Teaching resources for

Speleology and Karst 2009

INTRODUCTION
TO
SPELEOLOGY

by
Paolo Forti
 INTRODUCTION
Speleology, as a science, is a branch of karst studies.

Karst studies involve scientific research

into karst phenomena
Karstic: comes from the Slovenian word “Carso”,
which describes the area around Trieste.

Everything that in some way resembles

the features typical of the traditional
“Carso” area is described as “karstic”.
There is a historical reason: the first systematic studies of karst
phenomena were carried out in the “Classical Karst”
Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009
 SPELEOLOGY

The word Speleology

derives from two Greek
words:

and ,
which mean:
Praying buddist monks, Myanmar (photo P. Forti)
Science of the Caves

Today this meaning has expanded enormously, comprising also:

“any action undertaken voluntarily by Man inside a cave”

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

The four main
branches of
tradurre
Speleology and
their principal
applications.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 THE THREE SPELEOLOGICAL ERAS

The evolution of Speleology can be subdivided in three main periods:

- Prehistory: a period from which there are no clear documents on

speleological activities;

- Protohistory: a period in which there is speleological documentation,

but speleology has not yet developed into the complex activity that
we know today;

- History: the last period, within which the organization and goals of
speleology have not changed significantly.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 MAN AND CAVES:
FIRST REASONS OF FREQUENTING CAVES
For many years
our ancestors used
caves for a variety
of reasons:

- 500,000 years BP
as shelters;
- 100,000 years BP
as cemeteries;
- 30,000 years BP
as temples;
- 5,000 years BP
as mines.
The Altamura Man, Apulia, Italy >150.000 years (photo P. Forti)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

Grotta dei Cervi (Deer Cave), Porto Badisco, Apulia, Italy (photo P. Forti)

Epsomite has been

used as a purgative for
more than 4,000 years
Epsomite – Pelagalli Cave, Italy (photo P. Forti)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 In any case, none of these activities can be defined as

true speleology.
In fact:

- in none of these was there any reconnaissance of the cave environment

as such;

- Man was not interested in entering a cave for its specific nature alone.

Prehistory of Speleology

Started around 3000 years BP in the Middle East

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 FROM 1100 BC
TO 1600 AD

The first documented speleological

exploration of a natural cave
occurred in Mesopotamia, where,
at a certain distance from its
sources, the river Tigris flows
through a natural tunnel.
In 1100 B.C. the Assyrian King
Tiglath Pileser ordered a statue of
himself to be made, together with an
inscription at the cave entrance.
Tglat Cave, Persepolis, Iran (photo P. Forti)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 FIRST DRAWINGS OF SPELEOTHEMS
Later another Assyrian King, Shalmaneser, in the year 853 or 852
B.C., explored three caves close to the natural tunnel. This adventure
was reproduced on a bronze sheet that decorated the throne in the
King’s palace at Balawat and is now displayed in the British Museum.

Modified from Grotte d’Italia

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 THE CHINESE
The Chinese began to explore caves
some centuries before the birth of
Christ.

Their early explorations had the

primary and constant goal of finding
medicines.

Stalactites, stalagmites, moonmilk and

fossil bones were used to prepare
medicines, and this use is still evident
in traditional Chinese pharmacopoeia .
Modified from Pen Tshao Kang Mu in Li Shih-chen, 1576

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 THE ROMANS
If narrated and entirely unrealistic tales are discarded, only a minor
quantity of written reports concerning caves are known.

However,
several individuals, for different reasons, visited caves and left
detailed and precise descriptions.

In particular,

Titus Lucretius Carus, in his De rerum natura,

inserted several interesting references to
caves and their environments.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 THE ROMANS

Some of the “mosaics”,

found in many parts of the

Roman empire,

reproduced the world of

caves in a remarkably

precise manner.

Villa of Casale, Piazza Armerina, II-III A.C., Sicily, Italy (photo P. Forti)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 THE MEDIEVAL BLACKOUT
After the fall of the Roman Empire, interest in the subterranean world
vanished almost completely.

Great responsibility for this loss must be placed

upon the Christian religion, which, unlike most
other religions, claims that the underworld is
the realm of the Devil.

For such reasons, for almost a millennium,

caves were the exclusive interest of:
monks
witches
alchemists
thieves
……
Documentation of cave exploration from this
period is very scarce and Castel Lueghi, Slovenia (photo P. Forti)
completely unreliable.
Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009
 PROTOHISTORY OF SPELEOLOGY
Only towards the end of the
XVIth century
did scientists and travellers once
again begin to develop an
interest in caves.

In Germany, in 1535,
Berthold Buchner published the first
book completely dedicated to a
natural cave
(Breitenwinner).

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

THE FIRST THEORY OF
SPELEOGENESIS
The first theory of speleogenesis,

published in 1590, was related to

volcanic caves on

Mount Etna (Sicily, Italy).

Antonio Filodei de Homodeis

1590
Aetnae Topographia

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 THE FIRST
DESCRIPTION OF
SPELEOTHEMS
Many things that are found
“underground” are described in
Museum Metallicum
by Ulisse Aldovrandi.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 ALDROVANDI’S SPELEOTHEMS
Two pages in this book are devoted to speleothems, which Aldrovandi calls
“Stelechiti” from the Greek word στηλεκος, which means “trunk”.

Aldrovandi
collected fragments
of speleothems in
caves close to
Dubrovnik, where he
spent some time
around 1582,
and in gypsum caves
close to Bologna.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 MUNDUS SUBTERRANEUS

In 1674 the monk

and alchemist
Athanasius Kircher
wrote a book that is
considered the first real
textbook on Speleology.

The image alongside

shows his “idrofilaci”,
which explains the
existence and
movement of
underground water.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 THE FIRST SYSTEMATIC EXPLORATIONS
In the same years that Kirchner was writing his famous book,
another important scientist, Johann Weichard Valvasor,

visited many caves

in the Classical Karst.

His 4-volume book

Die Ehre des

Hertzogsthums Krain
(1689)

is the first documentation

of a real
Speleological cave
register.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 THE XVIIIth CENTURY
AND THE START OF CAVE TOURISM

Cave tourism started with King Tiglath Pileser around 1100 B.C.
Many cave visits were reported between then and the XVIIth century.

Real speleological tourism only began in the XVIIIth century, when a

number of caves became famous and thus organized tourist visits
began to take place.
The most famous and interesting of these caves were, for example:

Postojna Cave (Slovenia)

Kungur Cave (Russia)
Antipatros Cave (Greece)
Fingal’s Cave (Scotland)
Cango Cave (South Africa)
….
Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009
THE AUTOGRAPHS OF POSTOJNA’S VISITORS

List of ancient autographs, Postojna, Slovenia

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

KUNGUR CAVE, OPEN TO PUBLIC SINCE 1750

Plan of 1750 of Kungur caves, Ural, Russia

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

TOURNEFORT’S THEORY OF
THE SHAPE OF
SPELEOTHEMS

«… certain rocks grow in the same way as

do plants. Probably they also reproduce
themselves in the same way… There are
seeds that gradually grow and develop in
regular structures that are probably hidden
under their skins ...
In that way seeds are transformed in stone
...» (1704)

Concretions are represented by radices

(stalactites), trees (stalagmites), flowers
(popcorn), grass (helictites and crystals).
Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009
 THE FIRST SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH

In the second half of the XVIIIth century

rapid development of research in many
branches of science led to a greatly
increased interest in
caves and their
environment.

Karst hydrogeology,
mineralogy and speleogenesis
were the first fields to
produce important results…

…but it was not until the XIXth century that research into
the full range of Speleological studies began.
Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009
 MARTEL AND THE
START OF MODERN
SPELEOLOGY

Several cavers,
especially those active in the
Classical Karst, were certainly
active before him.

Martel
is acknowledged, correctly, as
the symbol of the birth of the
“new speleology”,
because of his ability
to communicate.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 Martel explored caves in many parts of
the world, and published hundreds of
articles, thus contributing to making
speleology better known to the entire
world.

Thanks to Martel magazines began to be

dedicated to speleology; among these the
most important was probably

Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie

which later transformed into

Spelunca.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 SPELEOLOGY IN ARTIFICIAL CAVES
The origins of this important branch of speleology
date back to the end of the XIXth century.
The first publication
dealing with artificial
caves appeared in 1885,
in the Proceedings of
the Royal Geographical
Society.

This early paper deals

with the exploration of
an artificial cave in
Turkmenistan by an
English officer.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 THE BIRTH OF ORGANIZED SPELEOLOGY
The complexity of speleological
activities in the early XIXth
century necessiated the
establishment of real
speleological organizations.

Essentially the first caving clubs

were founded by cavers operating
in the Classical Karst;
the first ever caving club was the
Abteilung für Grottenforschung,
founded in Trieste in 1873.

The Circolo Speleologico Idrologico Friulano is oldest caving club

still in existence, founded in Udine (Italy) in 1898.
Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009
 THE NATIONAL SOCIETIES
In the first decades of the
XXth century the first
National Caving Societies
were founded, in order to enhance
cooperation between the different
caving clubs within each nation.

For example, the Società Speleologica Italiana

(SSI) was founded in 1903 at Bologna.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 THE ORGANIZATION OF SPELEOLOGY IN
ARTIFICAL CAVES
For several decades exploration of
artificial caves carried on sporadically and
independently, without being organized.
In Italy the first systematic research was
carried out in the underworld of Naples in
the years 1970-1980.

Then, starting in 1981,

the Società Speleologica Italiana:
- founded the National Commission for
artificial caves;
- started the Register of artificial caves;
- published the magazine Opera Ipogea.
Similar organizations dedicated to
artificial caves were founded in many
European countries at about this time. Rio Fossatello, Genova, Liguria, Italy (photo R. Bixio)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 THE NATIONAL STRUCTURES
In the first decades of the XXth century,
in many countries where Speleology
was well organized, the structure of
Speleology was complete, and organized
at three levels:
- national
- regional
- local

Another important evolutionary step

was the organization of:

- National Cave registers

- National Congresses of Speleology

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 SPELEOLOGY AT THE END OF
THE XXth CENTURY
Speleology developed rapidly in the second
half of the XXth century.
Speleological activities
started in new countries
and explorations
reached great depths.

The most important

speleogenetic mechanisms
were explained, while other
sciences discovered their ideal
research environments in caves.
.
Hundreds of magazines, reviews and
books on speleology were edited
and published.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 THE INTERNATIONAL
STRUCTURE
Most of the national structures and all of
the international ones were founded
after World War II.

The first
International Congress of
Speleology
was held in Paris
in 1953.

The Union Internationale

de Spéléologie (UIS)
was founded at Postojna in 1965.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 THE INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
Speleological associations are active today in more than
a hundred countries;
in most of cases there are both national and regional organizations.

There are two continental speleological organizations:

FEALC
Federacion Espleologica
de America Latina
y del Caribe

FSCE
Speleological Federation
of the European Community

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

L’UNIONE INTERNAZIONALE DI SPELEOLOGIA

The UIS has 57 participating nations.

Its commissions cover most of the speleological activities carried out

all over the world.

But also, considering that the UIS is respected and sustained by the entire
speleological community, its actual political power is currently restricted
because of the difficulties of achieving full international operability.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 THE EXPLORATIONS
At the beginning of the third millennium
there seem to be no limits on speleological exploration.

Speleological equipment
and techniques evolved
considerably in the final ten
years of the XXth century.

The introduction of
single rope techniques (SRT)
has allowed every interested
person to take part in cave
explorations.
Recent advances in cave diving
techniques have helped to
reveal an unexplored world,
deep within the phreatic zone.
In the lakes of Cuatrocienegas, Mexico (photo Arch. La Venta)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 FOREIGN EXPEDITIONS
Nowadays the ease and relatively low cost of
worldwide travel allow great explorations to
take place in countries where speleology
previously had no opportunity to develop.

Exploration in a mine at Cuatrocienegas, Mexico

Entrance of a cave in the Saudi Arabian desert (photo J. Pint) (photo Arch. La Venta)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 (photo P. Forti)
Frasassi Cave, Marche, Italy
CO2 ppm (x100), T esterna °C, mm pioggia, presenze in grotta

0
10
20
30
40
50
18/03/2000
27/03/2000
05/04/2000
14/04/2000
23/04/2000
02/05/2000
12/05/2000
21/05/2000
30/05/2000

CO2*100
08/06/2000
17/06/2000
26/06/2000
05/07/2000

pioggia mm
14/07/2000
23/07/2000
01/08/2000
10/08/2000
19/08/2000
29/08/2000

presenze in grotta
07/09/2000
16/09/2000
25/09/2000
04/10/2000

T esterna
13/10/2000
22/10/2000
science.

31/10/2000
09/11/2000
interesting

T grotta A
18/11/2000
27/11/2000
06/12/2000
environments in

in many fields of
caves have been

16/12/2000
shown to be very
In recent decades

T grotta B
which to carry out

25/12/2000
important research

03/01/2001
12/01/2001
21/01/2001
30/01/2001
08/02/2001
17/02/2001
26/02/2001
07/03/2001
16/03/2001
16
17
18

15,5
16,5
17,5

T grotta °C
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

Buco dei Buoi Cave, Emilia Romagna, Italy
(photo P. Forti)
ECONOMIC AND
STRATEGIC
INTERESTS

Many aspects of caves

have a specific
importance from an
economic
and strategic
point of view.
Santa Barbara Cave, Sardinia, Italy (photo P. Testi, Arch. USB/GSB)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

ECONOMY AND CAVES
Caves are actually important
sources of economic benefits
in different fields,
the most important of which
are:

- agriculture: fungi;

- industry: landfills;

- health: thermal caves;

- tourism: show caves.

Clandestine whisky distillery inside a Tennessee cave during the
“Prohibition” period, when distilling was illegal (photo P. Forti)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 HEALTH AND CAVES
Many caves across the world are used for “speleotherapy”

Speleotherapy hospital in the Ural mountains (photo P. Forti)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 SHOW CAVES
Caves are the most popular and highly developed tourist destinations
among the geological wonders of the Earth.

The parking area of a tourist cave in Guilin, China

(photo P. Forti)

Almost every country in the

world has at least one show cave
open to the public. Inside the Guilin show cave (photo P. Forti)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

IMPORTANCE OF THE ITALIAN SHOW CAVES
The Italian show caves are
definitely the
most visited monuments
in the country
(2.5 million paying visitors
every year)

tradurre

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE
WORLD’S SHOW CAVES
Total number of important show caves 800

Caves with more than 100,000 visitors/year 100

Total number of visitors/year 170,000,000

Money spent to enter show caves in € 1,500,000,000

People directly depending on work in show caves 200,000-300,000

People whose work is indirectly related to show caves 100,000,000

These numbers would probably be doubled if

natural karst parks are also considered.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 STRATEGIC INTEREST OF CAVES
In the past caves have also been used during wars and in some countries
they are still used as:

- refuges
for people or
materials;

- Stocking places
for strategic
materials;

- Strategic places
for military
commands,
harbours and
airports,
advantaged
battle fields.
Airplane leaving the Bedeillac Cave during World War II (postcard)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

THE CHALLENGES OF THE THIRD MILLENIUM
Exploration will probably be pushed well beyond limits
that were considered unreachable even a few years ago.

Scientific and applied research will increase

both in quantity and quality.

Tourism and related activities

will spread like oil on the ocean,
reaching new countries and new areas,
touching billions of people.

But by far the most important challenge for the entire

speleological community will surely be:
the safeguarding of caves and the
environmental protection of karst areas.
Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009
 EXPLORATIONS
The depth of two thousand metres has recently been reached and passed...

…but depth and

length records will
certainly not be the
major conquests
for future cavers.

There are other

limits to be passed.

Cueva de los Cristales, Naica, Mexico (photo Arch. La Venta)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 EXPLORATIONS IN ANTARCTICA
In the next tens of years: the systematic exploration and study of the
terrifying but fascinating world of ice caves in Antarctica.

Ice cave on the floating front of the Campbell Ice Sea, close to Mario Zucchelli scientific station, Antarctica (photo G. Badino)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 PLANETARY
SPELEOLOGY

In the next centuries the

systematic exploration of
extraterrestrial caves in our solar
system and (maybe) even beyond
this will be started.

Caves have already been

recognized on the Moon:
these are marked by collapses
along a lava tube close to the
border of Oceanus Procellarum.
NASA Imagine taken from Internet

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
An obvious consequence of the increasing human pressure on caves
and their natural environments is the risk of a
rapid deterioration of these fragile ecosystems.

The entire speleological community must cooperate more than ever

in order to:

- Develop active protection for caves and their environments;

- Develop eco-sustainable tourism;

- Limit some non-standard speleological activities;

- Apply strict control to scientific activities in caves.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 KARST PARKS AND RESERVES
These probably provide the best option for protecting
caves and their environments from deterioration.

But governing any territory is a task for local or national

authorities; in this regard speleological organizations do not
have any power of decision.

However, it would be unrealistic to think

that it is possible to protect more than 1 to 2%
of the world’s karst heritage in this way.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
Contrary to the beliefs of
most speleologists,

tourism does not automatically lead to

destruction of the natural heritage.

On the contrary, in
some cases, thoughtful
transformation of a wild
cave into a show cave
can provide a unique
opportunity to safeguard
particularly fragile and
unique cave
environments.
Lol Tun Cave, Mexico (photo P. Forti) Barite in Santa Barbara Cave, Sardinia, Italy
(photo P. Forti)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 TRANSFORMATION OF WILD CAVES
INTO SHOW CAVES
Actual knowledge on the cave environment, ecosystem and microclimate
are advanced in such way as to allow:

- The transformation of any cave into a show cave, keeping its

value unaltered;

- Choice of the best materials to equip the cave;

- Regulation of visitors’ presence in such a way that the cave’s

natural parameters are not changed significantly or permanently.

It is merely a question of control before, during and

after the opening of the cave to tourists.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 CORRECT MANAGEMENT
In the third millennium all show caves
must be monitored and should be
controlled by a Technical Commission
with the power to decide to adjust
tourist frequency on the basis of
experimental data .

Show cave managers need to

understand that cave monitoring is not a
waste of money, but a very sound and
productive economic investment.

From now on speleologists should

not support or endorse caves that
are not equipped with an
environmental monitoring Monitoring station in a Korean show cave

system. (photo P. Forti)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 CRITERIA FOR SUSTAINABLE EXPLORATION

Until now almost all environmental concerns expressed by speleologists

have concentrated on the show caves.

• In reality, cave tourism involves less than 0.1%

of the total number of known caves;

• All other activities in caves (economic and/or strategic)

involve not more than another 0.1%;

• Speleological explorations involve 100% of all caves.

It is time for speleologists to become aware of these numbers.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 30 YEARS
OF SPELEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION
Away from the tourist path in Frasassi Cave (Italy)
1975 2006

Skeleton of a bat in an alcove along a speleological branch of Frasassi Cave, Marche, Italy (photo P. Forti)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 FOR A SUSTAINABLE SPELEOLOGY
environmental fragility demands
very strict rules of behaviour

Cueva de las Cristales, Naica, Mexico (photo Arch. La Venta)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 DAMAGE DUE TO EXPLORATION
The first exploration always
causes an immediate
loss of natural conditions,
much more significant
than any subsequent visits.

The first exploration of a cave

may damage the natural
environment much more than
a well thought-out and
executed tourist adaptation.

Other damage can be caused

by subsequent speleological
visits. Impossibile Cave, Trieste, Italy (photo P. Forti)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 EXPLORATION MANAGEMENT
As already occurs in some karst areas of the world:

- Sensible limits must be

placed on the number and
frequency of speleological
visits to caves;
- There must be limitation
of modifications made to
caves during exploration;
- Materials and techniques
used by cavers need to be
improved so that impact
on the cave environment is
minimized. The boots “slick” used during exploration in Naica caves, Mexico
(photo Arch. La Venta)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 CONCLUDING CONSIDERATIONS
Speleological activity during the third millennium will allow:

- extreme explorations, not only on our planet;

- a rapid development of cave and karst tourism;
- exciting studies in many branches of science;
- an increase of the importance of caves in the field of
renewable resources.

But there will also be serious risks to fight against:

- unacceptable environmental degradation;

- excessive human pressure on karst and caves;
- completely unjustified “scientific” sampling.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 CONCLUDING CONSIDERATIONS
To allow satisfactory protection of the cave and karst environment for
future generations
it is vital that speleological communities start to set limits
on their own underground activities.

Some steps have

already been
taken in this
direction, but
much remains to
be done.

Grotte d’Esparros, France (photo P. Forti)

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

TO FIND OUT MORE
SHAW T.D. (1992), History
of Cave Science and study
of limestone caves to 1900, Sydney
Speleological Society, 338pp.

FORTI P. (2002), Speleology

in the 3rd millennium:
achievements and challenges,
Theoretical & Applied Karstology,
15: pp.7-26.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009

 CREDITS
This lecture was prepared by Paolo Forti.

Translation to English by Jo De Waele and David J. Lowe.

Photographs were supplied by Giovanni Badino, Roberto Bixio,

Paolo Forti, John Pint, Pierfederico Testi
and the photo archive of the Associazione La Venta.
The figures and graphs were prepared by Paolo Forti.

The following institutions are thanked for their collaboration:

- Centro Italiano di Documentazione Speleologica Franco Anelli.

© Società Speleologica Italiana

Any part of this presentation may be reproduced at your own responsibility, as long as the contents
remain unaltered.
If reproducing the presentation (or parts of it) you should acknowledge this project as the source of
the information.

Introduction to Speleology – Società Speleologica Italiana 2009