A2 BIOLOGY

SEMESTER THREE 2021

Student Notes
12s8

Distribution and abundance

Learning objectives:
5.11 understands what is meant by the terms population, community,

habitat and ecosystem.

5.12 understand that the numbers and distribution of organisms in a habitat

are controlled by biotic and abiotic factors

5.13 understand how the concept of niche accounts for the distribution and

abundance of organisms in a habitat

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Ecology is the study of the interaction between organisms and their environment.

These interrelationships determine the distribution and abundance of organisms

within a particular environment.

Ecosystem – it is a life supporting environment which includes all of the living

organisms, the nutrients that cycle throughout the system and the physical and

chemical environment in which the organisms are living.

Habitat- the place where an organism lives (examples: rocky shore, rain forest)

Many organisms live in a small part of a habitat and such type of habitat is called

microhabitat.

Population- a small group of organisms of the same species, living and breeding

together in a habitat.

Community- all the populations of all the different species of organisms living in a

habitat at any one time.

Niche- the role of the organism in the community or its way of life.

Abiotic factors- the non- living elements of the habitat of an organism which has

an effect on the success of an organism

Biotic factors- the living elements of the habitat that affect the ability of a group of

organisms to survive.

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Major biomes- a community of plants and animals that have common

characteristics for the environment they exist

Abiotic factors affecting the distribution of organisms

★ Climatic factors e.g. temperature, water availability, light, wind

★ Edaphic factors (associated with soil) e.g. pH, texture

★ Aquatic factors e.g. salinity, amount of dissolved oxygen

★ Topographic factors- aspect, inclination, altitude

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 Climatic factors

Temperature
An organism will survive only within a range of temperature- limits of tolerance.

★ If temperature falls below zero- freezing of protoplasmic water and the cell

becomes physiologically damaged.

★ If the temperature is too high- proteins become denatured.

Temperature and rate of development

At higher temperatures metabolic rate increases.

KE of the molecules increases.

More effective collision and more enzyme substrate complexes formed.

Decrease in temperature leads to inactivation of enzymes.

Temperature above optimum results in denaturation of enzymes. This affects

differentiation.

Each species need a particular range of temperature

Temperature affects metabolism.

Enzymes affect metabolism.

Temperature affects enzymes.

Different species have different enzymes.

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Why temperatures below 0 °C or above 40 °C would be unsuitable for

most organisms
Metabolism stops or become slow

Below 0°c

enzymes are inactive / cells disrupted

Inactivity / cell disruption is because of freezing of protoplasm or lower kinetic

energy

Above 40 °c

More vibrations in the enzyme break bonds

Enzyme denatures.

This changes the shape of active site

Fewer enzyme substrate complexes form

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 Light
★ Light is the source of energy for photosynthesis.

★ This influences primary productivity.

★ All other organisms depend upon primary

productivity directly or indirectly.

★ Some plants reproduce early to avoid the

shade caused by larger plants.

★ Other plants are able to photosynthesize and reproduce successfully in low

light levels.

★ They may have extra chlorophyll or different ratios of photosynthetic

pigments that are sensitive to lower light levels.

★ Some will have very large leaves to collect light.

★ Animals are affected by light levels indirectly as a result of the distribution of

food plants

★ Seasonal light changes affect the reproductive pattern of many animals.

★ This also changes much of the animal

physiology and behaviour

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 Wind and water current

★ Wind increases cooling and water loss from the body.

★ Strong winds (hurricanes) can cause extreme damage to populations.

★ This results in the loss of plant and animal communities.

★ In water when the strength of currents increases suddenly this may damage

the entire population.

★ Only strong swimmers or one which is able to attach to a surface can resist

the force of water and can survive.

★ Air movements accelerate dissemination of spores and seeds of plants which

help them to colonize in favourable habitats.

Water availability

★ The availability of water is affected by several factors such as the amount of

rain, snow or hail, the rate of evaporation and the rate of loss by drainage

through the soil.

★ Availability of water leads to germination of seeds, and growth of plants. This

changes the habitat and increases the population size.

★ The population size of organisms which are directly or indirectly dependent

on those plants also will increase.

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 Oxygen availability

★ When water is cold or fast flowing, there will be enough oxygen dissolved in

it.

★ So, organisms which need oxygen for their survival can exist.

★ With rise in temperature of the water or if the water becomes still and no

longer flows, then the oxygen content will drop.

★ Mostly anaerobic organisms survive in those areas.

★ In terrestrial habitat, the spaces between the soil particles contain air, so

there is plenty of oxygen for the respiration of plant roots.

★ In waterlogged soil, as the air spaces are filled with water oxygen availability

is very less. So, plants with special adaptation (aerial roots) to obtain oxygen

only can survive there.

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 Edaphic factors- factors related to the structure of the soil

Soil structure and mineral content affect the survival of various populations.

Soil pH

★ Measure of hydrogen ion concentration in aqueous solution.

★ This indicates the level of acidity or alkalinity.

Low altitudes have high pH (4.5-8) and support many microbes.

★ Microbes help to break down the litter into humus.

Higher altitude have low pH (3-6.5)

★ Fewer microbes survive and fungi help to form humus

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 pH and growth of organisms
★ pH affects enzymes and enzymes affect metabolism

★ Due to change in pH the shape of active site is altered by the ionisation of the

R groups

★ This affects the metabolism as substrates cannot fit into the active site.

Topographic factors

★ Aspect (slope):- angle of the sun on a south facing slope is greater. So

receive more sunlight and are warmer.

★ Inclination (steepness):- water drains more readily from steep slopes.

★ Altitude (height):- at higher altitude the temperature is lower, the wind

speed is greater and there is more rainfall.

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 Biotic factors
Involve all those factors that are living.

★ Competitors

★ Predators

★ Decomposers

★ Population Density

★ Disease

Competition
Organisms compete with each other for various available resources.

Animals compete for food, water, shelter, mate and nesting sites.

Two types of competition- interspecific competition and intraspecific competition

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 Intraspecific competition

Competition between members of the same species within the same niche for a

limited source.

★ If the territory is small or relatively little food available

★ Intraspecific competition occurs.

★ They may not survive and reproduce, and population growth slows down.

★ If large quantities of resources are available, there is little or no competition

for the resources

★ and the number of individuals increases

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 Interspecific competition
★ Competition between members of two different species within a community

for the same resource.

★ The niches of the species overlap.

★ Competition will reduce the abundance of the competing species.

★ The greater density and faster reproduction rate in a species leads to the

extinction of the other competitor

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Ecological niche

It is the status or the role of an organism in its environment.

Different niches avoid competition

The abiotic and biotic factors affecting the number of organisms occupying a

particular niche may be density-independent or density-dependent

★ The density-independent factors- regardless of population size.

Extremes of temperature will adversely affect all the individuals in the population.

This type of factor will limit the distribution of species.

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The density-dependent factors- depend on the number of organisms in a

specific area.

Examples: Disease and parasitism, territory

★ If the number of individuals are more in a specific area, there will be more

chance of transmission of disease and parasites.

★ Breeding success is density dependent.

★ Individuals without territory or reduced territory are less able to breed.

★ Density-dependent factors also will limit the abundance of species.

Parasitism and disease- biotic factors

★ Diseased animals will be weakened.

★ They do not reproduce successfully.

★ They cannot hunt well, and they are more likely to

be caught by their predators.

★ Some diseases are infectious which will spread very fast without direct

contact.

★ Parasites affect their hosts.

★ They usually feed off the living body of the host and weaken it.

★ This may wipe out the entire population of the host.

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 Mutualism – relationship between two organisms where both partners benefit by

their association.

Predation

★ Interactions of predators and prey are a factor in regulating the population size.

★ A predator is any organism that feeds on another living organism called the prey.

★ The population is an oscillating population.

★ Predator –prey population was regulated by a negative feedback mechanism.

★ Predation affects the abundance of species.

★ Here the population of prey and predator change between two extremes.

★ As prey population increases, more food is available for the predator and its

population increases.

★ The rate at which the prey are being eaten is greater than the rate of reproduction.

So the number of prey will fall.

★ This reduces the food supply of the predators.

★ This reduces their reproduction rate and the number will fall.

★ This allows the abundance of prey to

increase.

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Antibiosis

★ Organisms sometimes produce deterrent chemicals to repel other

organisms.

★ Many mammals use these chemicals to mark their territories.

★ Example: pheromones produced by ants warn off other members of the

species.

★ Penicillium produces antibiotics to prevent the competition with bacteria for

the sources either by inhibiting the growth or killing them.

Dispersal of seeds enables plants to colonize new and favourable habitats.

This prevents competition with the parent and the offspring for available resources.

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Pollination Angiosperms utilize insects to transfer their pollen grains from one
member of a species to another.

Mimicry The resemblance of an animal species to another species object to

escape from the predators

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 Anthropogenic factors
As hunters, farmers, fishers, developers, polluters etc.

Introduction of grazers and removal of predators of grazing animals .

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