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1542456800principles of Navigation 2018 by Ranjeet Singh
1542456800principles of Navigation 2018 by Ranjeet Singh
Principle of navigation
CONTENTS
One nautical mile at the equator is approximately 1842.9 metres (6046.4 feet) and one nautical mile at the poles
is approximately 1861.7 metres (6107.8 feet). For practical navigation, the value of 1852 metres (6080 feet) is
adopted as the International Nautical Mile.
Measurement of Direction
Measurement of direction is used to express the course, which is the direction of a movement or the direction of
a bearing. This expression uses the direction of the north as the reference. There are two directions of north: true
north, and magnetic north. True north is the geographical North Pole, through which all the chart’s meridians
pass, and magnetic north is the earth’s magnetic north pole.
Variation is the difference between True North and Magnetic North
The magnetic north does not coincide with true north, but slowly rotates around true north. The angle between
the magnetic meridian and the true meridian is called Variation. The variation changes with position, e.g., as
shown in the next figure at position A, the variation is θ; at position B, the variation is β.
If the variation is west, then the magnetic north is greater than the true north, and if the variation is east, then the
magnetic north is less than the true north.
The error is said to be LOW when the north point of the gyro compass card is pointing to the right of true north.
The correction is positive, because all direction taken from the compass card will be less than the true value.
Therefore, the error must be added to the compass reading in order to get the true value.
Relative Bearing
Relative bearing is the angle at the observer, measured clockwise from the direction of ship’s heading to the
direction of the observing target.
True bearing = Ship’s true heading + Relative bearing
A chart projection is a way to project the earth’s surface, which is spherical, onto paper, which is flat. So there
will always be distortion. The navigator must know the different types of chart projections and the principles of
their constructions, so that the chart projection that will have the least possible distortion for a particular area
can be chosen.
Types of Projections
Gnomonic
Lambert Conformal
Mercator
Polar Stereographic
Polyconic.
Each projection has its own advantages and disadvantages. The most popular for navigational charts are the
Gnomonic and Mercator projections. Gnomonic charts are usually used for the Polar Regions, while Mercator
charts are usually used for the remaining areas on earth.
Gnomonic Chart
A Gnomonic chart, sometimes called a “Great Circle Chart”, is constructed on the gnomonic projection. It is a
geometrical projection in which surface features and the reference lines of the sphere are projected outward
from the center of the earth onto a tangent plane. A Gnomonic chart is often used to transfer a great circle to a
Mercator chart.
Advantages
A great circle is drawn as a straight line;
Distortion is tolerable within 1,000 miles of the point of tangency;
The polar region can be shown.
Disadvantages
It is not conformal (orthomorphic), so the true shapes are presented only near the region of tangency;
Rhumb lines cannot be drawn as straight lines;
Distance and direction cannot be measured directly.
The Mercator is the projection most widely used in marine navigation, except for the areas of the poles. It is a
cylindrical projection. Imagine a cylinder rolled around the earth, tangent at the equator, and parallel to the
earth’s axis. Meridians appear as straight vertical lines when projected outward onto the cylinder from within
the earth. The amount of lateral distortion steadily increases with distance from the equator. Consequently, the
latitude scale must be expanded to maintain true shape. The latitude scale is expanded mathematically on all
Mercator charts.
Advantages
It is orthomorphic; therefore, the navigator can see the shape of the land correctly on the chart.
Position, distance, and direction can all be easily determined. The distance can be measured from
latitude scale.
The meridians and parallels are always at right angles; therefore, the rhumb line can be drawn as a
straight line on the chart.
Disadvantages
DATUM CONNECTIONS
Definitions
A datum is defined as any numerical or geometrical quantity or set of such quantities which serves
as a reference point to measure other quantities.
In geodesy, as well as in cartography and navigation, two types of datums must be considered: a
horizontal datum and a vertical datum. The horizontal datum forms the basis for computations of
horizontal position. The vertical datum provides the reference to measure heights. A horizontal
datum may be defined at an origin point on the ellipsoid (localdatum) such that the center of the
ellipsoid coincides with the Earth’s center of mass (geocentric datum). The coordinates for points in
IMPACTS ON NAVIGATION
Datum Shifts
One impact of different datums on navigation appears when a navigation system provides a fix based on
a datum different from that used for the nautical chart. The resulting plotted position may be different
from the actual location on that chart. This difference is known as a datum shift.
Another effect on navigation occurs when shifting between charts that have been made using different
datums. If any position is replotted on a chart of another datum using only latitude and longitude for
locating that position, the newly plotted position will not match with respect to other charted features.
This datum shift may be avoided by replotting using bearings and ranges to common points. If datum
shift conversion notes for the applicable datums are given on the charts, positions defined by latitude
and longitude may be replotted after applying the noted correction.
The positions given for chart corrections in the Notice to Mariners reflect the proper datum for each
specific chart and edition number. Due to conversion of charts based on old datums to more modern
ones, and the use of many different datums throughout the world, chart corrections intended for one
edition of a chart may not be safely plotted on any other.
These datum shifts are not constant throughout a given area, but vary according to how the differing
datums fit together. For example, the NAD 27 to NAD 83 conversion results in changes in latitude of 40
meters in Miami, 11 meters in New York, and 20 meters in Seattle. Longitude changes for this
conversion are about 22 meters in Miami, 35 meters in New York, and 93 meters in Seattle.
Most charts produced by DMA and NOS show a “datum note.” This note is usually found in the title
block or in the upper left margin of the chart. According to the year of the chart edition, the scale, and
policy at the time of production, the note may say “World Geodetic System 1972 (WGS-72)”, “World
Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84)”, or “World Geodetic System (WGS).” A datum note for a chart for
which satellite positions can be plotted without correction will read: “Positions obtained from satellite
navigation systems referred to (REFERENCE DATUM) can be plotted directly on this chart.”
DMA reproductions of foreign chart‘s will usually be in the datum or reference system of the producing
country. In these cases a conversion factor is given in the following format: “Positions obtained from
satellite navigation systems referred to the (Reference Datum) must be moved X.XX minutes
(Northward/Southward) and X.XX minutes (Eastward/ Westward) to agree with this chart.”
Some charts cannot be tied in to WGS because of lack of recent surveys. Currently issued charts of some
areas are based on surveys or use data obtained in the age of sailing ships. The lack of surveyed control
points means that they cannot be properly referenced to modern geodetic systems. In this case there may
be a note that says: “Adjustments to WGS cannot be determined for this chart.”
A few charts may have no datum note at all, but may carry a note which says: “From various sources to
(year).” In these cases there is no way for the navigator to determine the mathematical difference
between the local datum and WGS positions. However, if a radar or visual fix can be very accurately
determined, the difference between this fix and a satellite fix can determine an approximate correction
factor which will be reasonably consistent for that local area.
Celestial Poles
Celestial Poles are the two points on the celestial sphere where the axis of the Earth produced meet it.
Parallel of declinations
Parallel of declinations are small circles on the celestial sphere, the planes of which are parallel
to the Equinoctial.
These correspond to parallels of latitudes on the Earth’s surface.
Declination
Declination are small circles on the celestial sphere, the planes of which are parallel to the
Equinoctial.
Declinations are measured from 0º to 90º N or S of the Equinoctial.
PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 17
PRINCIPLE OF NAVIGATION
Celestial meridians
Celestial meridians are great circles on the celestial sphere, the planes of which pass through the
celestial poles.
These correspond to meridians (Longitudes) on the Earth’s Surface.
Ecliptic
Ecliptic is a great circle on the celestial sphere in the same plane as the plane of the Earth’s orbit
around the Sun.
Thus the Sun’s apparent annual path on the celestial sphere is the Ecliptic.
It is so called because the Sun, Moon and Earth must be on this plane for a solar or lunar eclipse
to occur.
‘d’ Correction
‘d’ is the hourly change in the declination of the various bodies.
Weather it is an increase or a decrease can be found by inspection of the almanac around the time.
‘d’ is not tabulated for Aries as it is always on the equinoctial, with a constant nil declination.
For the Sun and Planets, The ‘d’ listed is the mean value of their hourly change of declination for 3 days
on the page.
For Moon it is tabulated hourly due to the rapid change in its rate of change of declination.
Vertical Circles
Vertical circles are great circles on the celestial sphere passing through the observer’s zenith and nadir.
Prime Vertical
The observer’s Prime vertical is the vertical circle passing through the East and west points of the
rational horizon.
Condition for a body to pass / cross the observer’s prime vertical
Latitude and Declination should be of same name
Declination is should be less than Latitude
It is advantageous to take a sight when a body is on the prime vertical because;
The Azimuth of the body is E or W and so the Position line will be N – S.
Thus, there will be no longitude correction.
Elevated pole
The pole above the observer’s rational horizon.
Depressed pole
The pole below the observer’s rational horizon.
True Altitude
True Altitude of a body is the arc of the vertical circle through the body contained between the rational horizon
and the Centre of the body.
Polar Distance
Polar distance is the arc of the celestial meridian of the body arc the angle at the Centre of the earth
contained between the parallel of declination of the body and the celestial pole of the same name as the
declination.
Polar distance = 90º - Declination
Azimuth of a celestial body is the arc of the observer’s rational horizon or the angle at his zenith
contained between the observer’s celestial meridian and the vertical circle through that body.
When the body is on the observer’s meridian or inferior meridian, its LHA is 360º or 180º and its
azimuth 000º or 180º.
And when the body is on the observer’s prime vertical, its azimuth will be 090º or 270º.
Since LHA is measured westwards from the observer’s meridian, the azimuth of the body whose LHA is
between 000º and 180º will be westerly and that of a body whose LHA is between 180º and 360º will be
easterly.
Maximum Azimuth
When the latitude and declination of body are opposite name, maximum azimuth will be when the
body is on the rational horizon.
When the latitude and declination of body are same name and declination value is more than
latitude, its azimuth will increase initially, reach a maximum value and thereafter decrease.
At maximum azimuth (Angle NZX’), the vertical circle through the body is at a tangent to the
declination circle and (PX’) the radius of the declination circle meets (ZX’) the vertical and tangent at
90º.
When the body is at maximum azimuth, the angle at the body therefore is 90º and we can solve the PZX
triangle using Napier’s rules for right angle spherical triangles.
Amplitude
Amplitude of a celestial body is the arc of the observer’s rational horizon or the angle at his Zenith,
contained between the observer’s prime vertical and the vertical circle through the body.
When the body is on the observer’s rational horizon i.e. at theoretical rising and setting. Amplitude is
therefore measured N or S from the observer’s East point when the body is rising, and from his west
point when setting e.g. E20°S or W15°N etc.
PZX TRIANGLE
PZX Triangle
PZX triangle is a spherical triangle on the celestial sphere which is formed by intersection of 3 great
circles.
Celestial meridian through the body (PX)
Celestial meridian of the observer (PZ)
Vertical circle through the body (ZX)
Cos P = Sin T.Alt -/+ Sin Lat . Sin dec / (Cos Lat . Cos dec)
(- if lat & dec same name, + if different name)
PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 27
PRINCIPLE OF NAVIGATION
Circumpolar Bodies
For a body to be circumpolar, the body should always be above the rational horizon i.e. the body should not set.
Therefore a circumpolar body will have upper transit (Upper meridian passage) which is above the elevated
pole and lower transit (lower meridian passage) which is below the elevated pole.
Upper transit (NX) or (SX) of a circumpolar body is above the elevated pole
For North Latitude
Upper transit (NX) bearing is north, when Lat < dec
= Altitude of pole + Polar distance (NP + PX)
= Latitude + Polar distance (Lat + PX)
= Declination circle + lower transit (XX’ + NX’)
= 90º - Zenith distance (ZX)
Upper transit (SX) bearing is south, when Lat >dec
= 180º - (Altitude of pole + Polar distance) = 180º - (NP + PX)
= 180º - (Latitude + Polar distance) = 180º - (Lat + PX)
= 180º - (Declination circle + lower transit) = 180º - (XX’ + NX’)
If the altitudes of a circumpolar body at upper and lower meridian passage are observed
- Then the observer’s Latitude and
- Body’s declination can be calculated.
Draw the rational horizon, place the body at the upper transit (X) and lower transit (X’)
Place elevated pole midway between the two positions and draw declination circle, with the pole as the
Centre and the circle passing through X and X’.
Draw equinoctial, WQE where PQ is 90º.
The Moon revolves about the Earth, in the same direction as the Earth revolves about the Sun.
The Earth and moon revolve about each other around the common COG of the Earth – Moon system.
This point is known as the barycenter lies about thousands miles within the Earth.
The orbit of the Moon around the Earth is elliptical with the earth situated at one of the foci of the
ellipse. At apogee the Moon is about 253,000 miles from Earth, and at perigee it is about 221,000 miles.
The average distance of the moon from the earth may be taken as 240,000 miles.
Sidereal period of the Moon
Sidereal period of the moon is the period of time taken by the moon to complete one revolution of 360º
around the Earth.
The sidereal period is the constant duration equal to 27 days 07 hrs 43 min 12 secs. i.e. approximately
27.33 days.
Synodic period of the Moon
Synodic period of the moon is the period of time between two consecutive new moons or two
consecutive full moons.
Synodic period has an average length of about 29 days 12 hrs 44 mins.
It is called a “Lunar Month” a “Lunation” or a “Synodic Month”.
It is not of constant duration with maximum variation of about 13 hours from mean value, due to the
eccentricity of the Moon’s orbit and that of the Earth’s orbit and other disturbances.
Why is the duration of Synodic period of the Moon not of contant duration?
Planetary Motion
States that the radius vector of a planet (a line joining Centre of the Sun to the Centre of the planet)
sweeps out equal areas in equal periods.
For equal areas to be swept out in equal periods, the planets moves faster in its orbit when it is closer to
the Sun and slower when further away.
A planet is said to be at Aphelion, when in its orbit it is further away from the Sun.
A planet is said to be at Perihelion, when in its orbit it is nearest to the Sun.
Because of the Sun is eccentric (not at the Centre) within the Earth’s orbit, at Aphelion, the Earth is
94.45 million miles and at the Perihelion 91.35 million miles from the Sun. Average distance is 93
million miles.
The eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit is about 1/60.
In the terms aphelion and perihelion we use suffix ‘helion’ (from the Sun) as the distances are expressed
from the Earth, we use the suffix ‘gee’ (for geographic).
Thus, when the Sun is in its apparent orbit or the Moon in its orbit around the Earth, is nearest the Earth,
they are said to be at perigee, and
When farthest the Earth, they are said to be in apogee.
Similarly when distance are expressed from the Moon, we use the suffix ‘cynthion’ or ‘lune’ leading to
the terms apocynthion or apolune and pericynthion or perilune.
Vernal Equinox
On 21st March, the tilt of the North end of the Earth’s axis is in the direction at right angles to the
direction from the earth to Sun.
The Sun’s rays then fall vertically over the Equator and Sun’s declination is 0º.
The circle of illumination passes through the pole.
All places on the Earth have equal day and night of 12 hours duration each. i.e. the Sun would rise at 6
am and set at 6 pm throughout the world.
The Sun is said to be at the “Vernal Equinox”.
From vernal Equinox to Autumnal Equinox, the North Pole is tipped towards the Sun.
Places in the N-Hemisphere, would therefore remain in the illuminated hemisphere for longer periods
and in the zone of darkness for shorter periods.
Therefore they would have longer periods of day light and shorter periods of night.
In the Southern hemisphere the case is reverse.
Earth rotates on its axis anti-clockwise i.e. west to east completing one rotation in 23h 56m 04.1s of
Mean Solar time.
Thus the entire celestial sphere appears to rotate in the opposite direction i.e. east to west completing an
apparent rotation of 360º in in about 24 hrs.
GHA’s of celestial bodies increases by about 15º per hr,
This apparent rotation of the celestial sphere causes all celestial sphere to rise over the eastern horizon.
Thereafter they appear to sweep across the sky, increasing in altitude, till they reach the observer’s
meridian bearing N or S of the observer.
When the body is on the observer’s meridian, it is said to culminate. Also referred to as the ‘Meridian
Passage’ or the ‘Meridian Transit’ of the body.
At culmination, a body attains its max altitude for a stationary observer, and therefore, it attains its min
zenith distance.
Elongation is the angle at the Centre Earth contained between the Centre of the Sun and the
Centre of the planet or the Moon, measured along the plane of the ecliptic.
It can be seen that inferior planets can never have a large elongation.
The max elongation of Venus is about 47º and that of Mercury is about 26º.
Having risen before the Sun, Venus would also set before the Sun and will therefore not be visible
in the evening after sunset.
At such times, therefore Venus is said to be a morning star as it is visible only in the mornings
before sunrise.
When Venus has an easterly elongation, as at point V3, a person on the Earth would experience
sunset, when he is at position Z3.
Venus would still be above the horizon and will set only when the Earth rotates further, and the
observer is brought round to position Z4.
Thus, Venus would be visible, for a few hours over the western horizon, after Sunset.
Having set after the Sun, it will also rise the next morning, after Sunrise and therefore will not be
visible during the day due to the Sun’s brilliance.
At such times, Venus is said to be evening star, as it is visible only in the evening after sunset.
At position V2, Venus has a westerly elongation and would set before the Sun and is therefore
obviously to the westward of the Sun.
At position V3, Venus rises and sets after the Sun, It is therefore to the eastward of the Sun, and is
said to have an easterly elongation.
TIME
The Nautical Almanac contains the astronomical information specifically needed by marine navigators.
Information is tabulated to the nearest 0.1' of arc and 1 second of time. GHA and declination are available for
the sun, moon, planets, and173 stars, as well as corrections necessary to reduce the observed values to true.
The major portion of the Nautical Almanac is devoted to hourly tabulations of Greenwich Hour Angle
(GHA) and declination, to the nearest 0.1' of arc. On each set of facing pages, information is listed for
three consecutive days. On the left-hand page, successive columns list GHA of Aries ( ), and both GHA
and declination of Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, followed by the Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA) and
declination of 57 stars. The GHA and declination of the sun and moon, and the horizontal parallax of the
moon, are listed on the right-hand page. Where applicable, the quantities and are given to assist in
interpolation. The quantity is the difference between the actual change of GHA in 1 hour and a constant
value used in the interpolation tables, while d is the change in declination in 1 hour. Both v and d are
listed to the nearest 0.1'.
To the right of the moon data is listed the Local Mean Time (LMT) of sunrise, sunset, and beginning
and ending of nautical and civil twilight for latitudes from 72°N to 60 °S. The LMT of moonrise and
moonset at the same latitudes is listed for each of the three days for which other information is given,
and for the following day. Magnitude of each planet at UT 1200 of the middle day is listed at the top of
the column. The UT of transit across the celestial meridian of Greenwich is listed as “Mer. Pass.”. The
value for the first point of Aries for the middle of the three days is listed to the nearest 0.1' at the bottom
of the Aries column. The time of transit of the planets for the middle day is given to the nearest whole
minute, with SHA (at UT 0000 of the middle day) to the nearest 0.1', below the list of stars. For the sun
and moon, the time of transit to the nearest whole minute is given for each day. For the moon, both
upper and lower transits are given. This information is tabulated below the rising, setting, and twilight
information. Also listed, are the equation of time for 0h and 12h, and the age and phase of the moon.
Equation of time is listed, without sign, to the nearest whole second. Age is given to the nearest whole
day. Phase is given by symbol.
The main tabulation is preceded by a list of religious and civil holidays, phases of the Moon, a calendar,
information on eclipses occurring during the year, and notes and a diagram giving information on the
planets.
The main tabulation is followed by explanations and examples. Next are four pages of standard times
(zone descriptions). Star charts are next, followed by a list of 173 stars in order of increasing SHA. This
list includes the stars given on the daily pages. It gives the SHA and declination each month, and the
magnitude. Stars are listed by Bayer’s name and also by popular name where applicable. Following the
star list are the Polaris tables. These tables give the azimuth and the corrections to be applied to the
observed altitude to find the latitude.
Following the Polaris table is a section that gives formulas and examples for the entry of almanac data,
the calculations that reduce a sight, and a method of solution for position, all for use with a calculator or
microcomputer. This is followed by concise sight reduction tables, with instructions and examples, for
use when a calculator or traditional sight reduction tables are not available. Tabular precision of the
concise tables is one minute of arc.
Next is a table for converting arc to time units. This is followed by a 30-page table called “Increments
and Corrections,” used for interpolation of GHA and declination. This table is printed on tinted paper,
for quick location. Then come tables for interpolating for times of rise, set, and twilight; followed by
two indices of the 57 stars listed on the daily pages, one index in alphabetical order, and the other in
order of decreasing SHA.
Sextant altitude corrections are given at the front and back of the almanac. Tables for the sun, stars, and
planets, and a dip table, are given on the inside front cover and facing page, with an additional
correction for nonstandard temperature and atmospheric pressure on the following page. Tables for the
moon, and an abbreviated dip table, are given on the inside back cover and facing page. Corrections for
the sun, stars, and planets for altitudes greater than 10°, and the dip table, are repeated on one side of a
loose bookmark. The star indices are repeated on the other side.
The time used as an entering argument in the almanacs is 12h + GHA of the mean sun and is denoted by
UT. This scale may differ from the broadcast time signals by an amount which, if ignored, will introduce
an error of up to 0.2' in longitude determined from astronomical observations. The difference arises
because the time argument depends on the variable rate of rotation of the earth while the broadcast time
signals are now based on atomic time. Step adjustments of exactly one second are made to the time
signals as required (primarily at 24h on December 31 and June 30) so that the difference between the
time signals and UT, as used in the almanacs, may not exceed 0.9s. If observations to a precision of
better than 1s are required, corrections must be obtained from coding in the signal, or from other
sources. The correction may be applied to each of the times of observation. Alternatively, the longitude,
when determined from observations, may be corrected by the corresponding amount.
The main contents of the almanacs consist of data from which the GHA and the declination of all the
bodies used for navigation can be obtained for any instant of UT. The LHA can then be obtained with
the formula:
LHA = GHA + east longitude.
LHA = GHA - west longitude.
For the sun, moon, and the four navigational planets, the GHA and declination are tabulated directly in
the Nautical Almanac for each hour of GMT throughout the year; in the Air Almanac, the values are
tabulated for each whole 10 m of GMT. For the stars, the SHA is given, and the GHA is obtained from:
GHA Star = GHA + SHA Star.
The SHA and declination of the stars change slowly and may be regarded as constant over periods of
several days or even months if lesser accuracy is required. GHA, or the GHA of the first point of Aries
(the vernal equinox), is tabulated for each hour in the Nautical Almanac. Permanent tables list the
appropriate increments to the tabulated values of GHA and declination for the minutes and seconds of
time.
In the Nautical Almanac, the permanent table for increments also includes corrections for v, the
difference between the actual change of GHA in one hour and a constant value used in the interpolation
tables; and d, the change in declination in one hour.
In the Nautical Almanac, v is always positive unless a negative sign (-) is shown. This occurs only in the
case of Venus. For the sun, the tabulated values of GHA have been adjusted to reduce to a minimum the
error caused by treating v as negligible; there is no v tabulated for the sun.
No sign is given for tabulated values of d, which is positive if declination is increasing, and negative if
decreasing. The sign of a v or d value is also given to the related correction.
When the observer is at the pole, his Zenith coincides with the celestial north pole, and his rational
horizon would coincide with that of equinoctial.
When the observer is on the equator, the rational horizon would be in the plane of the Earth’s
axis, passing through the celestial poles.
The equinoctial and all declination circles will bisect at right angles, by his rational horizon.
All celestial bodies whether having N’ly, S’ly or 0º declination will therefore remain above the
horizon for exactly half the day and below the horizon for remaining half.
When the body is on observer’s celestial meridian, its declination is equal to (90º - True Alt) and
named same as the bearing of the body.
They would rise and set bearing northward of his east and west points respectively.
If the N’ly declination of the body is large enough, its declination circle would lie entirely above
the horizon. Such bodies would not therefore rise or set, but would remain above the horizon
throughout the day. They are then said to be circumpolar.
Declination circles of bodies with a S’ly declination (of the opposite name to the observer’s
latitude) will lie with a major arc of the circle below the horizon and a minor arc above. They
would appear to rise and set bearing southwards of the observer’s east and west points
respectively. If the S’ly declination was large enough, the declination circle would lie entirely
below the horizon and the body would then not visible during any part of the day.
TWILIGHT
Twilight is the light received from the sun, when the Sun is below the horizon, i.e. before
the Sunrise and after the Sunset.
Twilight completely ceases in the evening, when the Sun is 18° vertically below the
horizon.
After that there is total darkness.
In the morning, twilight commences when the Sun 18° vertically below the horizon and
ceases at sunrise.
The entire period of twilight has 3 stages, Civil, Nautical and Astronomical.
- Astronomical commences when Sun is 18° below the horizon.
- Nautical - 12° below the horizon.
- Civil - 6° below the horizon.
Each twilight lasts until visible sunrise.
Reason for twilight to last longer in higher latitudes as compared to lower Latitudes
As is evident from the below fig. when the observer is in low latitudes, the Sun rises and
sets almost perpendicular to the horizon covering the 18° twilight belt in a rather short arc
and therefore in a rather short period of time.
When the observer is higher latitude however the Sun rises and sets at a more oblique
angle to the horizon, thus covering 18° twilight belt over a much larger arc and therefore
over a much larger period of time.
LOWER LATITUDE
HIGHER LATITUDE
ii. Lat + Dec + 12°>/= 90° (So that the Sun will not go below the nautical twilight belt
And will have nautical twilight throughout the night).
iii. Lat + Dec + 6° >/= 90° (So that the Sun will not go below the civil twilight belt and
will have civil twilight throughout the night.
- Because of this visible sunrise occurs before theoretical sunrise and visible Sunset
after theoretical Sunset.
- The nautical twilight lists the times for visible Sunrise and Sunset for various latitudes
interpolation is required for intermediate latitudes.
Also when the observer is at the equator, a body will 0° declination will rise bearing east
and continue to bear east till the body at the observer’s zenith and thereafter will be
bearing west till is sets. Refer to below fig.
SEMI-DIAMETER
Great Circles
A great circle is the intersection of the surface of a sphere and a plane passing through the center of the sphere.
It is the largest circle that can be drawn on the surface of the sphere, and is the shortest distance along the
surface between any two points. Any two points are connected by only one great circle unless the points are
antipodal
great circle bisects every other great circle. Thus, except for the equator, every great circle lies exactly half in
the Northern Hemisphere and half in the S
latitude is called the vertex. For each great circle, there is a vertex in each h
longitude. At these points the great circle is tangent to a parallel of latitude, and its direction is due east -west.
On each side of these vertices the direction changes progressively until the intersection with the equator is
rea
the vertex.
On a Mercator chart a great circle appears as a sine curve extending equal distances each side of the equator.
The rhumb line connecting any two points of the great circle on the same side of the equator is a chord of the
curve. Along any intersecting meridian the great circle crosses at a higher latitude than the rhumb line. If the
two points are on opposite sides of the equator, the direction of curvature of the great circle relative to the
rhumb line changes at the equator. The rhumb line and great circle may intersect each other, and if the points
are equal distances on each side of the equator, the intersection takes place at the equator.
Great circle sailing takes advantage of the shorter distance along the great circle between two points, rather than
the longer rhumb line. The arc of the great circle between the points is called the great circle track. If it could
be followed exactly, the destination would be dead ahead throughout the voyage (assuming course and heading
were the same). The rhumb line appears the more direct route on a Mercator chart because of chart distortion.
The great circle crosses meridians at higher latitudes, where the distance between them is less. This is why the
great circle route is shorter than the rhumb line.
Since great circles other than a meridian or the equator are curved lines whose true direction changes
continually, the navigator does not attempt to follow it exactly. Rather, he selects a number of points along the
great circle, constructs rhumb lines between the points, and follows these rhumb lines from point to point.
Kinds Of Sailings
There are seven types of sailings:
1. Plane sailing solves problems involving a single course and distance, difference of latitude, and departure, in
which the earth is regarded as a plane surface. This method, therefore, provides solution for latitude of the point
of arrival, but not for longitude. To calculate the longitude, the spherical sailings are necessary. Do not use this
method for distances of more than a few hundred miles.
2. Traverse sailing combines the plane sailing solutions when there are two or more courses and determines the
equivalent course and distance made good by a vessel steaming along a series of rhumb lines.
3. Parallel sailing is the inter conversion of departure and difference of longitude when a vessel is proceeding
due east or due west.
4. Middle- (or mid-) latitude sailing uses the mean latitude for converting departure to difference of longitude
when the course is not due east or due west.
5. Mercator sailing provides a mathematical solution of the plot as made on a Mercator chart. It is similar to
plane sailing, but uses meridional difference and difference of longitude in place of difference of latitude and
departure.
6. Great circle sailing involves the solution of courses, distances, and points along a great circle between two
points.
7. Composite sailing is a modification of great-circle sailing to limit the maximum latitude, generally to avoid
ice or severe weather near the poles.
Plane Sailing
Procedure to use Gnomonic and Mercator Charts for Great Circle Sailing
Plot departure and destination positions on the gnomonic chart; join two positions, since the great circle
appears as a straight line on the gnomonic chart.
Choose the specific interval meridian along the track where the course will be changed. Then plot the
positions of intersection of the track and the meridian chosen on the Mercator chart.
Join all the plotted positions on the Mercator chart by a series of rhumb lines; the course and distance
between each position can be solved by the plane sailing method.
As the great circle track line is plotted on the gnomonic chart, the vertex and the chosen intermediate positions
can be read off directly from the chart. However, this is not as accurate as the calculation which will be shown
later in this section.
Spherical Triangle Δ PAB can be solved by using cosine formula:
Hence
The position of the vertex, and the distance from departure point to vertex, can be calculated by using Napier’s
Rules in the right angle triangle PVA.
PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 94
PRINCIPLE OF NAVIGATION
For all formulas used for great circle vertex calculations, if the name of the latitude of any position, including
the departure and destination, is contrary to the latitude of the vertex, then the latitude of those having a
contrary name to the latitude of vertex is treated as a negative quantity
Napier’s Rules state: The sine of a middle part equals the product of
(1) the tangents of the adjacent parts or
(2) the cosines of the opposite parts.
In Δ PVA , V = 90º