Tishk International University

Engineering Faculty
Petroleum & Mining Eng. Department
INTRODUCTION TO MINING PTR 318

Lecture 6
3rd. Grade - Fall Term 2021-2022

Instructor: Professor, Dr. Hamed M. Jassim

Physical & Mechanical Properties Of Ores & Rocks:
The different rocks and ores which were formed by the different
geological processes ( for example: igneous, magmatic and
sedimentary processes ) have different physical and mechanical
properties which differ widely and that will affect their methods of
mining and extraction and also affect the design of mining methods.
Some of these properties are:
1- Lamination, which includes both bedding and stratification.

2- Cleavage.

3- Porosity and jointing.

4- Water Abundance (saturation)

5- Gas Abundance (gas bearing capacity) .

6-Elasticity.

7- Firmness and Hardness.

8- Toughness or Tenacity.

9- Stability.

10- Fragility and friability.

11- Specific Weight & Volume Weight.
12- Dust Formation.
13- Strength Properties.
2- Cleavage:

A lot of rocks, ores or minerals ( like coal seams and

also mica ) contain fractures and fissures which
might be continuous and extend along a certain
plane in a certain direction along the bed.

These continuous and planar fractures and fissures

are called “ Cleavages “ along which coal can be
removed from the rock mass or mica planes of “
Follies “ can be separated from each other in a way
similar to removing the different shields of onions
from each other. These cleavages will have a
negative effect on rock strength and will also
influence the direction of mine road ways and
tunnels.
3- Porosity and Jointing:
The porosity and jointing present in the rock mass will increase the “
Heterogeneity “ of rock mass and rock structure. The pores take the
form of capillary tubes or small cavities.

The porosity of a rock mass can be determined from the ratio

between
the total volume of pores to the total volume of rock mass including
pores, as in the following relation:
Porosity (%) =Total volume of pores/Total volume of rock mass

including pores x 100

These pores might be closed or interconnected, empty or full with
water, whereby the porous
rocks have high water permeability.
The high porosity will often have a negative effect on the strength of rocks.

The following table gives the porosity ( in % ) for some rocks:

Table of porosities for some rock types:

Rocks Porosity ( % )
Limestone 5.3 – 13.4

Sandstone 4.8 – 28.3

Homogeneous Sand 26 – 47

Mixed Sand 35 – 40

Clays 44 – 47
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The joints may appear in most rock types to various extents and have a
negative effect on rock strength or structure.

We can estimate or quantify jointing and classify the jointing of rocks

depending on two procedures:

A- Depending on the number of joints in a unit length of the rock

mass.
B-Depending on the distance between adjacent joints ( in metre ) as
is
shown in the following table:
Table of quantification of rock jointing:
Rock Classification depending on Distance between joints (m.)
nature of joints
Mildly fissured ≥ 0.5
Mediumly fissured 0.3 - 0.5
Strongly fissured 18
0.1 - 0.3
4- Water Abundance ( or Saturation Capacity ) & Humidity
The ability of rocks to contain water in the
fractures and fissures and pores and then
expelling it during
mining or excavation activities is called “ Water
Abundance or Saturation Capacity “.
We have to distinguish between this property and
the property of humidity which is
“ the percentage of water inside the material
due to water saturation “.
Example 1: A piece of limestone rock mass was tested and examined
in the laboratory for porosity. The following data were obtained:
Total volume of pores = 250 cm3 .
Total volume of solid material only=2200 cm3 .
What is the value of porosity of this rock material ?
Solution:
Total volume of pores = 250 cm3 .
Total volume of solid material including pores =
2200 + 250 = 2450 cm3 .

Total volume of pores

Porosity =

Total volume of rock mass with pores

250 cm3
Porosity = x 100
2450 cm3

= 10.2 %
Example 2: A piece of limestone rock mass was tested and examined
in the laboratory for porosity. We obtained the following data :
Total volume of all spaces inside the rock mass (joints, fractures,
pores, cavities) was found to be 1450 cm3. A detailed examination
has lead to the information that the total individual volumes of:
Joints = 380 cm3
Fractures = 450 cm3
Cavities = 375 cm3
Solid material only = 1800 cm3
Find the porosity of the rock mass

Solution: Total volume of pores 1450 – (380 + 450 + 375) = 245 cm3

Total volume of pores

Porosity =
Total volume of rock mass with pores

245 cm3
Porosity = x100 = 11.98 %
2045 cm3
Example 3:
A wall of rock mass whose length is (2.5 m.) was closely
inspected by a mining engineer . Thirteen parallel joints
were recognized which were with equal spacing.
What is the jointing class of this rock material according to
the simplified rock jointing classes?

Solution: The distance between joints =

2.5 m. / 13 = 0.1923 m.

Or distance between joints = 19.23 cm.

Now, from the simple quantification table of rock jointing,

we find that the class of jointing is “ Strongly fissured “
(from table), since 19.23 cm. is within the range of
distance between joints (0.1–0.3) m.
 More Detailed Jointing & Discontinuity of Rocks

The following figure gives some terms and details which are
connected with jointing and discontinuity of rocks:

Schematic of the primary geotechnical properties of

discontinuities in rock
Joints & Discontinuity characteristics

1- Number of sets:
A series of parallel joints are called a joint set and two or more
intersecting sets produce a joint system.
2- Orientation:
The orientation of discontinuities can be described by (dip
direction/ dip angle) or (Strike/ dip)

definition of dip direction (α) and dip

(a):
angle (ψ), and (b): plan view of plane
3- Spacing:
Spacing is the perpendicular distance between individual joints or
discontinuities. The joint spacing determines the sizes of individual
blocks making up the rock mass.

Scales and descriptive terms used for joint spacing - Detailed –

Block size has a main influence on stability in underground openings often being
supported by rock bolts (left) and in addition shotcrete
(right).

4- Persistence:
Persistence implies the size, length or area extent, within a discontinuity (joint)
plane.
5- Aperture:
The term of aperture is used in the description and estimation of the perpendicular
distance separating the adjacent rock surfaces of the open discontinuities.
6- Infilling:
Infilling is the term used to describe material separating the adjacent rock walls of
discontinuities.
To summarize, we have dealt in lecture 2 with the physical
and mechanical properties of ores and rocks and listed all
those properties which affect the mine design.
Then we described the properties of:
- Lamination and its effect on design. -
- Cleavages and its meaning. -
- Porosity and jointing with some solved examples. -
- water abundance (or saturation capacity) and -
humidity.
- More detailed jointing and discontinuity of rocks. -