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Basics
 Hormones are chemical signaling
substances.
 They are synthesized in specialized
cells that are often associated to form
endocrine glands.
 Hormones are released into the blood
and transported with the blood to
their effector organs.

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  In the organs, the hormones carry
out physiological and biochemical
regulatory functions.
 In contrast to endocrine hormones,
tissue hormones are only active
in the immediate vicinity of the
cells that secrete them.

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A. Hormones overview
 The animal organism contains more
than 100 hormones and hormone-like
substances, which can be classified
either according to their structure or
according to their function.
 In chemical terms, most hormones are
amino acid derivatives, peptides or
proteins, or steroids

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Chemical properties of animal
hormones
 There are four (4) categories of
endocrine hormones.
1) amino acid derivatives (epinephrine)
2) peptides (antidiuretic hormone
[vasopressin])
3) proteins (insulin)
4) lipid-like hormones including
steroids (testosterone)

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Hormones regulate the following processes:
1.Growth and differentiation of cells,
tissues, and organs
 These processes include cell proliferation,
embryonic development, and sexual
differentiation— i. e., processes that require
a prolonged time period and involve
proteins de novo synthesis.
 For this reason, mainly steroid hormones
which function via transcription regulation
are active in this field.

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2. Metabolic pathways
 Metabolic regulation requires rapidly
acting mechanisms.
 Many of the hormones involved
therefore regulate inter conversion of
enzymes.
 The main processes subject to
hormonal regulation are the uptake
and degradation of storage substances
(glycogen, fat), metabolic pathways for
biosynthesis and degradation of
central metabolites (glucose, fatty
acids, etc.), and the supply of
metabolic energy.
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 3. Digestive processes

 Digestive processes are usually

regulated by locally acting
peptides (paracrine), but
mediators, biogenic amines, and
neuropeptides are also involved

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4. Maintenance of ion concentrations
(homeostasis)
 Concentrations of Na+, K+, and Cl– in body
fluids, and the physiological variables
dependent on these (e. g. blood pressure),
are subject to strict regulation.
 The principal site of action of the hormones
involved is the kidneys, where hormones
increase or reduce the resorption of ions and
recovery of water .
 The concentrations of Ca2+ and phosphate,
which form the mineral substance of bone
and teeth, are also precisely regulated.
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Gastrin
 The presence of food in the stomach
stimulates stretch receptors which
relay this information to the medulla
oblongata.
 The medulla stimulates endocrine cells
in the stomach to secrete the
hormone gastrin into the circulatory
system.
 Gastrin stimulates the stomach to
secrete gastric juice.
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 The mucous membrane covering the
small intestine is organized into villi.
 Lining the villi are enterocytes that are
covered with a thin layer of microvilli,
which serves to increase surface area
and maximize absorptive contact with
nutrients.
 Enterocyctes secrete a variety of
substances that aid in the digestion of
nutrients such as enzymes and
hormones (eg, cholecystokinin /CCK).
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CCK (cholecystokinin)
 CCK production is stimulated by
the presence of food in the
duodenum.
 CCK release from the intestine
occurs in response to nutrient
stimulation.
 CCK is stimulated by fat and
protein in the chyme,
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  Following its release, CCK elicits
multiple effects on the gastrointestinal
system, including the regulation of
gut motility, contraction of the
gallbladder, pancreatic enzyme
secretion, gastric emptying, and
gastric acid secretion.
 It stimulates the gallbladder to release
bile and the pancreas to produce
pancreatic enzymes.
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Secretin
 Secretin is produced by cells of the
duodenum.
 It’s production is stimulated by acid
chyme from stomach.
 It stimulates the pancreas to produce
sodium bicarbonate, which neutralizes
the acidic chyme.
 It also stimulates the liver to secrete bile.
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GIP (Gastric Inhibitory Peptide)
 Food in the duodenum stimulates
certain endocrine cells to produce GIP.
 It has the opposite effects of gastrin; it
inhibits gastric glands in the stomach
and it inhibits the mixing and churning
movement of stomach muscles.
 This slows the rate of stomach
emptying when the duodenum
contains food.
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 Stimulus for
Hormone Secreted by: Effect
secretion
Stimulates
Presence of
the stomach
Gastrin Stomach food in the
to secrete
stomach
gastric juice
Stimulates
the pancreas
to produce
Chyme from sodium
Secretin Duodenum
the stomach bicarbonate
and the liver
to secrete
bile
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 Secreted Stimulus for
Hormone Effect
by: secretion
Stimulates the
Presence of gallbladder to release
CCK Duodenum food in the bile and the pancreas
duodenum to produce pancreatic
enzymes

Inhibits the gastric

Presence of
glands of the stomach
GIP Duodenum food in the
and inhibits stomach
duodenum
motility

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 Angiotensin

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Angiotensin
 The renin-angiotensin system is
involved in the regulation of blood
pressure and electrolyte
metabolism (through production of
aldosterone).
 The primary hormone involved in
these processes is angiotensin II,
an octapeptide made from
angiotensinogen
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  Angiotensinogen, a large α2-
globulin made in liver, is the
substrate for renin, an enzyme
produced in the juxtaglomerular
cells of the renal afferent arteriole
 Renin acts upon the substrate
angiotensinogen to produce the
decapeptide angiotensin I.

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 Angiotensin-converting enzyme, a
glycoprotein found in lung, endothelial
cells, and plasma, removes two carboxyl
terminal amino acids from the decapeptide
angiotensin I to form angiotensin II in a
step that is not thought to be rate-limiting.
 Various nonapeptide analogs of
angiotensin I and other compounds act
as competitive inhibitors of converting
enzyme and are used to treat renin-
dependent hypertension.
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  These are referred to as angiotensin-
converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors.
 Angiotensin II increases blood pressure by
causing vasoconstriction of the arteriole and
is a very potent vasoactive substance.
 It inhibits renin release from the
juxtaglomerular cells and is a potent
stimulator of aldosterone production.
 This results in Na+ retention, volume
expansion, and increased blood pressure.
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 In some species, angiotensin II is
converted to the heptapeptide
angiotensin III, an equally potent
stimulator of aldosterone production.
 In humans, the plasma level of
angiotensin II is four times greater than
that of angiotensin III, so most effects
are exerted by the octapeptide.
 Angiotensins II and III are rapidly
inactivated by angiotensinases
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 Epinephrine,
Insulin and
Glucagon
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 The water-soluble compounds
epinephrine (adrenaline) and
norepinephrine (noradrenaline) are
catecholamines, named for the
structurally related compound catechol.
 Tyrosine gives rise to a family of
catecholamines that includes dopamine,
norepinephrine, and epinephrine.
 Levels of catecholamines are correlated
with, among other things, changes in
blood pressure.
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 Catecholamines produced in the brain and in
other neural tissues, function as
neurotransmitters, but epinephrine and
norepinephrine are also hormones,
synthesized and secreted by the adrenal
glands
 Like the peptide hormones, catecholamines
are highly concentrated within secretory
vesicles and released by exocytosis.
 They mediate a wide variety of physiological
responses to acute stress
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 Glycogenolysis:
 In glycogenolysis, glycogen stored in the
liver and muscles, is converted first to
glucose-1- phosphate and then into G-6-P.
 Two hormones which control
glycogenolysis are a peptide, glucagon
from the pancreas and epinephrine from
the adrenal glands.
 Glucagon is released from the pancreas in
response to low blood glucose and
epinephrine is released in response to a
threat or stress.
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 Both hormones act upon enzymes to
stimulate glycogen phosphorylase to
begin glycogenolysis and inhibit glycogen
synthetase (to stop glycogenesis).
 Glycogen is a highly branched polymeric
structure containing glucose as the basic
monomer. First individual glucose
molecules are hydrolyzed from the chain,
followed by the addition of a phosphate
group at C-1. In the next step the
phosphate is moved to the C-6 position to
give glucose 6-phosphate, a cross road
compound.
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Glycogenesis:
 Glycogenesis is the formation of
glycogen from glucose.
 Glycogen is synthesized depending on
the demand for glucose and ATP
(energy). If both are present in relatively
high amounts, then the excess of
insulin promotes the glucose
conversion into glycogen for storage in
liver and muscle cells.

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Kontrol epinepphrin terhadap
pemecahan glikogen

Kontrol epinepphrin terhadap sintesis glikogen

inactive active

(active)
(inactive)

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Kontrol epinepphrin terhadap sintesis
glikogen

inactive active

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Kontrol phosphorilase pada glycogen
synthetase dan phosphorylase
 Epinephrin terikat pada membrane
plasma sel otot dan menstimulir adenyl
cyclase.
 adenyl cyclase dalam membrane
plasma mengkatalisis pembentukan
cyclic AMP dari ATP.
 Kenaikan konsentrasi cAMP intraseluler
akan mengaktifkan protein kinase.
Enzim tersebut inaktif bila tidak ada
cAMP. Pengikatan enzim dengan cAMP
secara allosterik akan menstimulir
protein kinase.
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Kontrol phosphorilase pada glycogen
synthetase dan phosphorylase

 Protein kinase yang tergantung

pada cAMP, menyebabkan
phosphorilasi enzim
phosphorylase kinase dan
glycogen synthetase.
 Phosphorilasi oleh kinase yang
aktivitasnya tergantung pada
cAMP,menyebabkan aktivasi
phosphorylase dan secara simultan
menghambat glycogen synthetase.
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  Glucagon, a peptide of 29 amino
acids, is a product of the A cells of the
pancreas. It is the antagonist of
insulin and, like insulin, mainly
influences carbohydrate and lipid
metabolism.
 Its effects are each opposite to those
of insulin.
 Glucagon mainly acts via the second
messenger cAMP .
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  Structure of human proinsulin. Insulin
and C-peptide molecules are connected
at two sites by dipeptide links.
 An initial cleavage by a trypsin-like
enzyme (open arrows) followed by
several cleavages by a
carboxypeptidase- like enzyme (solid
arrows) results in the production of the
heterodimeric (AB) insulin molecule
(light blue) and the C-peptide.

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 Selamat belajar

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