Ch.1. Description of Motion: Multimedia Course On Continuum Mechanics

CH.1.
DESCRIPTION OF
MOTION
Multimedia Course on Continuum Mechanics
Overview
1.1. Definition of the Continuous Medium
1.1.1. Concept of Continuum Lecture 1
1.1.2. Continuous Medium or Continuum
1.2. Equations of Motion

1.2.1 Configurations of the Continuous Medium
1.2.2. Material and Spatial Coordinates Lecture 2
1.2.3. Equation of Motion and Inverse Equation of Motion
1.2.4. Mathematical Restrictions
1.2.5. Example Lecture 3
1.3. Descriptions of Motion
1.3.1. Material or Lagrangian Description Lecture 4
1.3.2. Spatial or Eulerian Description
2
Overview (cont’d)
1.4. Time Derivatives Lecture 6
1.4.1. Material and Local Derivatives
1.4.2. Convective Rate of Change Lecture 7
1.5. Velocity and Acceleration

1.5.1. Velocity
Lecture 9
1.5.2. Acceleration
1.5.3. Example
1.6. Stationarity and Uniformity

1.6.1. Stationary Properties Lecture 10
1.6.2. Uniform Properties
3
Overview (cont’d)
1.7. Trajectory or Pathline
1.7.1. Equation of the Trajectories
1.7.2. Example
1.8. Streamlines Lecture 11
1.8.1. Equation of the Streamlines
1.8.2. Trajectories and Streamlines
1.8.3. Example
1.8.4. Streamtubes
1.9. Control and Material Surfaces

1.9.1. Control Surface
1.9.2. Material Surface Lecture 12
1.9.3. Control Volume
1.9.4. Material Volume
4
1.1 Definition of the Continuous
Medium
Ch.1. Description of Motion
5
The Concept of Continuum
 Microscopic scale:
 Matter is made of atoms which may be grouped in
molecules.
 Matter has gaps and spaces.
 Macroscopic scale:
 Atomic and molecular discontinuities are disregarded.
 Matter is assumed to be continuous.
6
Continuous Medium or Continuum
 Matter is studied at a macroscopic scale: it completely
fills the space, there exist no gaps or empty spaces.
 Assumption that the medium and is made of infinite

particles (of infinitesimal size) whose properties are
describable by continuous functions with continuous
derivatives.
7
Exceptions to the Continuous Medium
 Exceptions will exist where the theory will not account

for all the observed properties of matter. E.g.: fatigue
cracks.
 Inoccasions, continuum theory can be used in combination
with empirical information or information derived from a
physical theory based on the molecular nature of material.
 Theexistence of areas in which the theory is not

applicable does not destroy its usefulness in other
areas.
8
Continuum Mechanics
 Study of the mechanical behavior of a continuous
medium when subjected to forces or displacements, and
the subsequent effects of this medium on its
environment.
 It divides into:
 General Principles: assumptions and consequences
applicable to all continuous media.
 Constitutive Equations: define the mechanical behavior of
a particular idealized material.
9
1.2 Equations of Motion
10
Material and Spatial points,
Configuration
 A continuous medium is formed by an infinite number of
particles which occupy different positions in space during
their movement over time.
 MATERIAL POINTS: particles
 SPATIAL POINTS: fixed spots in space
 The CONFIGURATION Ωt of a continuous medium at a

given time (t) is the locus of the positions occupied by the
material points of the continuous medium at the given time.
11
Configurations of the Continuous
Medium
Ω0: non-deformed (or reference) Ω or Ωt: deformed (or present)
configuration, at reference time t0. configuration, at present time t.
Γ0 : non-deformed boundary. Γ or Γt : deformed boundary.
X : Position vector of a particle at
reference time. x : Position vector of the same
particle at present time.
ϕ ( X,t ) Γ
t0= 0 → reference time t ∈ [ 0, T ] → current time
Γ0
Initial, reference Ω
or undeformed
configuration
Ω0 X x
Present or deformed
configuration
12
Material and Spatial Coordinates
 The
position vector of a given particle can be
expressed in:
 Non-deformed or Reference Configuration
 X1  X 
[ X]  X=
= 2
  
 Y  ≡ material coordinates (capital letter)
X  Z 
 3  
 Deformed or Present Configuration

 x1  x
[ x]  x=
= 2
  
 y  ≡ spatial coordinates (small letter)
x  z
 3  
13
Equations of Motion
 The motion of a given particle is described by the evolution
of its spatial coordinates (or its position vector) over time.
= x ϕ= (particle label, t ) x ( particle label, t )

=  xi ϕi ( particle label, t ) i ∈ {1, 2,3}
φ (particle label, t) is the motion that takes

the body from a reference configuration to
the current one.
 The Canonical Form of the Equations of Motion is obtained

when the “particle label” is taken as its material coordinates
 not
= x ϕ= ( X, t ) x ( X, t )
particle label ≡ { X 1 X 2 X 3 } ≡ X
T

=  xi ϕi ( X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , t ) i ∈ {1, 2,3}
14
Inverse Equations of Motion
 The inverse equations of motion give the material
coordinates as a function of the spatial ones.
ϕ ( X,t ) Γ
Γ0
Ω0 X ϕ −1 ( x, t ) x
 not
=  X ϕ= −1
( x, t ) X ( x, t )

= X i ϕi −1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 , t ) i ∈ {1, 2,3}
15
Mathematical restrictions for φ and φ-1
defining a “physical” motion
 Consistency condition
 ϕ ( X, 0 ) = X , as X is the position vector for t=0
 Continuity condition
ϕ ∈ C , φ is continuous with continuous derivatives
1
 Biunivocity condition
 φ is biunivocal to guarantee that two particles do not occupy
simultaneously the same spot in space and that a particle does not
occupy simultaneously more than one spot in space.
Mathematically: the “Jacobian” of the motion’s equations should
be different from zero: ∂ϕ ( X, t )  ∂ϕi 
= J = det  ≠0 
∂X  ∂X j 
 The “Jacobian” of the equations of motion should be

“strictly positive” ∂ϕ ( X, t )  ∂ϕ  density is always positive
= J = det  >0
i
∂X  ∂X j  (to be proven)
16
Example
The spatial description of the motion of a continuous medium is given by:
=  x1 X= e 2t
 x Xe 2t

1

x ( X, t=
) ≡  x2 X 2e−2t = ≡  y Ye −2t
x = + 2t z = + 2t
 3 5 X 1t X 3 e  5 Xt Ze
Find the inverse equations of motion.
17
 x1 = X 1e 2t
Example - Solution 
x ( X, t ) ≡  x2 = X 2 e −2t
 x 5 X t + X e 2t
=
 3 1 3
Check the mathematical restrictions:

 Consistency Condition ϕ ( X, 0 ) = X ?
 X 1e 2⋅0   X1 
   
x ( X,= )  X 2e−2⋅0 =
t 0=  X 2= X
5 X ⋅ 0 + X e  2 ⋅ 0 X 
 1 3   3
 Continuity Condition ϕ ∈ C1 ?
 Biunivocity Condition ?
∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1
∂X 1 ∂X 2 ∂X 3
e 2t 0 0
∂xi ∂x ∂x2 ∂x2
J= = 2 = 0 e −2t 0 = e 2t ⋅ e −2t ⋅ e 2t = e 2t ≠ 0 ∀t
∂X j ∂X 1 ∂X 2 ∂X 3
5t 0 e 2t
∂x3 ∂x3 ∂x3
∂X 1 ∂X 2 ∂X 3
∂ϕ ( X, t )
 Density positive ? =J >0
=
J e 2t > 0
∂X
18
 x1 = X 1e 2t
Example - Solution 
x ( X, t ) ≡  x2 = X 2 e −2t
 x 5 X t + X e 2t
=
 3 1 3
Calculate the inverse equations:

x
x1 =X 1e 2t ⇒ X 1 = 21t =x1e −2t
e
x
x2 =X 2 e −2t ⇒ X 2 = −22t =x2 e 2t
e
x − 5X t
x3 =
5 X 1t + X 3e 2t ⇒ X 3 =3 2t 1 =
e
( )
x3 − 5 ( x1e −2t ) t e −2t =
x3e −2t − 5tx1e −4t
 X 1 = x1e −2t

X ≡ ϕ −1 ( x, t ) =
X2 = x2 e 2t
X
= −2 t −4 t
 3 x3e − 5tx1e
19
1.3 Descriptions of Motion
20
Descriptions of Motion
 Themathematical description of the particle properties
can be done in two ways:
 Material (Lagrangian) Description
 Spatial (Eulerian) Description
21
Material or Lagrangian Description
 The physical properties are described in terms of the
material coordinates and time.
 It focuses on what is occurring at a fixed material point (a

particle, labeled by its material coordinates) as time
progresses.
 Normally used in solid mechanics.
22
Spatial or Eulerian Description
 The physical properties are described in terms of the spatial
coordinates and time.
 It focuses on what is occurring at a fixed point in space (a

spatial point labeled by its spatial
coordinates) as time progresses.
 Normally used in fluid mechanics.
23
Example
The equation of motion of a continuous medium is:
=x X − Yt

x =x ( X, t ) ≡  y =Xt + Y
z = − Xt + Z

Find the spatial description of the property whose material description is:
X +Y + Z
ρ ( X,Y,Z,t ) =
1+ t2
24
=x X − Yt
Example - Solution x =x ( X, t )

≡  y =Xt + Y
z =
 − Xt + Z
Check the mathematical restrictions:

 Consistency Condition φ (X,0 ) = X ?
X −Y ⋅0 X 
   
x ( X, t = 0 ) =  X ⋅ 0 + Y  = Y  = X
X ⋅0 + Z  Z 
   
 Continuity Condition φ ∈ C 1 ?
 Biunivocity Condition ?
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂X ∂Y ∂Z 1 −t 0
∂xi ∂y ∂y ∂y
J= = = t 1 0 = 1 ⋅1 ⋅1 − 1 ⋅ ( −t ) ⋅ t = 1 + t 2 ≠ 0 ∀t
∂X j ∂X ∂Y ∂Z
−t 0 1
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂X ∂Y ∂Z
∂φ (X, t )
 Any diff. Vol. must be positive J=
∂X
>0 ?
J =1 + t 2 > 0
25
=x X − Yt
Example - Solution x =x ( X, t )

≡  y =Xt + Y
z =
 − Xt + Z
Calculate the inverse equations:

x=X − Yt ⇒ X=x + Yt 
 y −Y y − xt
y −Y ⇒ x + Yt = ⇒ Yt 2 + Y = y − xt ⇒ Y=
y =Xt + Y ⇒ X=  t 1+ t2
t
 y − xt  x + xt 2 + yt − xt 2 x + yt
X =x + Yt =x +  2 
t= =
 1 + t  1 + t 2
1+ t2
 x + yt  z + zt 2 + xt + yt 2
z =− Xt + Z ⇒ Z =z + Xt =z +  2 
t=
 1+ t  1+ t2
 x + yt
 X =
1+ t2

 y − xt
X ≡ ϕ ( x, t ) =
−1
 Y =2
 1+ t
 z + zt 2 + xt + yt 2
Z =
 1+ t2
26
Example - Solution
Calculate the property in its spatial description:
 x + yt
 X =
1+ t2

 y − xt
X ≡ ϕ ( x, t ) =
−1
 Y =2
 1+ t
 z + zt 2 + xt + yt 2
Z =
 1+ t2
 x + yt   y − xt   z + zt + xt + yt 
2 2
 +
2  
+
2   
X + Y + Z  1+ t   1+ t   1+ t2  x + y + yt + yt 2 + z + zt 2
( X,Y,Z,t ) =
ρ= =
1+ t2 1+ t2 (1 + t 2 )
2
X +Y + Z x + y (1 + t + t 2 ) + z (1 + t 2 )
ρ ( X,Y,Z,t ) = ⇒ ρ ( x, y,z,t )
=
1+ t2 (1 + t )2 2
27
1.4 Time Derivatives
28
Material and Local Derivatives
 The
time derivative of a given property can be defined
based on the:
 Material Description Γ(X,t) TOTAL or MATERIAL DERIVATIVE
 Variation of the property w.r.t. time following a specific particle
in the continuous medium.
∂Γ ( X,t ) partial time derivative of the
 material derivative ≡ →
∂t material description of the propery
 Spatial Description γ(x,t)  LOCAL or SPATIAL DERIVATIVE

 Variation of the property w.r.t. time in a fixed spot of space.
∂γ ( x,t ) partial time derivative of the
 local derivative ≡ →
∂t spatial description of the propery
29
Convective Derivative
 Remember: x=x(X,t), therefore, γ(x,t)=γ(x(X,t),t)=Γ(X,t)
 The material derivative can be computed in terms of
spatial descriptions:
d
not not D ∂Γ( X, t )
material derivative = → γ ( x, t )
= =γ ( x, t ) =
dt Dt ∂t
∂γ ( x, t ) ∂γ ∂xi ∂γ ( x, t ) ∂γ ∂x
γ ( x ( X, t ) ,=
t)
d
= + ⋅ = + ⋅ =
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂t ∂x ∂t
i   
dt

∇ γ   ∂x  ∇γ ( x,t ) v ( x,t )
   ∂t   
v (x,t )⋅∇γ (x,t )
i  i
 Generalising for any property:

REMARK
d χ ( x, t ) ∂χ ( x, t ) The spatial Nabla operator
= + v ( x, t ) ⋅∇χ ( x, t ) is defined as: ∇ ≡ ∂ ê
dt ∂t
∂xi
i
material local convective rate of

derivative derivative change
30 (convective derivative)
Convective Derivative
 Convective rate of change or convective derivative is
implicitly defined as:
v ⋅∇ ( • )
 The term convection is generally applied to motion related

phenomena.
 If there is no convection (v=0) there is no convective rate of change
and the material and local derivatives coincide.
d (•) ∂ (•)
v ⋅∇ ( • ) 0=
=
dt ∂t
31
Example
Given the following equation of motion:
 x = X + Yt + Zt

x(X, t ) ≡  y = Y + 2 Zt
 z = Z + 3 Xt

And the spatial description of a property ρ(x, t ) = 3x + 2 y + 3t ,

Calculate its material derivative.
Option #1: Computing the material derivative from material descriptions

Option #2: Computing the material derivative from spatial descriptions
32
 x = X + Yt + Zt

Example - Solution
x(X, t ) ≡  y = Y + 2 Zt
 z = Z + 3 Xt

ρ(x, t ) = 3x + 2 y + 3t
Option #1: Computing the material derivative from material

descriptions
Obtain ρ as a function of X by replacing the Eqns. of motion into ρ(x,t) :
ρ ( x, t )= ρ ( x( X, t ), t )= ρ ( X, t )= 3 ( X + Yt + Zt ) + 2 (Y + 2Zt ) + 3t
= 3 X + 3Yt + 2Y + 7 Zt + 3t
Calculate its material derivative as the partial derivative of the material
description:
d ρ ( x, t ) ∂ρ ( X, t ) ∂
= = ( 3 X + 3Yt + 2Y + 7 Zt + 3t ) = 3Y + 7 Z + 3
dt ∂ t ∂t
( )
x = x X,t
d ρ ( x, t ) ∂ρ ( X, t )
= =3 + 3Y + 7 Z
dt ∂t
( )
x = x X,t
33
 x = X + Yt + Zt

Example - Solution
x(X, t ) ≡  y = Y + 2 Zt
 z = Z + 3 Xt

ρ(x, t ) = 3x + 2 y + 3t
Option #2: Computing the material derivative from spatial

descriptions
d ρ ( x, t ) ∂ρ ( x, t )
= + v ( x, t ) ⋅ ∇ρ ( x, t )
dt ∂t
Applying this on ρ(x,t) :
 ∂ρ ( x, t ) ∂
 = ( 3x + 2 y + 3t=) 3
 ∂t ∂ t
 Y + Z 
∂x  ∂ ∂ ∂
T
   
 v ( x, t ) x=x( X,t ) = ∂t =  ∂t ( X + Yt + Zt ) , ∂t (Y + 2 Zt ) , ∂t ( Z + 3 Xt )  = [Y + Z , 2 Z , 3 X ] =  2 Z 
T
  3 X 


( ) ( ) ( )
T T
∇ρ ( x=  ∂ρ x , t ∂ρ x , t ∂ρ x , t   ∂ ∂ ∂ 
,t)  , , =  ∂x ( 3 x + 2 y + 3t ) , ∂y ( 3 x + 2 y + 3t ) , ∂z ( 3 x + 2 y + 3t )=

  ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z   

 3

= [3,= 2, 0]  2 
T

  0 
34
 x = X + Yt + Zt

Example - Solution
x(X, t ) ≡  y = Y + 2 Zt
 z = Z + 3 Xt

ρ(x, t ) = 3x + 2 y + 3t
Option #2
The material derivative is obtained:
3 
d ρ ( x, t )
=3 + [Y + Z , 2 Z , 3 X ]  2  =3 + 3Y + 3Z + 4 Z
dt 
x = x( X,t )  v
T
 0 
  

ρ 

v⋅(ρ )
d ρ ( x, t )
=3 + 3Y + 7 Z
dt x=x X,t
( )
35
1.5 Velocity and Acceleration
36
Velocity
 Time derivative of the equations of motion.
 Material description of the velocity: REMARK
Time derivative of the equations of motion Remember the
 ∂x ( X, t ) equations of motion
 (
V X, t ) = are of the form:
∂t

not
V X, t ∂xi ( X, t ) = ( X, t ) x ( X, t )
x ϕ=
 i ( )
= i ∈ 1, 2,3
∂t
 Spatial description of the velocity:

Velocity is expressed in terms of x using the inverse equations of
motion:
V ( X ( x, t ) , t ) v ( x, t )
37
Acceleration
 Material time derivative of the velocity field.
 Material description of acceleration:
Derivative of the material description of velocity:
 ∂V ( X, t )
 (
A X, t ) =
∂t

 A X, t ∂Vi ( X, t )
 i ( )
= i ∈ 1, 2,3
∂t
 Spatial description of acceleration:
A(X,t) is expressed in terms of x using the inverse equations of motion:
A ( X ( x, t ) , t ) a ( x, t )
Or a(x,t) is obtained directly through the material derivative of v(x,t):
 dv ( x, t ) ∂v ( x, t )
 =
a ( x, t ) = + v ( x, t ) ⋅∇v ( x, t )
 dt ∂t

a ( x, t ) = dvi ( x, t ) = ∂vi ( x, t ) + v ( x, t ) ⋅ ∂vi ( x, t ) i ∈ 1, 2,3
 i dt ∂t
k
∂xk
38
Example
Consider a solid that rotates at a constant angular velocity ω and has the
following equation of motion:
=  x R sin (ωt + φ)

x ( R, φ , t ) → 
label of =  y R cos (ωt + φ)

particle
→ (non - canonical equations of motion)
Find the velocity and acceleration of the movement described in both, material
and spatial forms.
39
 x = R sin(ωt + φ)
Example - Solution 
 y = R cos(ωt + φ )
Using the expressions sin ( a ± b )= sin a ⋅ cos b ± cos a ⋅ sin b


cos ( a ± b )= cos a ⋅ cos b  sin a ⋅ sin b
The equation of motion can be rewritten as:

 x R sin ( ω=
= t + φ ) R sin ( ωt ) cos φ + R cos ( ωt ) sin φ

= y R cos ( ω=t + φ ) R cos ( ωt ) cos φ − R sin ( ωt ) sin φ
For t=0, the equation of motion becomes:=

 X R sin φ

=
Y R cos φ
Therefore, the equation of motion in terms of the material coordinates is:
=Y =X
=x R sin ( ω=
t + φ ) R sin ( ωt ) cos φ + R cos ( ωt ) =
sin φ X cos ( ωt ) + Y sin ( ωt )
=y R cos ( ω=
t + φ ) R cos ( ωt ) cos φ − R sin ( ωt ) =
sin φ − X sin ( ωt ) + Y cos ( ωt )
=Y =X
40
=x X cos ( ωt ) + Y sin ( ωt )
Example - Solution y =− X sin ( ωt ) + Y cos ( ωt )
The inverse equation of motion is easily obtained

x − Y sin ( ωt )
=x X cos ( ωt ) + Y sin ( ωt ) X=
cos ( ωt ) x − Y sin ( ωt ) − y + Y cos ( ωt )
=
− y + Y cos ( ωt ) cos ( ωt ) sin ( ωt )
y =− X sin ( ωt ) + Y cos ( ωt ) X=
sin ( ωt )
x sin ( ωt ) − Y sin 2 ( ωt ) =− y cos ( ωt ) + Y cos 2 ( ωt )
( ωt ) Y ( cos 2 ( ωt ) + sin 2 ( ωt ) )
x sin ( ωt ) + y cos=

=1
x − ( x sin ( ωt ) + y cos ( ωt ) ) sin ( ωt ) x x sin 2 ( ωt ) y cos ( ωt ) sin ( ωt )

X= = − − =
cos ( ωt ) cos ( ωt ) cos ( ωt ) cos ( ωt )
1 − sin 2 ( ωt )
= x − y sin ( ωt )
cos ( ωt )

= cos( ωt )
41
Example - Solution
So, the equation of motion and its inverse in terms of the material coordinates
are:
= x X cos ( ωt ) + Y sin ( ωt )

x ( X, t ) →  → canonical equations of motion
 y =− X sin ( ωt ) + Y cos ( ωt )
=X x cos ( ωt ) − y sin ( ωt )

X ( x, t ) →  → inverse equations of motion
Y x sin ( ωt ) + y cos ( ωt )
=
42
= x X cos ( ωt ) + Y sin ( ωt )
Example - Solution x ( X, t ) → 
 y =− X sin ( ωt ) + Y cos ( ωt )
∂x ( X, t )
Velocity in material description is obtained from V ( X, t ) =
∂t
 ∂x ∂
=
∂x ( X, t )  ∂t ∂t
( X cos ( ωt ) + Y sin ( ωt ) )
V ( X, t ) = 
=
∂t  ∂y = ∂
( − X sin ( ωt ) + Y cos ( ωt ) )
 ∂t ∂t
Vx  − X ω sin ( ωt ) + Y ω cos ( ωt ) 

V (X
=, t ) =   
Vy   − X ω cos ( ω t ) − Y ω sin ( ω t ) 
43
=X x cos ( ωt ) − y sin ( ωt )

=
Example - Solution  x X cos ( ωt ) + Y sin ( ωt )
=

 y =− X sin ( ωt ) + Y cos ( ωt )
Velocity in spatial description is obtained introducing X(x,t) into V(X,t):


y
 x X cos ( ωt ) + Y sin ( ωt )
=  v x   − X sin ( ωt ) + Y cos ( ωt )  ω  ωy 
 → v (
= x , t ) V ( X ( x , =
t ) , t ) =  =  
 y =− X sin ( ω t ) + Y cos ( ω t )  v y  
 −

X cos ( ωt ) − Y

sin ( ω t )  ω  − ωx 
−x
Alternative procedure (longer):
−ω x cos ( ωt ) sin ( ωt ) + ωy sin ( ωt ) + ωx sin ( ωt ) cos ( ωt ) + ωy cos ( ωt ) 
 2 2

v ( x, t ) = 

 −ω x cos 2
( ω t ) + ω y sin ( ω t ) cos ( ω t ) − ω x sin 2
( ω t ) − ω y cos ( ω t ) sin ( ω t ) 

ω x ( sin ( ωt ) cos ( ωt ) − cos ( ωt ) sin ( ωt ) ) + ωy ( sin 2 ( ωt ) + cos 2 ( ωt ) ) 
   
 =0 =1 
= 
 −ω x () ()
sin 2
( ωt ) + cos 2
( ω t ) + ω y sin ( ω t ) cos ( ω t ) − cos ( ω t ) sin ( ω t )
 
 =1 =0 
 v x   ω y 
v (=
x, t ) =   
 v y  −ω x 
44
− X ω sin ( ωt ) + Y ω cos ( ωt ) 
Example - Solution V ( X, t ) = 
 − X ω cos ( ω t ) − Y ω sin ( ω t )


∂V ( X, t )
Acceleration in material description is obtained applying: A ( X, t ) =
∂t
 ∂Vx
∂V ( X, t )  ∂t
=− X ω2
cos ( ω t ) − Y ω2
sin ( ωt )
A ( X, t ) = 
=
∂t  ∂Vy = X ω2 sin ( ωt ) − Y ω2 cos ( ωt )
 ∂t
 Ax   X cos ( ωt ) + Y sin ( ωt ) 
2 
A ( X, t ) =   = −ω  
 Ay   − X sin ( ω t ) + Y cos ( ω t ) 
45
X x cos ( ωt ) − y sin ( ωt )
Example - Solution =

=
(OPTION #1) Acceleration in spatial description is obtained by replacing the

inverse equation of motion into A(X,t):
( X ( x, t ) , t )
a ( x, t ) A=
=
( x cos ( ωt ) − y sin ( ωt ) ) cos ( ωt ) + ( x sin ( ωt ) + y cos ( ωt ) ) sin ( ωt ) 
= −ω  2

− ( x cos ( ωt ) − y sin ( ωt ) ) sin ( ωt ) + ( x sin ( ωt ) + y cos ( ωt ) ) cos ( ωt ) 
 x ( cos 2 ( ωt ) + sin 2 ( ωt ) ) + y ( − sin ( ωt ) cos ( ωt ) + cos ( ωt ) sin ( ωt ) ) 

    
 =1 =0 
a ( x, t ) = −ω2  
 x ( − cos ( ωt ) sin ( ωt ) + sin ( ωt ) cos ( ωt ) ) + y ( sin ( ωt ) + cos ( ωt ) ) 
2 2
    
 =0 =1 
ax  −ω x 
2
a (=
x, t ) =   2 
a y  −ω y 
46
 v x   ω y 
Example - Solution v (=
x, t ) =   
 v y  −ω x 
(OPTION #2): Acceleration in spatial description is obtained by directly

calculating the material derivative of the velocity in spatial description:
dv ( x, t ) ∂v ( x, t )
a ( x, t )
= = + v ( x, t ) ⋅∇v ( x, t )
dt ∂t
∂
∂  ωy   ∂x 
a ( x, t ) =   + [ ωy , −ωx ]  ∂  [ ωy , −ωx ]
∂t −ωx   
 ∂y 
∂ ∂ 
 ∂x ( ω y ) ( −ω x )  −ω2 x 
0  ∂x  0 −ω
  + [ ωy , −ωx ] =
∂ ∂
 [ ω
= y , −ω x ]    2 
0   ( ωy ) ( −ωx )  ω 0  −ω y 
 ∂y ∂y 
−ω x 
2
a ( x, t ) =  2 
−ω y 
47
1.6 Stationarity and Uniformity
48
Stationary properties
 A property is stationary when its spatial description is not
dependent on time. REMARK
χ ( x,t ) = χ ( x ) In certain fields, the
term steady-state is
 The local derivative of a stationary property is zero. more commonly used.
∂χ ( x, t )
=χ ( x, t ) χ=
(x) 0
∂t
 The time-independence in the spatial description (stationarity) does

not imply time-independence in the material description:
=χ ( x, t ) χ=
(x) χ ( X, t ) χ ( X ) REMARK
This is easily understood if we consider,
for example, a stationary velocity:
v (= ( x ) v ( x ( X=
x, t ) v= , t ) ) V ( X, t )
49
Example
Consider a solid that rotates at a constant angular velocity ω and has the
following equation of motion:
=  x R sin (ωt + ϕ )


= y R cos (ωt + ϕ )

We have obtained:
Velocity in spatial description
 v x   ω y  stationary
v (=
x, t ) =   
 v y  −ω x 
Velocity in material description
Vx  − X ω sin ( ωt ) + Y ω cos ( ωt ) 
V (X
=, t ) =   
Vy   − X ω cos ( ω t ) − Y ω sin ( ω t ) 
50
Uniform properties
 A property is uniform when its spatial description is not
dependent on the spatial coordinates.
χ ( x, t ) = χ ( t )
If its spatial description does not depend on the coordinates (uniform


character of the property), neither does its material one.
=χ ( x, t ) χ=(t ) χ ( X, t ) χ ( t )
51
1.7 Trajectory (path-line)
52
Trajectory or pathline
 A trajectory or pathline is the locus of the positions
occupied by a given particle in space throughout time.
REMARK
A trajectory can also be defined as
the path that a particle follows
through space as a function of time.
53
Equation of the trajectories
 The equation of a given particle’s trajectory is obtained
particularizing the equation of motion for that particle, which is
identified by it material coordinates X*.
 x ( t ) ϕ=( X , t ) X = X * φ (t )
= 

i (t )
 x= ϕ i ( X, t )= φi (t ) i ∈ 
X = X*
 Also, from the velocity field in spatial description, v(x,t):

 A family of curves is obtained from:
dx ( t )
= v=
dt
(x (t ) , t ) x φ ( C1 , C2 , C3 , t ) [1]
 Particularizing for a given particle by imposing the consistency condition in

the reference configuration:
= x ( t ) t = 0 X= X φ ( C1 , C2 , C3 , 0=
) Ci χ i ( X ) [2]
 Replacing [2] in [1], the equation of the trajectories in canonical form
( C1 ( X ) , C2 ( X ) , C3 ( X ) , t ) ϕ ( X, t )
x φ=
54
Example
Consider the following velocity field:
ωy 
v ( x, t ) =  
 −ω x 
Obtain the equation of the trajectories.
55
Example - Solution
We integrate the velocity field:
 dx ( t )
 = v x ( x, t )= ωy
dx ( t )
= v ( x, t )
dt

dt  dy ( t ) = v ( x, t ) = −ωx
 dt y
This is a crossed-variable system of differential equations. We derive the 2nd

eq. and replace it in the 1st one,
d 2 y (t ) dx ( t )
2
= −ω = −ω2
y (t ) y′′ + ω2 y = 0
dt dt
56
Example - Solution
The characteristic equation: r 2 + ω2 = 0
Has the characteristic solutions: rj =± i ω j ∈ {1, 2}
And the solution of the problem is:
(t ) Real Part {Z1eiwt + Z 2 e −=
y= iwt
} C1 cos ( ωt ) + C2 sin ( ωt )
And, using dy = −ωx , we obtain
dt
=− ( −C1ω sin ( ωt ) + C2 ω cos ( ωt ) )
1 dy 1
x =−
ω dt ω
So, the general solution is:

 x ( C1 , C=2,t) C1 sin ( ωt ) − C2 cos ( ωt )

 y ( C1 , C=
2,t) C1 cos ( ωt ) + C2 sin ( ωt )
57
 x ( C1 , C=2,t) C1 sin ( ωt ) − C2 cos ( ωt )
Example - Solution 
 y ( C1 , C=
2,t) C1 cos ( ωt ) + C2 sin ( ωt )
The canonical form is obtained from the initial conditions:

 = 0 =1 
 X x ( C ,=
=
 1 C2 , 0 ) C1 sin ( ω⋅ 0 ) − C2 cos =
( ω⋅ 0 ) C2
x ( C1 , C2 , 0 ) = X 
Y y C ,=
=
 ( 1 C2 , 0 ) C1 cos

( ω⋅0 ) + C2 sin=
( ω⋅ 0 ) 

C1
 = 1= 0
This results in:
= x Y sin ( ωt ) + X cos ( ωt )

x( X, t ) → 
=  y Y cos ( ωt ) − X sin ( ωt )
58
1.8 Streamline
59
Streamline
 The streamlines are a family of curves which, for every
instant in time, are the velocity field envelopes.
time – t0 time – t1
Y Y
REMARK
Two streamlines can
never cut each other.
Is it true?
X X
 Streamlines are defined for any given time instant and change with
the velocity field.
REMARK
The envelopes of vector field are the curves whose tangent vector
at each point coincides (in direction and sense but not necessarily
in magnitude) with the corresponding vector of the vector field.
60
Equation of the Streamlines
 The equation of the streamlines is of
the type:
vz
d x d y dz dx
= = = d= λ ( ds ) = v vy
vx v y vz dλ
vx
 Also, from the velocity field in spatial description, v(x,t*) at a

given time instant t*:
 A family of curves is obtained from:
dx ( λ )
dλ
( x ( λ ) , t *)
v= x φ ( C1′, C2′ , C3′ , λ , t *)
 Where each group ( C1′, C2′ , C3′ ) identifies a streamline x(λ) whose
points are obtained assigning values to the parameter λ.
 For each time instant t* a new family of curves is obtained.
61
Trajectories and Streamlines
 For a stationary velocity field, the trajectories and the
streamlines coincide – PROOF:
1. If v(x,t)=v(x):
 Eq. trajectories:
dx ( t )
= v=
dt
( x (t ) , t ) x φ ( C1 , C2 , C3 , t )
 Eq. streamlines:
dx ( λ )
= v=
dλ
( x ( λ ) , t *) x φ ( C1 , C2 , C3 , λ , t *)
The differential equations only differ in the denomination of the

integration parameter (t or λ), so the solution to both systems MUST be
the same.
62
 For a stationary velocity field, the trajectories and the
streamlines coincide – PROOF:
2. If v(x,t)=v(x) the envelopes (i.e., the streamline) of the field do not
vary throughout time.
A particle’s trajectory is always tangent to the velocity field it

encounters at every time instant.
If a trajectory starts at a certain point in a streamline and the

streamline does not vary with time and neither does the velocity
field, the trajectory and streamline MUST coincide.
63
 The inverse is not necessarily true: if the trajectories and the
streamlines coincide, the velocity field is not necessarily
stationary – COUNTER-EXAMPLE:  at 
 Given the (non-stationary) velocity field:  v ( t )  =  0 
 0 
 The eq. trajectory are:

 a t 2 + C1 
 at   at   2 
 dx ( t )     0  dt
=  =0  dx ( t )  x(t) =  0 
   
 dt  0  0  0
   
 The eq. streamlines are:

 at   at   at λ + C1′ 
 dx ( λ )     0  dλ
=  =0  dx ( λ )    x ( t ) =  0 
 dλ   0   0   0 
 
64
Example
Consider the following velocity field:
xi
=vi i ∈ {1, 2,3}
1+ t
Obtain the equation of the trajectories and the streamlines associated to this
vector field.
Do they coincide? Why?
65
Example - Solution
 dx ( t )
 = v (x (t ) , t )
dt
Eq. trajectories: 
 dxi ( t ) v x ( t ) , t i ∈ 
= i ( )
 dt
Introducing the velocity field and rearranging:
dxi xi dxi dt
= i ∈  = i ∈ 
dt 1 + t xi 1 + t
Integrating both sides of the expression:

1 1
∫ xi i ∫ 1 + t dt
dx = ln xi= ln (1 + t ) + ln Ci= ln Ci (1 + t ) i ∈
The solution:
xi = Ci (1 + t ) i ∈
66
Example - Solution
 dx ( λ )
 = v ( x ( λ ) , t *)
dλ
Eq. streamlines:  dx t
 i ( ) v x ( λ ) , t * i ∈ 
= i ( )
 d λ
Introducing the velocity field and rearranging:
dxi xi dxi d λ
= i ∈  = i ∈ 
dλ 1+ t xi 1 + t
Integrating both sides of the expression:
  λ


+ Ki 
 λ 
 
=  1+ t Ki  1+ t 
 xi e= e e

1 1 λ
∫ xi i ∫ 1 + t d λ
dx = ln=
xi
1+ t
+ Ki
 i ∈  = Ci
The solution:  λ 
 
1+ t
=xi Ci e  
i ∈
67
Streamtube
A streamtube is a surface composed of streamlines
which pass through the points of a closed contour fixed
in space.
 In stationary cases, the tube will remain fixed in space

throughout time. In non-stationary cases, it will vary
(although the closed contour line is fixed).
69
1.9 Control and Material Surfaces
81
Control Surface
 A control surface is a fixed surface in space which does not
vary in time.
=Σ: { x=
f ( x, y, z ) 0}
 Mass (particles) can flow across a control surface.
82
Material Surface
 A material surface is a mobile surface in the
space constituted always by the same particles.
 In the reference configuration, the surface Σ0 will be defined in terms
of the material coordinates:
=Σ0 : { X=
F ( X , Y , Z ) 0}
The set of particles (material points)
belonging the surface are the same at all times
 In spatial description F ( X ,=
Y , Z ) F ( X (x, t ), Y (x, t ), Z (=
x, t ) ) f=
(x, t ) f ( x, y, z , t )
=Σt : { x=
f ( x, y , z , t ) 0 }
 The set of spatial points belonging to the the surface depends on time
 The material surface moves in space
84
Material Surface
 Necessary and sufficient condition for a mobile surface in space,
implicitly defined by the function f ( x, y, z, t ) , to be a material
surface is that the material derivative of the function is zero:
 Necessary: if it is a material surface, its material description does not depend
on time:
d ∂F ( X)
f ( x, t ) → f ( x( X, t ), t ) =
F ( X, t ) 0 =f ( x, t ) = = 0
dt ∂t
 Sufficient: if the material derivative of f(x,t) is null:
d ∂F ( X, t )
f ( x, t ) → f ( x( X, t ), t ) =F ( X, t ) 0 = f ( x, t ) = F ( X, t ) ≡ F ( X)
dt ∂t
The surface Σt := { x f ( x, t ) = 0 } = { X F ( X ) = 0 }
contains always the same set the of particles (it is a material surface)
85
Control Volume
 A control volume is a group of fixed points in space
situated in the interior of a closed control surface, which
does not vary in time.
V := { x | f (x ) ≤ 0}
REMARK
The function f(x) is defined
so that f(x)<0 corresponds
to the points inside V.
 Particles can enter and exit a control volume.
87
Material Volume
 A material volume is a (mobile) volume enclosed inside a
material boundary or surface.
 In the reference configuration, the volume V0 will be defined in terms
of the material coordinates:
=V0 : { X | F ( X ) ≤ 0 }
 The particles X in the volume are

the same at all times
 In spatial description, the volume Vt will depend on time.

=Vt : {x | f ( x, t ) ≤ 0}
 The set of spatial points belonging to the the volume depends on time
 The material volume moves in space along time
89
Material Volume
 A material volume is always constituted by the same
particles. This is proved by reductio ad absurdum:
 If a particle is added into the volume, it would have to cross its

material boundary.
 Material boundaries are constituted always by the same particles, so,

no particles can cross.
 Thus, a material volume is always constituted by the same particles

(a material volume is a pack of particles).
90
Chapter 1
Description of Motion
rs
ee
s gin
1.1 Definition of the Continuous Medium
t d le En
r
A continuous medium is understood as an infinite set of particles (which form
ba
ge ro or
eS m
part of, for example, solids or fluids) that will be studied macroscopically, that
ci
f
is, without considering the possible discontinuities existing at microscopic level
ra
C d P cs
(atomic or molecular level). Accordingly, one admits that there are no discon-
b
a
i
tinuities between the particles and that the mathematical description of this
an an n
medium and its properties can be described by continuous functions.

y ha
le
liv or ec
1.2 Equations of Motion

M
.A
The most basic description of the motion of a continuous medium can be

m
achieved by means of mathematical functions that describe the position of each

d
uu
particle along time. In general, these functions and their derivatives are required
e
X Th
to be continuous.
er
tin
on
.O
Definition 1.1. Consider the following definitions:

C
• Spatial point: Fixed point in space.

©
• Material point: A particle. It may occupy different spatial points

during its motion along time.
• Configuration: Locus of the positions occupied in space by the
particles of the continuous medium at a given time t.
The continuous medium is assumed to be composed of an infinite number of

particles (material points) that occupy different positions in the physical space
during its motion along time (see Figure 1.1). The configuration of the contin-
1
2 C HAPTER 1. D ESCRIPTION OF M OTION
Ω0 – reference configuration
t0 – reference time
Ωt – present configuration
t – present time
rs
ee
Figure 1.1: Configurations of the continuous medium.
s gin
uous medium at time t, denoted by Ωt , is defined as the locus of the positions
t d le En
occupied in space by the material points (particles) of the continuous medium at
r
the given time.
ba
ge ro or
eS m
A certain time t = t0 of the time interval of interest is referred to as the ref-
ci
f
erence time and the configuration at this time, denoted by Ω0 , is referred to as
ra
C d P cs
initial, material or reference configuration1 .
b
a
i
Consider now the Cartesian coordinate system (X,Y, Z) in Figure 1.1 and the
an an n
corresponding orthonormal basis {ê1 , ê2 , ê3 }. In the reference configuration Ω0 ,

y ha
le
the position vector X of a particle occupying a point P in space (at the reference
liv or ec
time) is given by2,3

M
.A
X = X1 ê1 + X2 ê2 + X3 ê3 = Xi êi , (1.1)

m
where the components (X1 , X2 , X3 ) are referred to as material coordinates (of the
d
uu
particle) and can be collected in a vector of components denoted as4

e
X Th
er
⎡ ⎤
tin
X1
⎢ ⎥ de f
on
.O
not
X ≡ [X] = ⎣ X2 ⎦ = material coordinates. (1.2)
C
X3
©
1 In general, the time t0 = 0 will be taken as the reference time.

2 Notations (X,Y, Z) and (X1 , X2 , X3 ) will be used indistinctly to designate the Cartesian
coordinate system.
3 Einstein or repeated index notation will be used in the remainder of this text. Every repe-
tition of an index in the same monomial of an algebraic expression represents the sum over
that index. For example,
i=3 k=3 i=3 j=3
∑ Xi êi = Xi êi ∑ aik bk j = aik bk j ∑ ∑ ai j bi j = ai j bi j .
not not not
, and
i=1 k=1 i=1 j=1
4 Here, the vector (physical
not
entity) X is distinguished from its vector of components [X].
Henceforth, the symbol ≡ (equivalent notation) will be used to indicate that the tensor and
component notations at either side of the symbol are equivalent when the system of coordi-
nates used remains unchanged.
X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Equations of Motion 3
In the present configuration Ωt 5 , a particle originally located at a material

point P (see Figure 1.1) occupies a spatial point P and its position vector x is
given by
x = x1 ê1 + x2 ê2 + x3 ê3 = xi êi , (1.3)
where (x1 , x2 , x3 ) are referred to as spatial coordinates of the particle at time t,
⎡ ⎤
x1
not ⎢ ⎥ de f
x ≡ [x] = ⎣ x2 ⎦ = spatial coordinates. (1.4)
x3
rs
The motion of the particles of the continuous medium can now be described
ee
by the evolution of their spatial coordinates (or their position vector) along time.
s gin
Mathematically, this requires the definition of a function that provides for each
particle (identified by its label) its spatial coordinates xi (or its spatial position
t d le En
vector x) at successive instants of time. The material coordinates Xi of the par-
r
ticle can be chosen as the label that univocally characterizes it and, thus, the
ba
ge ro or
eS m
equation of motion
ci

f
ra
not
x = ϕ (particle,t) = ϕ (X,t) = x (X,t)
C d P cs
b
a
(1.5)
i
xi = ϕi (X1 , X2 , X3 ,t) i ∈ {1, 2, 3}
an an n
y ha
is obtained, which provides the spatial coordinates in terms of the material ones.
le
liv or ec
The spatial coordinates xi of the particle can also be chosen as label, defining
the inverse equation of motion6 as
M
.A
not
X = ϕ −1 (x,t) = X (x,t) ,
m
(1.6)
d
Xi = ϕi−1 (x1 , x2 , x3 ,t) i ∈ {1, 2, 3} ,

uu
e
X Th
er
tin
which provides the material coordinates in terms of the spatial ones.

on
.O
Remark 1.1. There are different alternatives when choosing the la-
C
bel that characterizes a particle, even though the option of using its
material coordinates is the most common one. When the equation of
motion is written in terms of the material coordinates as label (as in
(1.5)), one refers to it as the equation of motion in canonical form.
5 Whenever possible, uppercase letters will be used to denote variables relating to the refer-
ence configuration Ω0 and lowercase letters to denote the variables referring to the current
configuration Ωt .
6 With certain abuse of notation, the function will be frequently confused with its image.
Hence, the equation of motion will be often written as x = x (X,t) and its inverse equation as
X = X (x,t).
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
There exist certain mathematical restrictions to guarantee the existence of ϕ

and ϕ −1 , as well as their correct physical meaning. These restrictions are:
• ϕ (X, 0) = X since, by definition, X is the position vector at the reference
time t = 0 (consistency condition).
• ϕ ∈ C1 (function ϕ is continuous with continuous derivatives at each point
and at each instant of time).
• ϕ is biunivocal (to guarantee that two particles do not occupy simultaneously
the same point in space and that a particle does not occupy simultaneously
more than one point in space).

∂ ϕ (X,t) not ∂ ϕ (X,t)
rs
• The Jacobian of the transformation J = det = > 0.
∂X ∂X
ee
s gin
The physical interpretation of this condition (which will be studied later) is
that every differential volume must always be positive or, using the principle of
t d le En
mass conservation (which will be seen later), the density of the particles must
always be positive.
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
Remark 1.2. The equation of motion at the reference time t = 0 re-
C d P cs
b
a
sults in x (X,t)|t=0 = X. Accordingly, x = X, y = Y , z = Z is the
i
an an n
equation of motion at the reference time and the Jacobian at this in-
y ha
stant of time is7
∂ (xyz)
le
∂ xi
liv or ec

J (X, 0) = = det = det [δi j ] = det 1 = 1.
∂ (XY Z) ∂ Xj
M
.A
m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
Figure 1.2: Trajectory or pathline of a particle.
not
7The two-index operator Delta Kronecker = δi j is defined as δi j = 0 when i = j and δi j = 1
when i = j. Then, the unit tensor 1 is defined as [1]i j = δi j .
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Equations of Motion 5
Remark 1.3. The expression x = ϕ (X,t), particularized for a fixed

value of the material coordinates X, provides the equation of the
trajectory or pathline of a particle (see Figure 1.2).
Example 1.1 – The spatial description of the motion of a continuous medium

is given by
rs
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ee
x1 = X1 e2t x = Xe2t
not ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
s gin
x (X,t) ≡ ⎣ x2 = X2 e−2t ⎦ = ⎣ y = Y e−2t ⎦
x3 = 5X1t + X3 e2t z = 5Xt + Ze2t
t d le En
r
ba
Obtain the inverse equation of motion.
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
Solution
C d P cs
b
a
i
The determinant of the Jacobian is computed as
an an n

y ha

∂ x1 ∂ x1 ∂ x1
le
liv or ec

∂ X1 ∂ X2 ∂ X3 e2t 0 0
M
.A
∂ xi ∂ x
∂ x2 ∂ x2 = 0 e−2t 0 = e2t = 0.
J = =

2

m
∂ Xj ∂ X1 ∂ X2 ∂ X3
d
5t 0 e 2t
uu
∂ x3 ∂ x3 ∂ x3
e

X Th
∂X ∂ X2 ∂ X3
er
tin
1
on
.O
The sufficient (but not necessary) condition for the function x = ϕ (X,t) to
be biunivocal (that is, for its inverse to exist) is that the determinant of the
C
Jacobian of the function is not null. In addition, since the Jacobian is positive,
©
the motion has physical sense. Therefore, the inverse of the given spatial
description exists and is determined by
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
X1 x1 e−2t
not ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
X = ϕ −1 (x,t) ≡ ⎢ X
⎣ ⎦ ⎣
2
⎥=⎢ x 2 e 2t ⎥.
⎦
X3 x3 e−2t − 5tx1 e−4t
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
1.3 Descriptions of Motion

The mathematical description of the properties of the particles of the continu-
ous medium can be addressed in two alternative ways: the material description
(typically used in solid mechanics) and the spatial description (typically used
in fluid mechanics). Both descriptions essentially differ in the type of argument
(material coordinates or spatial coordinates) that appears in the mathematical
functions that describe the properties of the continuous medium.
1.3.1 Material Description
rs
In the material description8 , a given property (for example, the density ρ) is
described by a certain function ρ (•,t) : R3 × R+ → R+ , where the argument (•)
ee
in ρ (•,t) represents the material coordinates,
s gin
ρ = ρ (X,t) = ρ (X1 , X2 , X3 ,t) . (1.7)
t d le En
Here, if the three arguments X ≡ (X1 , X2 , X3 ) are fixed, a specific particle is being
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
followed (see Figure 1.3) and, hence, the name of material description.
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
1.3.2 Spatial Description
b
a
i
an an n
In the spatial description9 , the focus is on a point in space. The property is de-
y ha
scribed as a function ρ (•,t) : R3 × R+ → R+ of the point in space and of time,

le
liv or ec
ρ = ρ (x,t) = ρ (x1 , x2 , x3 ,t) . (1.8)

M
.A
Then, when the argument x in ρ = ρ (x,t) is assigned a certain value, the evolu-
m
tion of the density for the different particles that occupy the point in space along
d
uu
time is obtained (see Figure 1.3). Conversely, fixing the time argument in (1.8)
e
X Th
results in an instantaneous distribution (like a snapshot) of the property in space.

er
tin
Obviously, the direct and inverse equations of motion allow shifting from one
on
.O
C
Figure 1.3: Material description (left) and spatial description (right) of a property.
8 Literature on this topic also refers to the material description as Lagrangian description.
9 The spatial description is also referred to as Eulerian description.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Descriptions of Motion 7
description to the other as follows.

ρ (x,t) = ρ (x (X,t) ,t) = ρ (X,t)
(1.9)
ρ (X,t) = ρ (X (x,t) ,t) = ρ (x,t)
Example 1.2 – The equation of motion of a continuous medium is

x = X −Y t
not
x = x (X,t) ≡ y = Xt +Y .
rs
z = −Xt + Z
ee
Obtain the spatial description of the property whose material description is
s gin
X +Y + Z
t d le En
ρ (X,Y, Z,t) = .
1 + t2
r
ba
ge ro or
Solution
eS m
ci
f
ra
The equation of motion is given in the canonical form since in the reference
C d P cs
configuration Ω0 its expression results in
b
a
i
an an n

x=X
y ha
not
x = X (X, 0) ≡ y = Y .
le
liv or ec
z=Z
M
.A
The determinant of the Jacobian is

m
∂x ∂x ∂x
uu

1 −t 0
X Th
∂ X ∂Y ∂Z
er

tin
∂ xi ∂ y ∂ y
∂y
J = = = t 1 0 = 1 + t 2 = 0
∂ X j ∂ X ∂Y
on

.O
∂Z −t 0 1
∂z
C
∂z ∂z

©
∂ X ∂Y ∂Z
and the inverse equation of motion is given by
⎡ ⎤
x + yt
⎢X = ⎥
⎢ 1 + t2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
not ⎢ y − xt ⎥
X (x,t) ≡ ⎢ Y = ⎥.
⎢ 1 + t 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ z + zt 2 + xt + yt 2 ⎦
Z=
1 + t2
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Consider now the material description of the property,

X +Y + Z
ρ (X,Y, Z,t) = ,
1 + t2
its spatial description is obtained by introducing the inverse equation of mo-
tion into the expression above,
x + yt + y + z + zt 2 + yt 2
ρ (X,Y, Z,t) ≡ = ρ (x, y, z,t) .
(1 + t 2 )2
rs
ee
s gin
1.4 Time Derivatives: Local, Material and Convective
t d le En
The consideration of different descriptions (material and spatial) of the proper-
r
ties of the continuous medium leads to diverse definitions of the time derivatives
ba
ge ro or
eS m
of these properties. Consider a certain property and its material and spatial de-
ci
scriptions,
f
ra
Γ (X,t) = γ (x,t) ,
C d P cs
(1.10)
b
a
i
an an n
in which the change from the spatial to the material description and vice versa
y ha
is performed by means of the equation of motion (1.5) and its inverse equa-
le
tion (1.6).
liv or ec
M
.A
Definition 1.2. The local derivative of a property is its variation

m
along time at a fixed point in space. If the spatial description γ (x,t)

d
uu
e
of the property is available, the local derivative is mathematically

X Th
er
written as10
tin
not ∂ γ (x,t)
local derivative = .
on
∂t
.O
The material derivative of a property is its variation along time fol-

C
lowing a specific particle (material point) of the continuous medium.

©
If the material description Γ (X,t) of the property is available, the

material derivative is mathematically written as
not d ∂Γ (X,t)
material derivative = Γ= .
dt ∂t
10 The expression ∂ (•,t)/∂t is understood in the classical sense of partial derivative with
respect to the variable t.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Time Derivatives: Local, Material and Convective 9
However, taking the spatial description of the property γ (x,t) and considering
the equation of motion is implicit in this expression yields
γ (x,t) = γ (x (X,t) ,t) = Γ (X,t) . (1.11)

Then, the material derivative (following a particle) is obtained from the spatial
description of the property as
not d ∂Γ (X,t)
material derivative = γ (x (X,t) ,t) = . (1.12)
dt ∂t
rs
Expanding (1.12) results in11
ee
dγ (x (X,t) ,t) ∂ γ (x,t) ∂ γ ∂ xi ∂ γ (x,t) ∂ γ ∂ x
s gin
= + = + · =
dt ∂t ∂ xi ∂t ∂t ∂ x
∂t
(1.13)
t d le En
∂ γ (x,t) ∂ γ v (x,t)
= + · v (x,t) ,
r
∂t ∂x
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
where the definition of velocity as the derivative of the equation of motion (1.5)
ra
C d P cs
with respect to time has been taken into account,
b
a
i
an an n
∂ x (X,t)
y ha
= V (X (x,t) ,t) = v (x,t) . (1.14)

∂t
le
liv or ec
The deduction of the material derivative from the spatial description can be
M
.A
generalized for any property χ (x,t) (of scalar, vectorial or tensorial character)
as12
m
dχ (x,t) ∂ χ (x,t)
d
uu
= + v (x,t) · ∇χ (x,t) . (1.15)

e
dt ∂t
X Th

er
tin
material local convective

derivative derivative derivative
on
.O
C
Remark 1.4. The expression in (1.15) implicitly defines the convec-

tive derivative v · ∇ (•) as the difference between the material and
spatial derivatives of the property. In continuum mechanics, the term
convection is applied to phenomena that are related to mass (or par-
ticle) transport. Note that, if there is no convection (v = 0), the con-
vective derivative disappears and the local and material derivatives
coincide.
11 In literature, the notation D(•)/Dt is often used as an alternative to d(•)/dt.

12 The symbolic form of the spatial Nabla operator, ∇ ≡ ∂ êi /∂ xi , is considered here.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Example 1.3 – Given the equation of motion

x = X +Y t + Zt
not
x (X,t) ≡ y = Y + 2Zt ,
z = Z + 3Xt
and the spatial description of a property, ρ (x,t) = 3x + 2y + 3t, obtain the

material derivative of this property.
Solution
rs
The material description of the property is obtained introducing the equation
ee
of motion into its spatial description,
s gin
ρ (X,Y, Z,t) = 3 (X +Y t + Zt)+2 (Y + 2Zt)+3t = 3X +3Y t +7Zt +2Y +3t .
t d le En
The material derivative is then calculated as the derivative of the material
r
description with respect to time,
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
∂ρ
f
ra
= 3Y + 7Z + 3 .
C d P cs
∂t
b
a
i
an an n
An alternative way of deducing the material derivative is by using the concept

y ha
of material derivative of the spatial description of the property,

le
liv or ec
dρ ∂ρ
M
= + v · ∇ρ
.A
with
dt ∂t
m
∂ρ ∂x
d
=3, v= = [Y + Z, 2Z, 3X]T and ∇ρ = [3, 2, 0]T .

uu
e
∂t ∂t
X Th
er
tin
Replacing in the expression of the material derivative operator,

on
.O
dρ
= 3 + 3Y + 7Z
C
dt
©
is obtained. Note that the expressions for the material derivative obtained
from the material description, ∂ ρ/∂t, and the spatial description, dρ/dt, co-
incide.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Velocity and Acceleration 11
1.5 Velocity and Acceleration
Definition 1.3. The velocity is the time derivative of the equation of

motion.
The material description of velocity is, consequently, given by

⎧
rs
⎪
⎪ ∂ x (X,t)
⎨ V (X,t) =
ee
∂t (1.16)
⎪
s gin
⎪ ∂
⎩ Vi (X,t) = i (X,t) i ∈ {1, 2, 3}
x
∂t
t d le En
and, if the inverse equation of motion X = ϕ −1 (x,t) is known, the spatial de-
r
ba
ge ro or
scription of the velocity can be obtained as
eS m
ci
f
ra
v (x,t) = V (X (x,t) ,t) . (1.17)
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
Definition 1.4. The acceleration is the time derivative of the velocity

le
liv or ec
field.
M
.A
m
If the velocity is described in material form, the material description of the

uu
e
acceleration is given by
X Th
er
⎧
tin
⎪
⎪ ∂ V (X,t)
⎨ A (X,t) =
on
.O
∂t (1.18)
⎪ ∂V
⎩ Ai (X,t) = i (X,t) i ∈ {1, 2, 3}
C
⎪
©
∂t
and, through the inverse equation of motion X = ϕ −1 (x,t), the spatial descrip-
tion is obtained, a (x,t) = A (X (x,t) ,t). Alternatively, if the spatial description
of the velocity is available, applying (1.15) to obtain the material derivative of
v (x,t),
dv (x,t) ∂ v (x,t)
a (x,t) = = + v (x,t) · ∇v (x,t) , (1.19)
dt ∂t
directly yields the spatial description of the acceleration.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Example 1.4 – Consider the solid in the figure below, which rotates at a
constant angular velocity ω and has the expression

x = R sin (ωt + φ )
y = R cos (ωt + φ )
as its equation of motion. Find the velocity and acceleration of the motion
described both in material and spatial forms.
rs
ee
s gin
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
Solution
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
The equation of motion can be rewritten as
i
an an n

y ha
x = R sin (ωt + φ ) = R sin (ωt) cos φ + R cos (ωt) sin φ

le
y = R cos (ωt + φ ) = R cos (ωt) cos φ − R sin (ωt) sin φ
liv or ec
M
.A
and, since for t = 0, X = R sin φ and Y = R cos φ , the canonical form of the
m
equation of motion and its inverse equation result in

d

uu
e
x = X cos (ωt) +Y sin (ωt) X = x cos (ωt) − y sin (ωt)

X Th
er
.
tin
and
y = −X sin (ωt) +Y cos (ωt) Y = x sin (ωt) + y cos (ωt)
on
.O
Velocity in material description:

C
⎡ ⎤
©
∂x
∂ x (X,t) not ⎢ = −Xω sin (ωt) +Y ω cos (ωt) ⎥
V (X,t) = )≡⎢ ∂t ⎥
∂t ⎣ ⎦
∂y
= −Xω cos (ωt) −Y ω sin (ωt)
∂t
Velocity in spatial description:

Replacing the canonical form of the equation of motion into the material
description of the velocity results in

not ωy
v (x,t) = V (X (x,t) ,t) ≡ .
−ωx
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Velocity and Acceleration 13
Acceleration in material description:

∂ V (X,t)
A (X,t) =
∂t
⎡ ⎤
∂ vx
⎢ = −Xω 2 cos (ωt) −Y ω 2 sin (ωt) ⎥
not ⎢ ∂t ⎥
A (X,t) ≡ ⎢ ⎥=
⎣ ∂v ⎦
y
= Xω 2 sin (ωt) −Y ω 2 cos (ωt)
∂t

rs
X cos (ωt) +Y sin (ωt)
ee
= −ω 2
−X sin (ωt) +Y cos (ωt)
s gin
Acceleration in spatial description:
t d le En
Replacing the canonical form of the equation of motion into the material
r
description of the acceleration results in
ba
ge ro or
eS m

ci
f −ω 2 x
ra
not
a (x,t) = A (X (x,t) ,t) ≡ .
C d P cs
b
a
−ω 2 y
i
an an n
y ha
This same expression can be obtained if the expression for the velocity v (x,t)
le
liv or ec
and the definition of material derivative in (1.15) are taken into account,
M
.A
dv (x,t) ∂ v (x,t)
a (x,t) = = + v (x,t) · ∇v (x,t) =
∂t
m
dt ⎡ ⎤
d
uu

∂
e
∂ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ∂x ⎥
X Th
ωy
er
not
tin
≡ + ωy , −ωx ⎢ ⎥ ωy , −ωx ,
∂t −ωx ⎣ ∂ ⎦
on
.O
∂y
⎡ ⎤
C
∂ ∂
⎢ (ωy) (−ωx) ⎥ −ω 2x
0 ⎢ ⎥
+ ωy , −ωx ⎢ ∂ x ∂x
not
a (x,t) ≡ ⎥= .
0 ⎣ ∂ ∂ ⎦ −ω 2 y
(ωy) (−ωx)
∂y ∂y
Note that the result obtained using both procedures is identical.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
1.6 Stationarity
Definition 1.5. A property is stationary when its spatial description

does not depend on time.
According to the above definition, and considering the concept of local deriva-
tive, any stationary property has a null local derivative. For example, if the ve-
rs
locity for a certain motion is stationary, it can be described in spatial form as
ee
∂ v (x,t)
s gin
v (x,t) = v (x) ⇐⇒ =0. (1.20)
∂t
t d le En
r
ba
Remark 1.5. The non-dependence on time of the spatial description
ge ro or
eS m
ci
(stationarity) assumes that, for a same point in space, the property
f
ra
being considered does not vary along time. This does not imply that,
C d P cs
b
a
for a same particle, such property does not vary along time (the ma-
i
an an n
terial description may depend on time). For example, if the velocity

y ha
v (x,t) is stationary,
le
v (x,t) ≡ v (x) = v (x (X,t)) = V (X,t) ,
liv or ec
M
.A
and, thus, the material description of the velocity depends on time.

In the case of stationary density (see Figure 1.4), for two particles
m
labeled X1 and X2 that have varying densities along time, when oc-
uu
e
cupying a same spatial point x (at two different times t1 and t2 ) their
X Th
er
tin
density value will coincide,

ρ (X1 ,t1 ) = ρ (X2 ,t2 ) = ρ (x) .
on
.O
C
That is, for an observer placed outside the medium, the density of
©
the fixed point in space x will always be the same.
Figure 1.4: Motion of two particles with stationary density.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Trajectory 15
Example 1.5 – Justify if the motion described in Example 1.4 is stationary

or not.
Solution
The velocity field in Example 1.4 is v (x) ≡ [ωy , −ωx]T . Therefore, it is a
not
case in which the spatial description of the velocity is not dependent on time
and, thus, the velocity is stationary. Obviously, this implies that the velocity
of the particles (whose motion is a uniform rotation with respect to the origin,
with angular velocity ω) does not depend on time (see figure below). The
rs
direction of the velocity vector for a same particle is tangent to its circular
trajectory and changes along time.
ee
s gin
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
The acceleration (material derivative of the velocity),

le
liv or ec
dv (x) ∂ v (x)
a (x) = = + v (x) · ∇v (x) = v (x) · ∇v (x) ,
M
.A
dt ∂t
m
appears due to the change in direction of the velocity vector of the particles
d
uu
and is known as the centripetal acceleration.

e
X Th
er
tin
1.7 Trajectory
on
.O
C
Definition 1.6. A trajectory (or pathline) is the locus of the positions

occupied in space by a given particle along time.
The parametric equation of a trajectory as a function of time is obtained by par-

ticularizing the equation of motion for a given particle (identified by its material
coordinates X∗ , see Figure 1.5),

x (t) = ϕ (X,t) ∗
. (1.21)
X=X
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Figure 1.5: Trajectory or pathline of a particle.
Given the equation of motion x = ϕ (X,t), each point in space is occupied
rs
by a trajectory characterized by the value of the label (material coordinates) X.
Then, the equation of motion defines a family of curves whose elements are the
ee
trajectories of the various particles.
s gin
1.7.1 Differential Equation of the Trajectories
t d le En
Given the velocity field in spatial description v (x,t), the family of trajectories
r
ba
ge ro or
can be obtained by formulating the system of differential equations that imposes
eS m
ci
that, for each point in space x, the velocity vector is the time derivative of the
f
ra
parametric equation of the trajectory defined in (1.21), i.e.,
C d P cs
b
a
⎧
i
⎪ dx (t)
an an n
⎪
⎨ = v (x (t) , t) ,
y ha
Find x (t) := dt (1.22)

⎪
le
⎩ dxi (t) = vi (x (t) , t) i ∈ {1, 2, 3} .
⎪
liv or ec
dt
M
.A
The solution to this first-order system of differential equations depends on three

m
integration constants (C1 ,C2 ,C3 ),

uu

e
x = φ (C1 ,C2 ,C3 , t) ,

X Th
er
tin
(1.23)
x = φi (C1 ,C2 ,C3 , t) i ∈ {1, 2, 3} .
on
.O
These expressions constitute a family of curves in space parametrized by the

C
constants (C1 ,C2 ,C3 ). Assigning a particular value to these constants yields a
©
member of the family, which is the trajectory of a particle characterized by the

label (C1 ,C2 ,C3 ).
To obtain the equation in canonical form, the consistency condition is im-
posed in the reference configuration,

x (t) = X =⇒ X = φ (C1 ,C2 ,C3 , 0) =⇒ Ci = χi (X) i ∈ {1, 2, 3} , (1.24)
t=0
and, replacing into (1.23), the canonical form of the equation of the trajectory,
X = φ (C1 (X) ,C2 (X) ,C3 (X) , t) = ϕ (X,t) , (1.25)
is obtained.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Trajectory 17
Example 1.6 – Given the velocity field in Example 1.5, v (x) ≡ [ωy , −ωx]T ,
not
obtain the equation of the trajectory.
Solution
Using expression (1.22), one can write
⎧
⎪
⎪ dx (t)
dx (t) ⎨ = vx (x,t) = ωy ,
= v (x,t) =⇒ dt
⎪
⎩ dy (t) = vy (x,t) = −ωx .
dt ⎪
rs
dt
ee
s gin
This system of equations is a system with crossed variables. Differentiating
the second equation and replacing the result obtained into the first equation
t d le En
yields
d 2 y (t) dx (t)
= −ω = −ω 2 y (t) =⇒ y + ω 2 y = 0 .
r
ba
ge ro or
dt 2 dt
eS m
ci
f
The characteristic equation of this second-order differential equation is
ra
C d P cs
r2 + ω 2 = 0 and its characteristic solutions are r j = ±iω j ∈ {1, 2}.
b
a
i
Therefore, the y component of the equation of the trajectory is
an an n
y ha

y (t) = Real Part C1 eiwt +C2 e−iwt = C1 cos (ωt) +C2 sin (ωt) .
le
liv or ec
The solution for x (t) is obtained from dy/dt = −ωx , which results in
M
.A
x = −dy/(ω dt) and, therefore,

m
x (C1 ,C2 ,t) = C1 sin (ωt) −C2 cos (ωt) ,

uu
e
y (C1 ,C2 ,t) = C1 cos (ωt) +C2 sin (ωt) .

X Th
er
tin
This equation provides the expressions of the trajectories in a non-canonical

on
.O
form. The canonical form is obtained considering the initial condition,

C
x (C1 ,C2 , 0) = X ,
©
that is,
x (C1 ,C2 , 0) = −C2 = X ,
y (C1 ,C2 , 0) = C1 = Y .
Finally, the equation of motion, or the equation of the trajectory, in canonical
form
x = Y sin (ωt) + X cos (ωt)
y = Y cos (ωt) − X sin (ωt)
is obtained.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
1.8 Streamline
Definition 1.7. The streamlines are a family of curves that, for every
instant of time, are the velocity field envelopes13 .
rs
According to its definition, the tangent at each point of a streamline has the same
ee
direction (though not necessarily the same magnitude) as the velocity vector at
s gin
that same point in space.
t d le En
r
Remark 1.6. In general, the velocity field (in spatial description) will
ba
ge ro or
eS m
be different for each instant of time (v ≡ v (x,t)). Therefore, one
ci
f
must speak of a different family of streamlines for each instant of
ra
C d P cs
time (see Figure 1.6).
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
1.8.1 Differential Equation of the Streamlines

M
.A
Consider a given time t ∗ and the spatial description of the velocity field at this
m
time v (x,t ∗ ). Let x (λ ) be the equation of a streamline parametrized in terms of

d
uu
a certain parameter λ . Then, the vector tangent to the streamline is defined, for
e
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
Figure 1.6: Streamlines at two different instants of time.
13The envelopes of a vector field are the family of curves whose tangent vector has, at each
point, the same direction as the corresponding vector of the vector field.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Streamline 19
each value of λ 14 , by dx (λ )/dλ and the vector field tangency condition can be
written as follows.
⎧
⎪
⎪ dx (λ )
⎨ = v (x (λ ) , t ∗ ) ,
Find x (λ ) := dλ (1.26)
⎪
⎩ dxi (λ ) = vi (x (λ ) , t ∗ ) i ∈ {1, 2, 3} .
⎪
dλ
The expressions in (1.26) constitute a system of first-order differential equa-
tions whose solution for each time t ∗ , which will depend on three integration
rs
constants (C1 ,C2 ,C3 ), provides the parametric expression of the streamlines,
ee

x = φ (C1 ,C2 ,C3 , λ , t ∗ ) ,
s gin
(1.27)
xi = φi (C1 ,C2 ,C3 , λ , t ∗ ) i ∈ {1, 2, 3} .
t d le En
Each triplet of integration constants (C1 ,C2 ,C3 ) identifies a streamline whose
r
ba
ge ro or
points, in turn, are obtained by assigning values to the parameter λ . For each
eS m
ci
time t ∗ a new family of streamlines is obtained.
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
Remark 1.7. In a stationary velocity field (v (x,t) ≡ v (x)) the trajec-

y ha
tories and streamlines coincide. This can be proven from two differ-
le
liv or ec
ent viewpoints:
M
.A
• The fact that the time variable does not appear in (1.22) or (1.26)
m
means that the differential equations defining the trajectories and

d
those defining the streamlines only differ in the denomination of

uu
e
the integration parameter (t or λ , respectively). The solution to

X Th
er
tin
both systems must be, therefore, the same, except for the name
of the parameter used in each type of curves.
on
.O
• From a more physical point of view: a) If the velocity field is

C
stationary, its envelopes (the streamlines) do not change along

©
time; b) a given particle moves in space keeping the trajectory

in the direction tangent to the velocity field it encounters along
time; c) consequently, if a trajectory starts at a certain point in a
streamline, it will stay on this streamline throughout time.
14 It is assumed that the value of the parameter λ is chosen such that, at each point in space
x, not only does dx (λ )/dλ have the same direction as the vector v (x,t), but it coincides
therewith.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
1.9 Streamtubes
Definition 1.8. A streamtube is a surface formed by a bundle of

streamlines that occupy the points of a closed line, fixed in space,
and that does not constitute a streamline.
In non-stationary cases, even though the closed line does not vary in space, the
rs
streamtube and streamlines do change. On the contrary, in a stationary case, the
ee
streamtube remains fixed in space along time.
s gin
1.9.1 Equation of the Streamtube
t d le En
Streamlines constitute a family of curves of the type
r
ba
x = f (C1 ,C2 ,C3 , λ , t) .
ge ro or
(1.28)
eS m
ci
f
ra
The problem consists in determining, for each instant of time, which curves
C d P cs
b
a
of the family of curves of the streamlines cross a closed line, which is fixed in the
i
space Γ , whose mathematical expression parametrized in terms of a parameter s
an an n
y ha
is
Γ := x = g (s) .
le
(1.29)
liv or ec
To this aim, one imposes, in terms of the parameters λ ∗ and s∗ , that a same point
M
.A
belong to both curves,

m

d
g (s∗ ) = f (C1 ,C2 ,C3 , λ ∗ , t) ,

uu
e
(1.30)
X Th
gi (s∗ ) = fi (C1 ,C2 ,C3 , λ ∗ , t) i ∈ {1, 2, 3} .

er
tin
on
A system of three equations is obtained from which, for example, s∗ , λ ∗ and C3

.O
can be isolated,
C
s∗ = s∗ (C1 ,C2 , t) ,
©
λ ∗ = λ ∗ (C1 ,C2 , t) , (1.31)

C3 = C3 (C1 ,C2 , t) .
Introducing (1.31) into (1.30) yields
x = f (C1 , C2 , C3 (C1 ,C2 , t) , λ ∗ (C1 ,C2 , t) , t) = h (C1 ,C2 , t) , (1.32)

which constitutes the parametrized expression (in terms of the parameters C1
and C2 ) of the streamtube for each time t (see Figure 1.7).
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Streaklines 21
Figure 1.7: Streamtube at a given time t.
rs
ee
s gin
1.10 Streaklines
t d le En
r
∗
ba
ge ro or
Definition 1.9. A streakline, relative to a fixed point in space x
eS m
named spill point and at a time interval ti ,t f named spill period,
ci
f
ra
is the locus of the positions occupied at time t by all the particles
C d P cs
b
a
that have occupied x∗ over the time τ ∈ [ti ,t] ti ,t f .
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
The above definition corresponds to the physical concept of the color line
M
.A
(streak) that would be observed in the medium at time t if a tracer fluid were
injected at spill point x∗ throughout the time interval ti ,t f (see Figure 1.8).
m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C

Figure 1.8: Streakline corresponding to the spill period τ ∈ ti ,t f .
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
1.10.1 Equation of the Streakline

To determine the equation of a streakline one must identify all the particles that
occupy point x∗ in the corresponding times τ. Given the equation of motion (1.5)
and its inverse equation (1.6), the label of the particle which at time τ occupies
the spill point must be identified. Then,

x∗ = x (X, τ)
=⇒ X = f (τ) (1.33)
xi∗ = xi (X, τ) i ∈ {1, 2, 3}
rs
and replacing (1.33) into the equation of motion (1.5) results in
ee

x = ϕ (f (τ) , t) = g (τ, t) τ ∈ [ti ,t] ti ,t f . (1.34)
s gin
Expression (1.34) is, for each time t, the parametric expression (in terms of
t d le En
parameter τ) of a curvilinear segment in space which is the streakline at that
r
time.
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
Example 1.7 – Given the equation of motion
b
a
⎧
i
an an n
⎨ x = (X +Y )t 2 + X cost ,
y ha
⎩ y = (X +Y ) cost − X ,
le
liv or ec
M
.A
obtain the equation of the streakline associated with the spill point x∗ = (0, 1)
for the spill period [t0 , +∞).
m
d
uu
e
Solution
X Th
er
tin
The material coordinates of a particle that has occupied the spill point at time
on
τ are given by
.O
⎧
⎪ −τ 2
C
⎪
⎨ X = ,
0 = (X +Y ) τ + X cos τ
2
©
=⇒ τ 2 + cos2 τ
1 = (X +Y ) cos τ − X ⎪
⎩ Y = τ + cos τ .
⎪ 2
τ 2 + cos2 τ
Therefore, the label of the particles that have occupied the spill point from
the initial spill time t0 until the present time t is defined by
⎫
−τ 2 ⎪
⎪
X= 2 ⎬
τ + cos τ 2
τ ∈ [t0 ,t] [t0 , ∞) = [t0 ,t] .
τ 2 + cos τ ⎪⎪
⎭
Y= 2
τ + cos2 τ
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Material Surface 23
Then, replacing these into the equation of motion, the equation of the streak-
line is obtained,
⎡ ⎤
cos τ −τ 2
not ⎢
x= 2 t + 2
2 cost ⎥
x = g (τ,t) ≡ ⎢ τ + cos2 τ τ + cos2 τ ⎥ τ ∈ [t0 ,t] .
⎣ ⎦
cos τ −τ 2
y= 2 cost − 2
τ + cos2 τ τ + cos2 τ
rs
Remark 1.8. In a stationary problem, the streaklines are segments of
ee
the trajectories (or of the streamlines). The rationale is based on the
s gin
fact that, in the stationary case, the trajectory follows the envelope of
the velocity field, which remains constant along time. If one consid-
ers a spill point x∗ , all the particles that occupy this point will follow
t d le En
portions (segments) of the same trajectory.
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
1.11 Material Surface
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
Definition 1.10. A material surface is a mobile surface in space al-

M
.A
ways constituted by the same particles (material points).

m
d
uu
e
X Th
In the reference configuration Ω0 , surface Σ0 can be defined in terms of a func-

er
tin
tion of the material coordinates F (X,Y, Z) as

on
.O
Σ0 := {X,Y, Z | F (X,Y, Z) = 0} . (1.35)

C
Remark 1.9. The function F (X,Y, Z) does not depend on time,

which guarantees that the particles, identified by their label, that sat-
isfy equation F (X,Y, Z) = 0 are always the same in accordance with
the definition of material surface.
The spatial description of the surface is obtained from the spatial description
of F (X (x,t)) = f (x, y, z,t) as
Σt := {x, y, z | f (x, y, z,t) = 0} . (1.36)
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Remark 1.10. The function f (x, y, z,t) depends explicitly on time,

which indicates that the points in space that are on the surface will
vary along time. This time dependence of the spatial description of
the surface confers the character of mobile surface in space to the
surface (see Figure 1.9).
rs
ee
Remark 1.11. The necessary and sufficient condition for a mobile
surface in space, defined implicitly by a function f (x, y, z,t) = 0, to
s gin
be material (to be always constituted by the same particles) is that
the material derivative of f (x, y, z,t) is null,
t d le En
r
d f (x,t) ∂ f
ba
ge ro or
= +v·∇f = 0 ∀x ∈ Σt ∀t .
eS m
∂t
ci
dt
f
ra
C d P cs
The condition is necessary because, if the surface is a material sur-
b
a
face, its material description will not depend on time (F ≡ F (X))
i
an an n
and, therefore, its spatial description will have a null material deriva-
y ha
tive. The condition of sufficiency is based on the fact that, if the ma-
le
liv or ec
terial derivative of f (x,t) is zero, the corresponding material de-

scription will not depend on time (F ≡ F (X)) and, therefore, the set
M
.A
of particles (identified by their material coordinates) that satisfy the

m
condition F (X) = 0 is always the same.

d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
Figure 1.9: A material surface at two different instants of time.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Material Surface 25
Example 1.8 – In ocean waves theory, the condition that the free surface
of the fluid in contact with the atmosphere is a material surface is imposed.
This restriction implies that the free surface is always composed of the same
particles, which is a reasonable hypothesis (especially in deep waters). De-
termine how this condition is stated in terms of the velocity field of the fluid.
Solution
Assuming that z = η (x, y,t) defines the elevation of the sea surface with re-
rs
spect to a reference level, the free surface of the water will be given by
ee
f (x, y, z,t) ≡ z − η (x, y,t) = 0 .
s gin
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
M
.A
The condition d f /dt = 0 can be written as

m
∂f ∂f ∂η
uu
df
e
= + v · ∇ f where =− and
X Th
∂t ∂t ∂t
er
dt
tin
∂f ∂f ∂f T ∂f ∂f ∂f
on
.O
not
v · ∇ f ≡ [vx , vy , vz ] , , = vx + vy + vz .
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
C
Then,
df ∂f ∂η ∂η ∂η
= +v·∇f = − − vx − vy + vz = 0
dt ∂t ∂t ∂x ∂y
and, isolating vz leads to
∂η ∂η ∂η
vz = + vx + vy .
∂t ∂x ∂y
Therefore, the material surface condition results in a condition on the vertical
component of the velocity field.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
1.12 Control Surface
Definition 1.11. A control surface is a fixed surface in space.
The mathematical description of a control surface is given by

Σ := {x | f (x, y, z) = 0} . (1.37)
rs
Obviously, a control surface is occupied by the different particles of the contin-
ee
uous medium along time (see Figure 1.10).
s gin
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
Figure 1.10: Movement of particles through a control surface along time.

M
.A
m
1.13 Material Volume

d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
Definition 1.12. A material volume is a volume enclosed by a closed

on
.O
material surface.
C
The mathematical description of a material volume (see Figure 1.11) is given, in

the material description, by15
V0 := {X | F (X) ≤ 0} (1.38)
and, in the spatial description, by

Vt := {x | f (x,t) ≤ 0} , (1.39)
15 It is assumed that function F (X) is defined such that F (X) < 0 corresponds to points in
the interior of V0 .
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Control Volume 27
where F (X) = f (x (X,t) ,t) is the function that describes the material surface
that encloses the volume.
Remark 1.12. A material volume is always constituted by the same

particles. This is proven by reductio ad absurdum as follows. If a
certain particle could enter or exit the material volume, it would be
incorporated into the material surface during its motion (at least, for
an instant of time). This would be contrary to the fact that the sur-
face, being a material surface, is always constituted by the same par-
rs
ticles.
ee
s gin
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
M
.A
Figure 1.11: A material volume at two different instants of time.

m
d
uu
e
1.14 Control Volume

X Th
er
tin
on
.O
Definition 1.13. A control volume is a group of points in space situ-

C
ated in the interior of a closed control surface.

©
It is a volume fixed in space that is occupied by the particles of the medium

during its motion. The mathematical description of the control volume (see Fig-
ure 1.12) is16
V := {x | f (x) ≤ 0} . (1.40)
16 It is assumed that function f (x) is defined such that f (x) < 0 corresponds to points in the
interior of V .
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
rs
Figure 1.12: A control volume is occupied by different particles along time.
ee
s gin
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
M
.A
m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Problems and Exercises 29
P ROBLEMS
Problem 1.1 – Justify whether the following statements are true or false.
a) If the velocity field is stationary, the acceleration field is also stationary.
b) If the velocity field is uniform, the acceleration field is always null.
rs
ee
Solution
s gin
a) A stationary velocity field implies that the spatial description of velocity does
t d le En
not depend on time,
∂ v (x,t)
= 0 =⇒ v (x) .
r
ba
∂t
ge ro or
eS m
ci
The acceleration is the material derivative of the velocity, therefore
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
∂ v (x,t)
i
a (x,t) = + v (x,t) · ∇v (x,t) = v (x) · ∇v (x) .
an an n
∂t
y ha
le
The resulting expression does not depend on time. Thus, the statement is true.
liv or ec
M
.A
b) A uniform velocity field implies that the spatial description of velocity does
not depend on the spatial coordinates,
m
d
uu
v (x,t) =⇒ v (t) .
e
X Th
er
tin
The material derivative of the velocity results in

on
.O
∂ v (x,t) ∂ v (t)
a (x,t) = + v (x,t) · ∇v (x,t) = ,
C
∂t ∂t
©
where the expression used for the gradient of the velocity field is
∂ vi (t)
[∇v (t)]i j = =0.
∂xj
Therefore, the statement is false because ∂ v (t)/∂t is not necessarily zero.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Problem 1.2 – Calculate the acceleration at time t = 2 in point (1, 1, 1) of the

velocity field
not ! T
v ≡ x − z , z e t + e−t , 0 .
Solution
Since the velocity field is given in its spatial expression and the acceleration is
requested for a point x∗ = (1, 1, 1)T , the equation of motion is not needed. One
rs
can simply apply
ee
dv (x,t) ∂ v (x,t)
s gin
a (x,t) = = + v (x,t) · ∇v (x,t) ,
dt ∂t
t d le En
where
∂ v not ! T
r
≡ 0, z e t − e−t , 0 and
ba
ge ro or
∂t
eS m
⎡ ⎤
ci
f
ra
∂
C d P cs
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
b
a
⎢ ∂x ⎥
i
⎢ ⎥ 1 0 0
an an n
not ⎢ ∂ ⎥ ! ⎢ ⎥
y ha
∇v ≡ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ x−z , z e t + e−t , 0 =⎢ 0⎥
⎥ ⎣ 0 0 ⎦ , such that
le
⎢ ∂y ⎥
liv or ec
⎢ ⎥ −1 (e t + e−t ) 0
⎣ ∂ ⎦
M
.A
∂z
m
0]T .
not
v · ∇v ≡ [x − z , 0,
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
Therefore, the spatial expression for the acceleration field is

on
.O
not ! T
a ≡ x − z , z e t − e−t , 0
C
and, for the given point at the given instant of time, the acceleration is
not T
a (x = x∗ , t = 2) ≡ 0 , e2 − e−2 , 0 .
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Problem 1.3 – The equation of a certain motion is

1 ! 1 !
x=X , y= (Y + Z) e t + (Y − Z) e−t , z= (Y + Z) e t − (Y − Z) e−t .
2 2
Calculate the accelerations that would be observed along time by:
a) An observer located in the fixed point (1, 1, 1).
b) An observer traveling with the particle that at time t = 0 occupied position
(1, 1, 1).
rs
c) An observer located in point (1, 1, 1) that measures the accelerations as the
ee
difference between velocities at this point per unit of time.
s gin
t d le En
Solution
r
ba
a) The spatial description of the acceleration in point x∗ = (1, 1, 1) must be
ge ro or
eS m
ci
obtained,
f
ra
∂ V (X (x∗ ,t) ,t)
C d P cs
a (x = x∗ , t) = A (X (x∗ ,t) , t) = .
b
a
∂t
i
an an n
The material expression of the velocity field is

y ha
⎡ ⎤
le
liv or ec
⎢ 0 ⎥
M
.A
⎢ ⎥
∂ x (X,t) ⎢ ⎥
not ⎢ ⎥
V (X,t) ≡ ⎢ 1 ((Y + Z) e t − (Y − Z) e−t ) ⎥ .
m
V (X,t) = =⇒
d
∂t ⎢2 ⎥
uu
⎢ ⎥
e
⎣1 ⎦
X Th
er
−t
((Y + Z) e + (Y − Z) e )
t
tin
2
on
.O
Then, the material description of the acceleration is

C
⎡ ⎤
©
⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
∂ V (X,t) not ⎢
⎢1
⎥
⎥
A (X,t) = ≡ ⎢ ((Y + Z) e t + (Y − Z) e−t ) ⎥ .
∂t ⎢2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣1 ⎦
((Y + Z) e t − (Y − Z) e−t )
2
Careful observation of the expression obtained reveals that
1 !
Ay = (Y + Z) e t + (Y − Z) e−t = y and
2
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
1 !
(Y + Z) e t − (Y − Z) e−t = z .
Az =
2
Therefore, the spatial description of the acceleration field is
z]T
not
a (x,t) ≡ [0 , y,
and, for x = x∗ ,
a (x∗ ,t) ≡ [0 , 1 , 1]T .
not
rs
NOTE: In case one does not realize that Ay = y and Az = z, this same result can
ee
be obtained by replacing into the material expression of the acceleration field
the inverse equation of motion as follows.
s gin

y + z = (Y + Z) e t Y + Z = (y + z) e−t
t d le En
=⇒
y − z = (Y − Z) e−t Y − Z = (y − z) e t
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
⎧
ci
⎪
⎪ f
ra
⎪ X =x
C d P cs
⎪
⎪
b
a
⎪
⎨
i
an an n
1
Y = ((y + z) e−t + (y − z) e t )
y ha
⎪
⎪ 2
⎪
⎪
le
⎪
⎪ 1
liv or ec
⎩ Z = ((y + z) e−t − (y − z) e t )
2
M
.A
m
b) The material description of the acceleration in point X∗ = (1, 1, 1) must be

uu
e
obtained. Replacing point X∗ into the expression obtained in a) yields

X Th
er
tin
not T
A (X∗ ,t) ≡ 0 , e t , e t .
on
.O
C
c) The difference between the spatial velocities per unit of time must be ob-
tained, for point x∗ = (1, 1, 1),
Δ v (x∗ ,t) ∂ v (x∗ ,t)

−→ .
Δt ∂t
The spatial description of the velocity field is
v (x = x∗ , t) = V (X (x∗ ,t) ,t) .
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Careful observation of the material expression of the velocity field obtained in a)

reveals that Vy = z and Vz = y, therefore
∂ v (x∗ ,t) not

v (x,t) ≡ [0 , z , y]T ≡ [0 , 0 , 0]T .
not
=⇒
∂t
Problem 1.4 – Given the spatial description of the velocity field in Cartesian
coordinates,
rs
v ≡ [x , y , zϕ (t)]T
not
ee
and the surface
s gin
" ! #
Σt := x | F (x, y, z,t) = e−2t x2 + y2 + z2 e−t −C = 0 ,
2
t d le En
r
ba
where C = 0 is a constant, determine ϕ (t) considering that the particles on this
ge ro or
eS m
ci
surface are always the same.
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
Solution
y ha
The function F defines the material surface Σt := {x | F (x, y, z,t) = 0}. The nec-
le
liv or ec
essary and sufficient condition for this surface to be a material surface is

M
.A
dF ∂F
= + v · ∇F = 0 ∀x ∈ Σt ∀t ,
∂t
m
dt
d
uu
e
where
!
X Th
∂F
er
tin
= −2e−2t x2 + y2 − 2tz2 e−t ,

2
∂t $ %
on
2 T
.O
∇F ≡ 2xe−2t , 2ye−2t , 2ze−t

not
, and
C
v · ∇F = 2x2 e−2t + 2y2 e−2t + 2z2 e−t ϕ (t) .

2
©
Then, the necessary and sufficient condition above is reduced to
2z2 (ϕ (t) − t) e−t = 0

2
∀x ∈ Σt ∀t .
Moreover, for x ∈ Σt , the term z2 can be isolated from the expression of

the function defining the material surface F (x, y, z,t) given in the statement,
!! 2
z2 = C − e−2t x2 + y2 et . Replacing this expression into the previous equa-
tion yields
!!
2 C − e−2t x2 + y2 (ϕ (t) − t) = 0 ∀x ∀t .
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
!!
Since C − e−2t x2 + y2 = 0 cannot be satisfied for ∀x and ∀t because C is a
constant, the only possibility left is
ϕ (t) = t .
Problem 1.5 – Given the velocity field of a perfect fluid

T
y
rs
not
v (x,t) ≡ ze ,t
, vz
1+t
ee
s gin
and the surface ϕ (x,t) = x − z (1 + t) e t + k = 0 (where k is a constant), which
is known to be a material surface, determine:
t d le En
a) The equation of the trajectory in canonical form and the equation of the
r
streamlines.
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
b) The equation of the streakline and the position of its initial and final points
ra
if the spill point is x∗ and the spill period is t ∈ [t1 ,t2 ].
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
le
Solution
liv or ec
a) To be able to calculate the trajectories and streamlines, the expression for

M
.A
the velocity field must be completed. To find vz , the information given about
surface ϕ is used. The necessary and sufficient condition for this surface to be a
m
material surface is
uu
e
∂ϕ
X Th
dϕ
er
tin
= + v · ∇ϕ = 0 ∀x ∈ Σt ∀t ,
dt ∂t
on
.O
∂ϕ
∇ϕ ≡ [1 , 0 , −e t (1 + t)]T
C
not
where = −z (e t + e t (1 + t)) ,
∂t
©
and v · ∇ϕ = ze t − vz e t (1 + t) .
Then, the material derivative of ϕ is

dϕ
= −ze t − ze t (1 + t) + ze t − vz e t (1 + t) = 0
dt
which results in vz = −z. Therefore, the spatial description of velocity field is

T
not y
v (x,t) ≡ ze ,t
, −z .
1+t
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Now, this field must be integrated to obtain the equation of the trajectory since
dx/dt = v (x,t). Applying the equality for each component and particularizing
for the velocity field determined yields
dx dy y dz
= ze t , = and = −z .
dt dt 1+t dt
Note that the x-component depends on the z-coordinate. Then, the z-coordinate
must be determined first,
dz
= −z =⇒ z = C1 e−t .
rs
dt
ee
Replacing the expression found for z into the x-component and integrating the
s gin
expression results in
t d le En
dx
= C1 e−t e t = C1 =⇒ x = C1t +C2 .
r
dt
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
Finally, the y-component is
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
dy y
= =⇒ y = C3 (1 + t) .
i
an an n
dt 1+t
y ha
To obtain the canonical form of the expression, x = X for t = 0 is imposed,

le
liv or ec
⎧
M
.A
⎨ x (0) = C2 = X
⎪
y (0) = C3 = Y
m
⎪
⎩
d
z (0) = C1 = Z
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
and, finally, the equation of the trajectory in canonical form is

on
.O
x = X + Zt
C
y = Y (1 + t) .
©
z = Ze−t
The equation of the streamlines is found by integrating the velocity field with
respect to λ , that is, dx (λ )/dλ = v (x (λ ) ,t). As in the case of the equation of
the trajectory, the z-component must be determined before the x-component,
dz
= −z =⇒ z = C1 e−λ .
dλ
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Replacing into the x-component yields

dx
= C1 e (t−λ ) =⇒ x = −C1 e (t−λ ) +C2
dλ
and the remaining component results in
dy y λ
= =⇒ y = C3 e 1+t .
dλ 1+t
Then, the equation of the streamlines is
rs
ee
x = −C1 e (t−λ ) +C2
s gin
λ
y = C3 e 1+t .
z = C1 e−λ
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
b) To obtain the equation of the streakline it is enough to take the equation of
f
ra
motion and impose x∗ = x (X, τ), where τ is a time belonging to the spill period.
C d P cs
b
a
⎧
i
an an n
∗
⎨ x = X + Zτ
⎪
y ha
y∗ = Y (1 + τ)
le
⎪
liv or ec
⎩ ∗
z = Ze−τ
M
.A
And the inverse of this equation is

m
⎧
uu
X = x∗ − Zτ = x∗ − z∗ τeτ
e
⎪
⎪
⎨
X Th
y∗
er
tin
Y=
⎪
⎪ 1+τ
⎩
on
.O
Z = z ∗ eτ
C
Replacing these into the equation of motion results in the equation of the streak-
line,
x = x∗ − z∗ (τ − t) eτ
1+t
y = y∗ .
1+τ
z = z∗ e(τ−t)
Consider the physical concept of the streakline as the color line that would be
observed in the medium if a tracer fluid were injected at the spill point through-
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
out the spill period. Then, for each time t, the streakline can be visualized in
terms of the parameter τ, which gives the position in space of the colored parti-
cles. It is verified that, as expected, x = x∗ for t = τ, since it corresponds to the
time in which the streakline is crossing the spill point. Now, the streakline must
be delimited for each time t.
There are two distinct cases:

i) t1 < t < t2
The first colored point in the streakline is the one crossing the spill point at
rs
τ = t1 while the last one is the one crossing the spill point at τ = t.
⎧
ee
⎪
⎪ x = x∗ − z∗ (t1 − t) e t1 ⎧
⎪ ∗
⎪ ⎨x = x
⎪
s gin
⎨ 1 + t
Initial point: y = y∗ Final point: y = y∗
⎪ + ⎪
t d le En
⎪ 1 t ⎩
⎪
⎪
1
z = z∗
⎩ z = z∗ e (t1 −t)
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
M
.A
m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
on
ii) t ≥ t2
.O
C
The first colored point in the streakline is the same as in the previous case,
©
τ = t1 , but the last point is now τ = t2 . The streakline has now “moved away”
from the spill point.
⎧
⎪ ⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ x = x∗ − z∗ (t1 − t) e t1 ⎪
⎪ x = x∗ − z∗ (t2 − t) e t2
⎨ 1+t ⎨ 1+t
Initial point: y = y∗ Final point: y = y∗
⎪
⎪ 1 + t1 ⎪
⎪ 1 + t2
⎪
⎪ ⎩
⎩ z = z∗ e (t1 −t) z = z∗ e (t2 −t)
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
rs
ee
s gin
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
M
.A
m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
E XERCISES
1.1 – Justify if the following statements are true or false.

a) Two streamlines corresponding to a same instant of time can never cross each
other unless the velocity field at the cross point is zero.
b) Two different trajectories can never cross each other.
c) Two streaklines corresponding to two spill points with the same spill period
rs
can cross each other at one or more points.
ee
s gin
1.2 – Given the following velocity field in material description
not T
t d le En
v ≡ Ae At X1 , BtX1 , CX3 ,
r
ba
ge ro or
with A, B and C constants, obtain its spatial description and the conditions A, B
eS m
and C must fulfill for the motion to be feasible for 0 < t < ∞.
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
1.3 – Tracer fluid is injected at point (1, 1, 1) of the interior of a fluid from time
i
an an n
t = 1 to time t = 2. If the equation of the streamlines is

y ha
le
x = C1 eλt , y = C2 eλt , z = C3 e2λt
liv or ec
M
.A
determine the equation of the streakline, indicating its initial and final points for
t = 5.
m
d
uu
e
1.4 – The spatial description of the velocity field of a fluid is

X Th
er
tin
not T
v ≡ ye−t , ze t , 0 .
on
.O
Tracer fluid is injected on plane y = 0 at time t = 1. Obtain the spatial equation

C
of the stain along time.

©
1.5 – A certain motion is defined by the velocity field

z
vx = 2ax ; vy = −by ; vz = − .
t +c
Determine:
streamlines.
b) The possible values of a, b and c such that the motion has physical sense for
t ∈ [0, ∞).
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
c) The spatial description of the material surface that, at time t = 1, was a

sphere with center at (0, 0, 0) and radius R (consider a = b = c = 1).
rs
ee
s gin
t d le En
r
ba
1.6 – A certain motion is defined by the velocity field
ge ro or
eS m
ci
vx = ye−t ; vy = y ;f vz = 0 .
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
Determine:
an an n
y ha
le
streamlines.
liv or ec
b) The spatial description of the material surface that, at time t = 1, was a

M
.A
sphere with center at (0, 0, 0) and radius R.

m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961

Ch.1. Description of Motion: Multimedia Course On Continuum Mechanics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ch.1. Description of Motion: Multimedia Course On Continuum Mechanics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CH.1.

1.2. Equations of Motion

1.5. Velocity and Acceleration

1.6. Stationarity and Uniformity

1.9. Control and Material Surfaces

 Assumption that the medium and is made of infinite

 Exceptions will exist where the theory will not account

 Theexistence of areas in which the theory is not

 The CONFIGURATION Ωt of a continuous medium at a

 Deformed or Present Configuration

φ (particle label, t) is the motion that takes

 The Canonical Form of the Equations of Motion is obtained

 The “Jacobian” of the equations of motion should be

Find the inverse equations of motion.

Check the mathematical restrictions:

Calculate the inverse equations:

 Material (Lagrangian) Description

 Spatial (Eulerian) Description

 It focuses on what is occurring at a fixed material point (a

 Normally used in solid mechanics.

 It focuses on what is occurring at a fixed point in space (a

 Normally used in fluid mechanics.

Check the mathematical restrictions:

Calculate the inverse equations:

 Spatial Description γ(x,t)  LOCAL or SPATIAL DERIVATIVE

 Generalising for any property:

material local convective rate of

 The term convection is generally applied to motion related

And the spatial description of a property ρ(x, t ) = 3x + 2 y + 3t ,

Option #1: Computing the material derivative from material descriptions

Option #1: Computing the material derivative from material

Option #2: Computing the material derivative from spatial

 Spatial description of the velocity:

Using the expressions sin ( a ± b )= sin a ⋅ cos b ± cos a ⋅ sin b

The equation of motion can be rewritten as:

For t=0, the equation of motion becomes:=

The inverse equation of motion is easily obtained

x sin ( ωt ) − Y sin 2 ( ωt ) =− y cos ( ωt ) + Y cos 2 ( ωt )

x − ( x sin ( ωt ) + y cos ( ωt ) ) sin ( ωt ) x x sin 2 ( ωt ) y cos ( ωt ) sin ( ωt )

= x X cos ( ωt ) + Y sin ( ωt )

=X x cos ( ωt ) − y sin ( ωt )

Vx  − X ω sin ( ωt ) + Y ω cos ( ωt ) 

Velocity in spatial description is obtained introducing X(x,t) into V(X,t):

(OPTION #1) Acceleration in spatial description is obtained by replacing the

 x ( cos 2 ( ωt ) + sin 2 ( ωt ) ) + y ( − sin ( ωt ) cos ( ωt ) + cos ( ωt ) sin ( ωt ) ) 

(OPTION #2): Acceleration in spatial description is obtained by directly

 The time-independence in the spatial description (stationarity) does

If its spatial description does not depend on the coordinates (uniform

 Also, from the velocity field in spatial description, v(x,t):

 Particularizing for a given particle by imposing the consistency condition in

Obtain the equation of the trajectories.

This is a crossed-variable system of differential equations. We derive the 2nd

So, the general solution is:

The canonical form is obtained from the initial conditions:

This results in:

= x Y sin ( ωt ) + X cos ( ωt )

 Also, from the velocity field in spatial description, v(x,t*) at a

The differential equations only differ in the denomination of the

A particle’s trajectory is always tangent to the velocity field it

If a trajectory starts at a certain point in a streamline and the

 The eq. trajectory are:

 The eq. streamlines are:

Integrating both sides of the expression: