches is provided in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1: Comparison between the Approaches to Curriculum Change
Teacher Competence
Simplistic Curriculum Dynamic Curriculum
Issue Development
Change Approach Change Approach
Approach
Nature of  One-way change  One-way change  Two-way change,
change dynamic
Focus of  Curriculum  Teacher  Curriculum and
change Competence teacher
competence
Ways of  Curriculum adapts  Teachers adapt to  Both curriculum
maximising to teacher and the changed and teachers
effectiveness students curriculum should be
developed
Initiator of  Change planned  Change imposed  Teacher
change by administrators by administrators participation in
or external experts or external experts planning change
Teacher role  Passive  Passive  Active
implementer implementer implementer and
planner
Time  Short-term  Short-term  Long-term,
framework continuous,
cyclical
ACTIVITY 9.3
Do you agree that teachersÊ participation in the curriculum change

process can help to make it more effective? Share your thoughts on this
in the myINSPIRE online forum.

9.4 CONTRIBUTION OF SCHOOL-BASED

MECHANISM TO CURRICULUM CHANGE
In the previous subtopic, we established the fact that curriculum change and
teacher competence are important to ensure effective teaching and learning. In
this subtopic, we will discuss how the school-based management mechanism can
help the dynamic approach to curriculum change.
Cheng (1996) talks about the contribution of the school-based management

mechanism to curriculum change, based on the concepts of self-management at
the individual, group, and school levels. According to him, curriculum change
and teacher competence development takes place at the individual, group, and
school levels. Furthermore, they are mutually developed and reinforced at all
three levels in the long run.
There is a hierarchy of influence across all three levels. For example, curriculum
change and teacher competency development at the individual level are influenced
by those at the group and school levels. Effectiveness of curriculum change is also
affected by factors at the individual, group, and whole school levels.
Cheng (1996) also uses the principle of congruence in the school-based

management mechanism to explain the effectiveness of curriculum change which
can be affected by two types of congruence: congruence between curriculum
change and teacher competence development and congruence between levels.
The greater the congruence between and across levels of change and
development, the greater is the effectiveness of curriculum change within the
context of teaching and learning.
9.4.1 Characteristics of Curriculum Change at

Different Levels
Curriculum change and teacher competence development can take on different
characteristics at different levels. This is because they can be influenced by a
variety of organisational factors at the different levels.
(a) Individual Level

(i) Curriculum change is understood in terms of individualised
curriculum or class-based curriculum; and
(ii) Teacher competence development is often referred to in terms of
formative teacher evaluation.

(b) Group/Programme Level

(i) Focus of curriculum change is on instructional programmes; and
(ii) Teacher competence development at this level is group-based, team-
based, or programme team building.
(c) Whole-school Level

(i) Can be conducted in terms of school strategic management planning;
(ii) Emphasis placed on analysis of schoolÊs internal and external
environments;
(iii) Components that contribute to successful curriculum change include
collaborative planning, school plan, school structure, and school
evaluation; and
(iv) Strategic management is a cyclic learning process that contributes
towards continuous curriculum development at the individual,
group, and whole school levels.
9.5 LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 9.4
What is your idea of effective curriculum leadership? Post your answer

and discuss with your coursemates on myINSPIRE.
Cheng (1996) maintains that layer leadership and strategic leadership are
important considerations when using school-based management for the effective
management of curriculum change. It is the responsibility of leaders to facilitate
instructional activities across the individual, group, and school layers. Successful
curriculum change involves transforming teachersÊ beliefs and their entire outlook
on education, and this calls for transformational leadership as an important
component of leadership for effective curriculum change (Cheng, 1996).

Any form of change in education will not be possible without the participation
of teachers at the individual, group, or whole school levels. Some of their
contributions toward curriculum change has been summarised by Cheng (1996)
as follows:
(a) Provide important human resources in terms of time, experience and skills
for planning and implementation of curriculum change;
(b) Introduce different perspectives and expertise to curriculum change
process;
(c) Promote greater responsibility, accountability, and support for
implementation and outcomes of curriculum change;
(d) Participate in planning curriculum change; and
(e) Participate in management of curriculum change
In conclusion, curriculum development, maintenance and reform are essential

functions of leadership which can be carried out by the principal, assistant
principal for curriculum, department head, or classroom teachers. In recent
years, classroom teachers have been more involved in the development and
maintenance of curriculum at the school level, which has resulted in more
success in curriculum change.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
1. Provide a dynamic definition of curriculum.
2. Provide reasons why curriculum cannot remain static in todayÊs

global environment.
3. List the characteristics of an effective curriculum.
4. Discuss the different approaches to curriculum change.
5. How important is the role of leadership in curriculum change?

 The curriculum is always the focus of education reforms and changes because
it has a significant effect on student performance and teacher quality.
 Curriculum must change in order to remain current especially in todayÊs

rapidly changing environment.
 Curriculum change may take place not only at the education system level but
also at the school-based level.
 Curriculum may be defined in so many different ways.
 Curriculum can be defined in terms of subject matter, school experiences or a

plan linked to educational goals and related objectives.
 An effective curriculum has to be challenging, engaging, developmentally

apt, culturally and linguistically reactive, holistic, and has the capacity to
promote positive outcomes for learners.
 The school-based management mechanism can help the dynamic approach to

curriculum change.
 Curriculum change and teacher competence development takes place at the

individual, group, and school levels.
 Layer leadership and strategic leadership are important considerations when

using school-based management for the effective management of curriculum
change.
 Successful curriculum change involves transforming teachersÊ beliefs and

their entire outlook on education, and this call for transformational leadership.
 Any form of change in education will not be possible without the

participation of teachers.

Curriculum change School-based curriculum change

Curriculum effectiveness Simplistic curriculum change
Curriculum leadership Teacher competence development
Dynamic curriculum change Teacher participation
Cheng, Y. C. (1996). School Effectiveness and school-based management: A

Hidden curriculum. (2014). In S. Abbott (Ed). The glossary of education reform.
Retrieved from http://edglossary.org/hidden-curriculum
Jones, C., Potter, M., & Ebrahim, N. (2001). Managing curriculum change in
schools. London: Learning and Skills Development Agency.
Managing curriculum change, education up close 2013. Teaching today.
Retrieved from http://www.glencoe.com/ps/teachingtoday/education
upclose.phtml/print/12.
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and
National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments
of Education (NAECS/SDE). (2009). Where we stand on curriculum,
assessment, and program evaluation. NAEYC.
Seif, E. (2003). Curriculum renewal: A case study. In Curriculum handbook.
Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Development of
Curriculum Development (ASCD).
Wiles, J. (2009). Leading curriculum development. Thousand Oaks, Calif.:
Corwin Press.

Topic  Management of
10 School-based
Change and
Research on
School
Effectiveness
and School-
based
Management
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss school-based change from the technological, political and
cultural perspectives;
2. Explain the matrices of school-based change and force field to
bring about change;
3. Discuss strategies and techniques of school-based change; and
4. Discuss the future orientation of research on school effectiveness
and school-based management.

TOPIC 10 MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOL-BASED CHANGE AND RESEARCH ON  197
SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS AND SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT
 INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, we talked about the management of school-based change in
terms of the curriculum. The curriculum is a crucial element of education that
needs to be aligned with changes that take place within and outside the school
context. However, do you think that changing just the curriculum is going to
help schools to adapt to changes in the environment? Before you answer this
question, bear in mind that environmental changes would inevitably lead to
changes in educational needs. Are schools ready to meet these changes? Are
school leaders and the school community prepared to face new challenges that
change would bring about?
These are some of the issues that we would be discussing in this topic. However,
since our focus is on school-based management, we will limit our discussions to
the changes initiated by internal factors, meaning changes initiated by the school
community.
ACTIVITY 10.1
1. What does the word „change‰ mean to you in the context of
school-based management?
2. Why do schools need to change?
3. What would happen if schools fail to change?
Post your answers on the myINSPIRE online forum.
10.1 THE NEED FOR SCHOOL-BASED CHANGE

Why is there a need for school-based change? The skills that learners need,
especially in the 21st century, are very different from those needed in the past.
Therefore, in order to prepare our young learners for the changing world in
which they are going to live and work, schools need to continually evolve to keep
themselves relevant. To evolve, however, does not simply mean adopting best
practices. It is more about creating a school culture that „recognises strengths and
weaknesses, encourages innovation and initiative, and adapts best practices and
ideas from others‰ (Daggett & Jones, 2010).

198  TOPIC 10 MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOL-BASED CHANGE AND RESEARCH ON
Cheng (1996) refers to ParsonÊs (1966) social system theory to explain the need for
change. According to this theory, a schoolÊs survival depends on the following
four functions, as depicted in Figure 10.1:
Figure 10.1: Factors for a schoolÊs survival
The next question that may be playing in your mind is: „Why must change be
school-based?‰ Simply put, Daggett and Jones (2010) suggested that change
needs to be school-based because the nature of change itself is such that it must
be (as shown in Figure 10.2):
Figure 10.2: Characteristics of school-based change

Source: Daggett & Jones (2010)

Change in schools is a dynamic process that does not come with a „recipe‰ and a
list of ingredients and simple procedure to follow that can automatically lead to
success. Each school community has its own „DNA‰, therefore what works in
one school may not work in another (Daggett & Jones, 2010). For these
reasons, change must be individual school-based. School wide change can be
implemented successfully if it is guided by effective leadership, driven by
empirical evidence, and supported by continuous professional learning.
Nevertheless, there are lessons that schools can learn from one another.
Do you remember what we discussed in Topic 3? Yes, we looked closely at the

dynamic perspective of school effectiveness, which was useful in explaining how
continuous development and change were needed for schools to attain their
long-term goals and objectives, based on multiple functions at different levels.
Change is difficult, it calls for courage, yet the personal and professional rewards
are great. The situation now is such that you have to change to survive.
McDermott & OÊConnor (1996)
10.2 SCHOOL-BASED CHANGE
ACTIVITY 10.2
What do you think makes school-based change different from

educational change in general? Share your thoughts on this in
myINSPIRE online forum.
We have already established the fact that educational change is inevitable based
on the current developments that are taking place all around us. We also talked
about why change needs to be implemented at the school level if we want to
achieve the intended learning outcomes. In this subtopic, we will take a closer
look at what school-based change is all about.

Crandall, Eisemen, and Louis (1986, as cited in Cheng 1996), talk about two
categories of school-based change, which are shown in Figure 10.3:
Figure 10.3: Categories of school-based change

Source: Crandall, Eisemen, & Louis (1986)
Based on these discussions, school-based change can be defined as „a process

which includes a set of planned systematic activities conducted by school
members to change the schoolÊs pedagogic and organisational processes‰ (Cheng
& Ng, 1991; Levy 1986, as cited in Cheng, 1996). The purpose of this process is to
overcome problems faced by the school and to maximise effectiveness of all
school functions.
The following three perspectives can be used to understand school-based change:

the technological perspective, the cultural perspective, and the political
perspective. The next three subtopics will discuss the three perspectives further.
10.2.1 The Technological Perspective

(a) School-based change is regarded as a technical task based on rational
analysis;
(b) Focus is on the technological aspect of the school change process;
(c) Emphasis is on matching school members with new technologies;
(d) Success of change depends on its systematic planning, clear goals, effective
management of task and time, and supportive policies and regulations;

(e) Based on the assumption that people and organisation are rational and able
to handle changes;
(f) Change is necessary for efficiency and effectiveness; and
(g) Technological factors can contribute toward school-based change.
10.2.2 Political Perspective

(a) Based on the assumption that schools are coalitions made up of various
individuals and interest groups with diverse values, beliefs, and
perceptions of reality;
(b) School-based change happens as a reaction to pressures from external
environments;
(c) School-based change involves activities such as negotiations and
bargaining, and the goals of school-based change as a result of these
negotiations;
(d) The major components of change are coalitions, conflicts, and competition;
(e) Politics should be given priority over technology in making choices for
school change;
(f) Based on the complexity of power relationship between individuals and
groups, it is difficult to control the change process of school change; and
(g) Goals of school-based are not rationally planned. Therefore they may be
subject to changes brought on by shifts of power relationship among
coalitions.
10.2.3 Cultural Perspective

(a) Observable behaviour of the school community at the individual, group,
and school levels is shaped by the school culture;
(b) School-based change must be studied in terms of overt and covert school
culture;
(c) Successful school-based change involves alterations in values and beliefs of
school members;
(d) A school-based change can be considered a cultural change. Therefore,
success depends on changes to school culture as well; and
(e) Mastery of school culture could lead to successful school-based change.

Now that you have knowledge of all three perspectives, bear in mind that each
perspective has its strengths and weaknesses. The best approach would be to
obtain a comprehensive view of school-based change by understanding the basic
assumptions of all three perspectives.
10.3 TYPES OF SCHOOL-BASED CHANGE

In this subtopic, we will discuss the different types of school-based change
presented by Cheng (1996), based on LaughlinÊs (1991) classification of
organisational change. The first is change in school technology and the second is
change in school culture.
10.3.1 Technological Changes

The functions of school technology were discussed in Topic 6. Briefly, technology
used in school can be categorised as school management technology, pedagogic
technology, and learning technology.
In order to optimise educational outcomes, all three types of technology must

complement each other. Basically, any educational change will revolve around all
three types of technologies to ensure the school process is effective. However, at
any point in time, the planned change may place more emphasis on any one of
the three types of technologies. Curriculum change, which was discussed in
Topic 9, is one example of technological changes. Two types of technology
congruence that can affect the effectiveness of the internal school process are
depicted in Figure 10.4:
Figure 10.4: Types of technology congruence that can affect the effectiveness of the
internal school process

In Topic 6, we also talked about two types of technology congruence, the

between-type and the within-type congruence of technology. According to the
concept of congruence, the greater the between-type and within-type congruence,
the higher the internal school effectiveness (Cheng, 1996). Technological changes
are required when there is incongruence in technological changes in
management, teaching, or learning.
10.3.2 Cultural Changes

Compared to overt technological changes, the hidden changes, involving school
culture are difficult to attain and evaluate. These are called second-order
changes. Successful school-based change should bring about technological and
cultural changes concurrently in order to achieve pre-set goals and effective
overall improvements (Laughlin 1991, as cited in Cheng, 1996).
You may want to re-visit Topic 6 to look at the definition of school culture, and
the school culture matrix, and the principle of congruence in school values and
beliefs. Cultural changes are needed when there is any incongruence in values
and beliefs.
ACTIVITY 10.3
Have there been major changes in your school or any other

institutions of learning that you know of in recent years? What type of
change was it? Share your experiences on myINSPIRE.
10.4 THE MATRIX OF SCHOOL-BASED

CHANGE
Based on our discussions in the previous subtopics, we can conclude that school-
based change can be viewed as change in the school process, at the different
levels, involving different players and affecting different domains. Based on this
assumption and using the idea of the school process matrix presented in Topic 6,
Cheng (1996) has proposed a matrix of school-based change to shed more light
on the technological and cultural changes that take place in schools.
This matrix comprises three dimensions (as shown in Figure 10.5): category of
change actor, level of change, and domain of change. Let us take a closer look at
each of these dimensions.

Figure 10.5: The matrix of school-based change

10.4.1 Category of Change Actor

According to Cheng (1996) three categories of actors can be identified in school-
based change. The actors refer to the principal, administrators, teachers, and
students in a particular school. The categories include (as shown in Figure 10.6):
Figure 10.6: Categories of actors can be identified in school-based change

Conventionally, administrators play the role of initiators or implementers,

teachers are the supporters, and students play the role of receivers of change.
Although this may seem to be a top-down school change process, you need to

bear in mind that this is a flexible process where teachers may play the role of
change initiators in their respective schools, and administrators may play the role
of supporters to help implement the change. In fact, you may be surprised to
know that in some well-established schools, students can be the initiators of
change, supported by their teachers.
Regardless of the role played by each actor in school-based change, the important
thing is for all three categories of actors to work together to ensure the success of
the change process.
10.4.2 Level of Change

School-based change can happen at three different levels. Can you name the
different levels? It happens at the individual, group, and school levels. This also
means that the initiator or receiver of change may be individual school members,
a particular group of school members, or the entire school community.
In reality, you may find that there is no clear demarcation of roles among the
three levels. For instance, there could be school-based changes initiated by the
school principal or one of his senior administrative staff (individual level), and
the target group could be all teachers, all students, a group of teachers, or a
group of students.
It is also not uncommon for a group of teachers to initiate change, supported by

the school administrator and targeted at the whole school. Therefore, there are
various possibilities of groupings that would determine the initiator, the
supporter, and the receiver at the different levels.
In general, it is important to remember that change at all levels is important,

regardless who initiates it, who supports the change, and who the change is
intended for. Furthermore, change does not happen in isolation at just any one
level. Change in any level will eventually affect the other two levels. Mutual
understanding and influence between and among the levels is crucial to ensure
success of school-based change.
10.4.3 Domain of Change

School-based change can happen in three different domains of school
community: the cognitive domain, the affective domain, and the behavioural
domain. Cognitive changes among school community, usually covert in manner,
are crucial and serve as a basis for initiation and adoption of behavioural and
affective changes.

Affective change is change in school membersÊ level of satisfaction, commitment,

motivation, and human relationship. Behavioural change is overt in nature,
usually associated with change in membersÊ behaviour in managing, teaching,
learning, and social interactions.
School technological changes are generally linked to behaviour changes in school

members at the individual, group, and school levels, whereas school cultural
changes are evident in the cognitive and affective changes in school members at
the three levels.
10.5 THE MATRIX OF FORCE FIELD

The driving force for school change can be made up of internal and external
factors. While these factors thrust schools towards change, there are also
restraining factors that resist change in schools for certain reasons. Therefore,
before any school-based change is initiated in schools, it is important that we
study the driving forces and the restraining forces that are at work in a particular
school. These two forces actually act against each other, in the opposite direction
and create what is called a force field.
Here is how his force field works. If the driving force and the restraining force
are equally strong, the result would be a balanced situation which requires the
school-based change initiator to increase the driving force to start the school-
based change process. Of course, if the driving force is greater than the
restraining force, the initiator will have no problems starting the change process.
According to Cheng (1996), if the restraining force is stronger than the driving
force, the change initiator will be forced to contemplate:
(a) Giving up the change;
(b) Increasing the strength of the driving forces;
(c) Minimising the strength of restraining forces; or
(d) Converting the restraining forces into driving forces.

Cost is a crucial consideration in planning and implementing change. Therefore,

careful analysis of the field force and existing alternatives, including the costs, is
necessary before planning and implementing change.
Cheng (1996) proposes a matrix of force field, based on the principles of the
matrix of school-based change, to assist the analysis of driving forces and
restraining forces within the school-based context.
The matrix of force fields combines three basic types of force fields which are
depicted in Figure 10.7:
Figure 10.7: Basic types of force fields
(a) The Force Field between Actor Layers

Change, no matter how small it is, can invoke different reactions from
different people. Cheng (1996) refers to this as force fields in the form of
driving forces and restraining forces between and among the layers.
Changes initiated by any one layer may face resistance from the other two
layers. So the driving force may come from the layer that initiates the
change and the restraining forces will come from the layers resisting the
change. It is only in ideal situations that, regardless of where the change is
initiated, all forces on the three layers are driving forces.

(b) The Force Field between Level Layers

The political perspective posits that a school-based change has the capacity
to stir conflicts between individuals and between groups, because of
potential changes that could happen to the allocation of scarce resources
and stakeholdersÊ interests. These conflicts can happen between individual
and group, individual and the school as a whole, and group and the school.
The matrix of change can be divided into the individual, group, and the
school layer.
(c) The Force Field between Domain Layers

The matrix of school change can be divided into three layers: the affective
layer, the behavioural layer, and the cognitive layer. There may be
inconsistencies in the affect, behaviour, and cognition of school members, as
suggested by prior studies on individualÊs behaviour patterns. As a result,
there may be force fields existing within these three layers, which may
include driving forces and restraining forces that oppose the initiated change.
The force fields that exist within the three layers can be analysed and the
findings can be used to plan strategies for successful change initiatives.
However, if the strength of the restraining forces is greater than that of the
driving forces, the initiated change is bound to fail. To ensure the success of
the change, the following three strategies can be used:
(i) Increase driving forces;
(ii) Decrease or remove restraining forces altogether; and
(iii) Change the direction of restraining forces to turn it into driving
forces.
In most cases, efforts are made to decrease restraining forces because it is

less costly than trying to increase driving forces.
10.6 PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT FOR

EFFECTIVE SCHOOL-BASED CHANGE
The merits of school-based professional development have been discussed at
length in Topic 9. Besides helping school staff to continually develop their craft,
professional development is also an important factor in preparing and
implementing technological and cultural changes in schools. Go back to Topic 8
to refer to the matrix theory to understand and implement professional
development, and the principle of congruence to conduct professional
development activities to ensure effective school-based changes.

Leadership is an important factor that drives professional development and

school-based change. Revisit Topic 7 for details of how leaders can ensure
successful professional development and school-based change.
10.7 STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES OF

SCHOOL-BASED CHANGES
ACTIVITY 10.4
The way in which change is put into practice determines to a large
extent on how well it fares
Fullan (2007, p. 13)
Do you agree with Fullan? State your stance and clarify why it is so.
Post in on myINSPIRE.
The success of school-based change is determined by the types of strategies and

techniques introduced and implemented in schools. In this subtopic, we will look
at some of the practical strategies that can be put into practice to help plan and
implement school-based change. The overview of this subtopic is shown in
Figure 10.8:
Figure 10.8: Overview of the strategies and techniques of school-based changes

10.7.1 The School-based Management Mechanism

A school-based mechanism was proposed by Cheng (1996) in Topic 5. Do you
recall how this mechanism works? If you do, then you will know that this is the
basic mechanism for continuous school development and change which
incorporates self-management and the use of strategic management process at a
multi-level system. This system provides a school wide cyclic process which
naturally promotes long-term effectiveness and successful school-based change.
10.7.2 Analysis of the Force Field of Change

According to Cheng (1996), it is important for change initiators to understand
and analyse the force field of change before planning a school-based change. The
best way to do this is by listing down the potential driving forces in their order of
importance to the success of the change, then examining the nature and origin of
each driving force, taking into account the actors, levels, and domains involved
in the change.
We then use the findings to identify the possible approaches to increase the
strength of each main driving force. Some driving forces are easy to identify and
strengthen while others may be more challenging. The potential driving forces
can be ranked in order based on the availability of efficient methods of increasing
the strength of the forces. We need to do this, because in reality, there will not be
sufficient resources to increase the strength of all driving forces at the same time.
A similar process can also be used to identify and reduce potential restraining
forces so that steps can be taken to manage the major restraining forces.
The results of both driving forces and restraining forces can be compared and
used to determine whether a school-based change could be implemented
successfully.

10.7.3 Stages of a School-based Change

According to the model of changing human behaviour, the process of a school-
based change can be divided into three stages: unfreezing, changing, and
refreezing. A summary of this process is presented in Table 10.1
Table 10.1: Stages of a School-based Change
Unfreezing Stage Changing Stage Refreezing Stage

 Identify, establish and  Implement technological  Identify the overt and
publicise the need for changes in hidden advantages of the
change management/teaching/ change
 Plan goals and policies learning  Identify the adverse
for the change through  Implement cultural changes effects and eliminate
the school-based in values and beliefs about them
mechanism management/  Estimate all types of costs
 Analyse the force field education/morality, for the change
and develop change citizenship
 Assess the effectiveness
strategies  Change the affective, of the change
 Increase driving forces behavioural and cognitive
aspects of the involved actors  Make recommendations
 Minimise restraining at the individual/group/ for future actions
forces school levels  Make modifications on
 Prepare the necessary  Monitor the change process the technological changes
psychological (i.e., and ensure the progress  Institutionalise the
cognitive and towards the goals successful cultural
effective) and technical changes
readinessof those  Clarify the emergent
involved through staff psychological and technical  Clarify the uncertainties
development uncertainties and reduce their and frustrations due to
potential damages to the unsuccessful experiences,
 Prepare the necessary change and encourage
resources for the continuous learning
change  Learn new ideas and
techniques and develop new
goals
10.7.4 Strategies of Change

It is necessary to use some suitable strategies to carry out effective school
changes. Strategies to implement school-based change can be classified into three
types: the force-coercive strategy, the empirical-rational strategy, and the
normative-reeducative strategy. The characteristics of these different types of
change strategies are summarised in Table 10.2.


10.7.5 Techniques of Change

Different techniques are needed to implement strategies and guidelines for
school-based change. Many techniques have been proposed by scholars to
implement organisational change. Cheng (1996) refers to Duham and PierceÊs
(1989) seven techniques to support the implementation of school-based change.
These techniques are summarised in Table 10.3.
Table 10.3: The Characteristics of Different Organisational Change Techniques
Technique Characteristics Limitations

Education and  Provide information to understand nature  Time consuming
communication and purpose of change and expensive
 To clarify misconceptions and reduce
anxieties among staff
Participation  Useful when change initiator needs  Extremely time
and information from and participation of consuming
involvement other school members
 Appropriate when resistance to change is
high
Facilitative  Provides technical support needed by staff  Time intensive
support to face and implement change  Cost intensive
Emotional  Reduces anxiety levels of staff involved in  Lacks
support the proposed change effectiveness
because not
systematically
carried out
Incentives  Highlights potential personal and general  Expensive
benefits of change, and compensations for  Encourages
loss to reduce resistance and scepticism resistance to
increase
compensation
Manipulation  Useful when school-based change is the  Unethical
and co- only option and totally essential  Destroys trust
optation  Intentionally directing and altering
available materials to obtain school
membersÊ support for change
 Providing staff with a false sense of
compliance to change

Coercion  School members are informed of possible  Decreases

negative effects of change membersÊ
 An appropriate technique for quick satisfaction
change process, especially when change  Increases
initiator has power over resistors resentment
Each of the techniques presented in this table has its strengths and weaknesses.
The usefulness of the technique may vary according to the context of the
proposed school-based change. In most cases, the use of a combination of
techniques would yield more satisfactory results compared to the use of just one
technique.
The effectiveness of the techniques can also be viewed in terms of change

strategies and change stages. Techniques which are consistent with the force-
coercive strategy include coercion, manipulation and co-optation, and incentives.
The techniques of facilitative support, education, and communication are
consistent with the empirical-rational strategy. The techniques which
complement the normative-reeducative strategy are the techniques of emotional
support, participation, involvement, educational, and communication.
ACTIVITY 10.5
What do you think is the crucial factor in ensuring the success of school-
based change? Discuss with your coursemates on myINSPIRE.
10.8 THE FUTURE OF RESEARCH ON SCHOOL

EFFECTIVENESS AND SCHOOL-BASED
MANAGEMENT
In this subtopic we are going to discuss the future of research on school
effectiveness and school-based management.
10.8.1 School Effectiveness Research

Traditionally, research on school effectiveness tended to be superficial because
the focus was only on school functions, particularly on the technical and social
functions of school at the individual and institution levels.

Today, research on school effectiveness has become more comprehensive by

focusing on the complexities of school effectiveness. There is more focus now on
identifying the key features of effective schools and in understanding the concept
of school effectiveness itself. Scholars now recognise that the fact that „school
concept is not a unitary concept, it is complex, multi-dimensional, and not
reducible to single or simple measures‰ (Morrison, 2004).
One of the main concerns of school effectiveness research is the question of what
constitutes school effectiveness. Researchers tend to disagree on what really
constitutes school effectiveness. According to Saleem, Naseem, Ibrahim Hussain,
and Azeem (2012), early studies on school effectiveness emphasised on the
enhancing conditions of schooling and output measures, which often focused on
student achievement. Later studies rejected this notion, arguing that school
effectiveness should not be limited to academic achievement only, but also other
factors such as classroom behaviour, student participation rates, and their
general attitudes toward learning.
School effectiveness is a very broad concept. At the moment, most studies on

school effectiveness focus on teachers, head teachers, principals, and educational
administrators. Future studies need to place more emphasis on other
characteristics or qualities of effective schools, as perceived by stakeholders,
students, parents, the local community, and scholars in the field of educational
research.
10.8.2 School-based Management Research

The UK, New Zealand, and several states in Australia and the US were among
the first to adopt school-based management, from the 1980s onwards. In Asia,
Hong Kong started the school management initiative in the early 90s. Sri Lanka
has now also integrated the concept into its policy. South Korea, Indonesia,
Nepal, and the Philippines are examples of some Asian countries that have also
integrated the philosophy of school-based management, at varying degrees of
intensity. Of course, some countries have had more success than others and we
need to remember the fact that there are different types of school-based
management approaches.
In the past, school-based management research focused on the decentralisation of

central authority to the school level. It was based on the assumption that giving
schools more autonomy and decision making authority would automatically lead
to higher levels of school effectiveness.

Today, however, there is more awareness of the need to develop a strong theory-
base to associate school effectiveness with school-based management. Based on
the findings of several research reports, the Consortium for Policy Research in
Education (CPRE), (2012) argue that for school-based management to be
successful, it must provide schools with a series of requisites which can be used
as the basis for improvement. More importantly, school-based management must
be accompanied by school-level accountability.
Caldwell (2005) calls attention to the fact that there has to be some form of
regular measurement in terms of school-based managementÊs impact on learning.
According to him, to ensure success for all students regardless of the setting,
schools must have the capacity to measure how well students are doing at any
point in time, define the learning experiences that are necessary for success, then
measure and report on the outcomes.
In other words, professionals in education need to have an „outcomes-oriented

data driven approach to their work‰ (Caldwell, 2005). Research should be a
common practice in systems where school-based management has been
introduced, and the development of the capacity to measure outcomes is
important to link school-based management to learning.
More research also needs to be conducted in this area because contrary to general
belief, school-based management does not always lead to school success.
Empirical studies in this area have also suggested incidences where school-based
management did not impact teaching and learning. There have also been
instances where evidence from classroom observations failed to show changes in
overall classroom environment and student learning activities (you may refer to
studies by Taylor and Teddlie, 1992; Fullan, 1993; de Grauwe, 2004).
10.8.3 Research on School-based Management

Mechanism
Cheng (1996) proposes that more research needs to be done in the area of school-
based management, particularly in the theory of school-based management
mechanism. The areas that are of significant importance are on school leadership,
staff development, curriculum change, and school change.
Compared to traditional approaches to school leadership, school-based

management requires a completely different leadership approach and skills,
especially in dealing with the different layers of leadership. Hence, this is one
area that can be explored further. Strategic leadership is another area that
deserves more attention. The same can be said about school-based professional
development and school-based curriculum change, because these practices in a

school-based context differ from the traditional approach to school management,

which tends to neglect the importance of the school as an organisation in
determining educational effectiveness.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. Explain the concept of school-based change.
2. Explain why there is a need for schools to change.
3. Describe the two different types of school-based change.
4. How important is professional development for successful school-

based change?
5. How important is the role of leadership in curriculum change?
 Schools need to respond to changes to keep themselves relevant to the

changing environment.
 A school needs the following functions in order to survive: adaptation, goal

achievement, integration, and pattern maintenance.
 Change in schools is a dynamic process.
 Each school is unique, therefore change has to be individual school based.
 The following three perspectives can be used to understand school-based

change: the technological perspective, the cultural perspective, and the
political perspective.
 Each perspective has its strengths and weaknesses.
 The best approach would be to obtain a comprehensive view of school-based

change by understanding the basic assumptions of all three perspectives.
 There are two types of school-based change. The first is change in school
technology and the second is change in school culture.

 School-based change can be viewed as change in the school process, at the

different levels, involving different players, and affecting different domains.
 Cheng (1996) has proposed a matrix of school-based change to shed more

light on the technological and cultural changes that take place in schools.
 This matrix comprises three dimensions: category of change actor, level of

change, and domain of change.
 The driving force for school change can be made up of internal and external
factors.
 There are also restraining factors that resist change in schools for certain
reasons.
 Therefore, before any school-based change is initiated in schools, it is

important that we study the driving forces and the restraining forces that are
at work in a particular school.
 Professional development is also an important factor in preparing and

implementing technological and cultural changes in schools.
 The success of school-based change is determined by the types of strategies

and techniques introduced and implemented in schools.
 It is important for change initiators to understand and analyse the force field
of change before planning a school-based change.
 According to the model of changing human behaviour, the process of a

school-based change can be divided into three stages: unfreezing, changing,
and refreezing.
 Strategies to implement school-based change can be classified into three

types: the force-coercive strategy, the empirical-rational strategy, and the
normative-reeducative strategy.
 Different techniques are needed to implement strategies and guidelines for

school-based change.
 One of the main concerns of school effectiveness research is the question of

what constitutes school effectiveness.

 Research should be a common practice in systems where school-based

management has been introduced.
 The development of the capacity to measure outcomes is important to link

school-based management to learning.
Change actor Political perspective

Cultural changes School-based change
Cultural perspective School-based management research
Domain of change School effectiveness research
Effective school-based change Strategies for school-based change
Level of change Techniques for School-based change
Matrix of force field Technological changes
Matrix of school-based change Technological perspective
Caldwell, B. J. (2005). School-based management. Education Policy Series.

The International Institute of Educational Planning (UNESCO) and The
International Academy of Education, Paris and Brussels.
Cheng, Y. C. (1996). School effectiveness and school-based management: A
Consortium for Policy Research in Education. (CPRE). (2012). School-based
management. University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Daggett, W. R., & Jones, R. D. (2010). The process of change. International Center
for Leadership in Education.
De Grauwe, A. (2004). School-based management: Does it improve quality?
Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2005 (UNESCO).
Fullan, M. (2007). The new meaning of educational change (4th ed.). New York,
NY: Teachers College Press.
Morrison, K. (2004). Published on the companion web resources for A guide to

teaching practice. Routledge Falmer.
Saleem, F., Naseem, Z., Ibrahim, K., Hussain, A., & Azeem, M. (2012).
Determinants of school effectiveness: A study at Punjab level. International
Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 2(14), pp. 242–251.
Taylor, D. L., & Teddlie, C. (1992). Restructuring and the classroom: A view from
a reform district. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American
Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702


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134  TOPIC 7 LEADERSHIP FOR THE SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT MECHANISM

7.4 THE LAYER LEADERSHIP

7.4.1 The Leader Layer

In the layer notion:

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Generally, behavioural performance attributes are more aligned with traditional

7.4.2 The Matrix of Constituencies

As discussed earlier, internal and external constituencies can also be described

According to Cheng (1996) layer leadership affects how school constituencies

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

The Traditional Leadership The Layer-Leadership

Source: Cheng (1996)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

7.5 STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP

7.5.1 The Concept of Strategic Leadership

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 7.6: The organisational ability

Figure 7.7: Characteristics of strategic leaders

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

The development of strategic leadership abilities and characteristics plays a

Figure 7.8: A model of strategic leadership

Cheng (1996) suggests that the five-dimension leadership model comprising

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

7.5.2 The Contribution of Cultural Leadership

The role of cultural leaders in the strategic management process can be

(a) Environmental Analysis

(b) Planning and Structuring

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(c) Staffing and Directing

(d) Monitoring and Evaluation

7.5.3 The Contribution of Political Leadership

(a) Environmental Analysis

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(b) Planning and Structuring

(c) Staffing and Directing

(d) Monitoring and Evaluation

7.5.4 The Contribution of Human Leadership

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(a) Environmental Analysis

(b) Planning and Structuring

(c) Staffing and Directing

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(d) Monitoring and Evaluation

7.5.5 The Contribution of Technical Leadership

(a) Environmental Analysis

(b) Planning and Structuring

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(c) Staffing and Directing

(i) Provide technical assistance for membersÊ professional development

(d) Monitoring and Evaluation

7.5.6 The Contribution of Educational Leadership

Real learning is dynamic, dangerous, exhilarating. It is built on curiosity not

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 7.9: Three distinct communities in school

(a) Environmental Analysis

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(b) Planning and Structuring

(i) Use results of environmental analysis to develop relevant educational