5 44 C H A P T E R 11 DESIGN OF BEAMS A N D  

S H A F T S

11.2 Prismatic Beam Design

Most beams are made of ductile materials and when this is the case it is
generally not necessary to plot the stress trajectories for the beam. Instead,
it is simply necessary to be sure the actual bending stress and shear stress
in the beam do not exceed allowable bending and shear stress for the
material as defined by structural or mechanical codes. In the majority of
cases the suspended span of the beam will be relatively long, so that the
internal moments become large. When this occurs the engineer will first
consider a design based upon bending and then check the shear strength.
A bending design requires a determination of the beam’s section modulus,
a geometric property which is the ratio of I and c, that is, S = I>c. Using
the flexure formula, s = Mc>I, we have

M max
S req>d = (11–1)
sallow

Here M is determined from the beam’s moment diagram, and the

A B
The two floor beams are connected to the
beam AB, which transmits the load to the
columns of this building frame. For design,
all the connections can be considered to
act as pins.
allowable bending stress, sallow, is specified in a design code. In many cases
the beam’s as yet unknown weight will be small and can be neglected in
comparison with the loads the beam must carry. However, if the additional
moment caused by the weight is to be included in the design, a selection
for S is made so that it slightly exceeds S req>d.
Once S req>d is known, if the beam has a simple cross-sectional shape,
such as a square, a circle, or a rectangle of known width-to-height
proportions, its dimensions can be determined directly from S req>d, since
S req>d = I>c. However, if the cross section is made from several elements,
such as a wide-flange section, then an infinite number of web and flange
dimensions can be determined that satisfy the value of S req>d. In practice,
however, engineers choose a particular beam meeting the requirement
that S 7 S req>d from a handbook that lists the standard shapes available
from manufacturers. Often several beams that have the same section
modulus can be selected from these tables. If deflections are not
restricted, usually the beam having the smallest cross-sectional area is
chosen, since it is made of less material and is therefore both lighter and
more economical than the others.

11
 11.2 PRISMATIC BEAM DESIGN 545

Once the beam has been selected, the shear formula tallow Ú V Q>It
can then be used to check that the allowable shear stress is not exceeded.
Often this requirement will not present a problem. However, if the
beam is “short” and supports large concentrated loads, the shear-stress
limitation may dictate the size of the beam. This limitation is particularly
important in the design of wood beams, because wood tends to split
along its grain due to shear (see Fig. 7–10e).

Fabricated Beams. Since beams are often made of steel or wood,

we will now discuss some of the tabulated properties of beams made
from these materials.

Steel Sections. Most manufactured steel beams are produced

by rolling a hot ingot of steel until the desired shape is formed. These Typical profile view of a steel
so-called rolled shapes have properties that are tabulated in the wide-flange beam
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) manual. A
representative listing for wide-flange beams taken from this manual is
given in Appendix B. As noted in this appendix, the wide-flange 0.605 in.
shapes are designated by their depth and weight per unit length; for
example, W18 * 46 indicates a wide-flange cross section (W) having a
depth of 18 in. and a weight of 46 lb > ft, Fig. 11–4. For any given section,
0.360 in.
the weight per length, dimensions, cross-sectional area, moment of 18 in.
inertia, and section modulus are reported. Also included is the radius
W18 ! 46
of gyration r, which is a geometric property related to the section’s
buckling strength. This will be discussed in Chapter 13. Appendix B
6 in.
and the AISC Manual also list data for other members such as
channels and angles. Fig. 11–4

A The large shear force that occurs at the

end reaction of this steel beam can cause
localized buckling of the beam’s flanges.
To avoid this, a “stiffener” A is placed
along the web to keep the flanges straight.

Wood Sections. Most beams made of wood have rectangular

cross sections because such beams are easy to manufacture and handle.
Manuals, such as that of the National Forest Products Association, list
the dimensions of lumber often used in the design of wood beams.
Often, both the nominal and actual dimensions are reported. Lumber
is identified by its nominal dimensions, such as 2 * 4 (2 in. by 4 in.);
11
however, its actual or “dressed” dimensions are smaller, being 1.5 in. by
3.5 in. The reduction in the dimensions occurs in order to obtain a smooth
surface from lumber that is rough sawn. Obviously, the actual dimensions
must be used whenever stress calculations are performed on wood beams.
 5 46 C H A P T E R 11 DESIGN OF BEAMS A N D  S H A F T S

Welded Bolted

Steel plate girders

Fig. 11–5

Built-up Sections. A built-up section is constructed from two or

more parts joined together to form a single unit. Since Sreq’d = M >sallow,
the capacity of the beam to resist a moment will vary directly with its
section modulus, and since Sreq’d = I>c, then Sreq’d is increased if I is
increased. In order to increase I, most of the material should be placed as
far away from the neutral axis as practical. This, of course, is what makes
a deep wide-flange beam so efficient in resisting a moment. For a very
large load, however, an available rolled-steel section may not have a
section modulus great enough to support the load. Rather than using
several available beams, instead engineers will usually “build up” a beam
made from plates and angles. A deep I-shaped section having this form
is called a plate girder. For example, the steel plate girder in Fig. 11–5
has two flange plates that are either welded or, using angles, bolted to the
Wooden box beam web plate.
Wood beams are also “built up,” usually in the form of a box beam
(a) section, Fig. 11–6a. They may be made having plywood webs and larger
boards for the flanges. For very large spans, glulam beams are used.
These members are made from several boards glue-laminated together
to form a single unit, Fig. 11–6b.
Just as in the case of rolled sections or beams made from a single piece,
the design of built-up sections requires that the bending and shear
stresses be checked. In addition, the shear stress in the fasteners, such as
weld, glue, nails, etc., must be checked to be certain the beam acts as a
single unit. The principles for doing this were outlined in Sec. 7.4.

Glulam beam Important Points

(b)
• Beams support loadings that are applied perpendicular to their
Fig. 11–6 axes. If they are designed on the basis of strength, they must resist
allowable shear and bending stresses.
11
• The maximum bending stress in the beam is assumed to be much
greater than the localized stresses caused by the application of
loadings on the surface of the beam.
 11.2 PRISMATIC BEAM DESIGN 547

Procedure for Analysis

Based on the previous discussion, the following procedure provides a rational method for the design of a
beam on the basis of strength.

Shear and Moment Diagrams.

• Determine the maximum shear and moment in the beam. Often this is done by constructing the beam’s
shear and moment diagrams.
• For built-up beams, shear and moment diagrams are useful for identifying regions where the shear and
moment are excessively large and may require additional structural reinforcement or fasteners.

Bending Stress.
• If the beam is relatively long, it is designed by finding its section modulus using the flexure formula,
S req>d = M max >sallow.
• Once S req>d is determined, the cross-sectional dimensions for simple shapes can then be computed, since
S req>d = I>c.
• rolled-steel sections are to be used, several possible values of S may be selected from the tables in
If
Appendix B. Of these, choose the one having the smallest cross-sectional area, since this beam has the
least weight and is therefore the most economical.
• Make sure that the selected section modulus, S, is slightly greater than S req>d , so that the additional moment
created by the beam’s weight is considered.

Shear Stress.
• Normally beams that are short and carry large loads, especially those made of wood, are first designed to
resist shear and then later checked against the allowable-bending-stress requirements.
• Using the shear formula, check to see that the allowable shear stress is not exceeded; that is, use
tallow Ú V max Q>It.
• If the beam has a solid rectangular cross section, the shear formula becomes tallow Ú 1.5 (V max >A ) (See
Eq. 2 of Example 7.2.), and if the cross section is a wide flange, it is generally appropriate to assume that
the shear stress is constant over the cross-sectional area of the beam’s web so that tallow Ú V max >A web,
where A web is determined from the product of the web’s depth and its thickness. (See the note at the end
of Example 7.3.)

Adequacy of Fasteners.
• The adequacy of fasteners used on built-up beams depends upon the shear stress the fasteners can
resist. Specifically, the required spacing of nails or bolts of a particular size is determined from the 11
allowable shear flow, qallow = V Q>I, calculated at points on the cross section where the fasteners are
located. (See Sec. 7.3.)
 5 48 C H A P T E R 11 DESIGN OF BEAMS A N D  S H A F T S

EXAMPLE 11.1
40 kip 20 kip A beam is to be made of steel that has an allowable bending stress of
sallow = 24 ksi and an allowable shear stress of tallow = 14.5 ksi. Select
an appropriate W shape that will carry the loading shown in Fig. 11–7a.

SOLUTION
6 ft 6 ft 6 ft
Shear and Moment Diagrams. The support reactions have been
(a) calculated, and the shear and moment diagrams are shown in Fig. 11–7b.
From these diagrams, V max = 30 kip and M max = 120 kip # ft.

Bending Stress. The required section modulus for the beam is

40 kip 20 kip determined from the flexure formula,
M max 120 kip # ft (12 in.>ft)
S req>d = = = 60 in3
sallow 24 kip>in2
6 ft 6 ft 6 ft Using the table in Appendix B, the following beams are adequate:
10 kip 50 kip W18 * 40 S = 68.4 in3
W16 * 45 S = 72.7 in3
V (kip) W14 * 43 S = 62.7 in3
20 W12 * 50 S = 64.7 in3
10 x (ft) W10 * 54 S = 60.0 in3
"30 W8 * 67 S = 60.4 in3
M (kip!ft) 60
The beam having the least weight per foot is chosen, i.e.,

x (ft) W18 * 40
8 ft
The actual maximum moment M max, which includes the weight of
the beam, can be calculated and the adequacy of the selected beam
can be checked. In comparison with the applied loads, however,
"120 the beam’s weight, (0.040 kip>ft)(18 ft) = 0.720 kip, will only slightly
(b) increase S req>d. In spite of this,
Fig. 11–7 S req>d = 60 in3 6 68.4 in3 OK

Shear Stress. Since the beam is a wide-flange section, the

average shear stress within the web will be considered. (See
Example 7.3.) Here the web is assumed to extend from the very
top to the very bottom of the beam. From Appendix B, for a
W18 * 40, d = 17.90 in., tw = 0.315 in. Thus,
V max 30 kip
tavg = = = 5.32 ksi 6 14.5 ksi OK
11 Aw (17.90 in.)(0.315 in.)

Use a W18 * 40. Ans.

 11.2 PRISMATIC BEAM DESIGN 549

EXAMPLE 11.2
The laminated wooden beam shown in Fig. 11–8a supports a uniform
distributed loading of 12 kN>m. If the beam is to have a height-to-width
ratio of 1.5, determine its smallest width. The allowable bending stress
is sallow = 9 MPa and the allowable shear stress is tallow = 0.6 MPa.
Neglect the weight of the beam. 12 kN/m
1.5a

SOLUTION A B
a 1m 3m
Shear and Moment Diagrams. The support reactions at A and B
have been calculated and the shear and moment diagrams are shown
in Fig. 11–8b. Here V max = 20 kN, M max = 10.67 kN # m. (a)

12 kN/m
Bending Stress. Applying the flexure formula,

M max 10.67(103) N # m 1m 3m
S req>d = = = 0.00119 m3 32 kN 16 kN
sallow 9(106) N>m2 V (kN) 20

Assuming that the width is a, then the height is 1.5a, Fig. 11–8a. Thus, 1.33 m
x (m)
1 3
I 12 (a)(1.5a)
S req>d = = 0.00119 m3 =
c (0.75a) !12 !16
a3 = 0.003160 m3 M (kN"m) 10.67
a = 0.147 m
x (m)
Shear Stress. Applying the shear formula for rectangular sections 1.33 m
(which is a special case of tmax = V Q>It, as shown in Example 7.2), !6
we have (b)

Fig. 11–8
V max 20(103) N
tmax = 1.5 = (1.5)
A (0.147 m)(1.5)(0.147 m)

= 0.929 MPa 7 0.6 MPa

EQUATION
Since the design fails the shear criterion, the beam must be redesigned
on the basis of shear.
V max
tallow = 1.5
A
3
20(10 )N
600 kN>m2 = 1.5
(a)(1.5a)
a = 0.183 m = 183 mm Ans. 11

This larger section will also adequately resist the normal stress.
 5 50 C H A P T E R 11 DESIGN OF BEAMS A N D  S H A F T S

EXAMPLE 11.3
The wooden T-beam shown in Fig. 11–9a is made from two
200 mm * 30 mm boards. If the allowable bending stress is
sallow = 12 MPa and the allowable shear stress is tallow = 0.8 MPa,
determine if the beam can safely support the loading shown. Also,
specify the maximum spacing of nails needed to hold the two boards
together if each nail can safely resist 1.50 kN in shear.

1.5 kN
200 mm 0.5 kN/m

30 mm
D
B
_ 200 mm C
y
2m 2m

30 mm (a)

SOLUTION
Shear and Moment Diagrams. The reactions on the beam are
shown, and the shear and moment diagrams are drawn in Fig. 11–9b.
Here V max = 1.5 kN, M max = 2 kN # m.

1.5 kN Bending Stress. The neutral axis (centroid) will be located from
0.5 kN/m the bottom of the beam. Working in units of meters, we have
!yA
y =
!A
2m 2m
1 kN (0.1 m)(0.03 m)(0.2 m) + 0.215 m(0.03 m)(0.2 m)
1.5 kN = = 0.1575 m
0.03 m(0.2 m) + 0.03 m(0.2 m)
V (kN) Thus,
1.5
1
0.5 I = c (0.03 m)(0.2 m)3 + (0.03 m)(0.2 m)(0.1575 m - 0.1 m)2 d
12
x (m)
1
!1 +c (0.2 m)(0.03 m)3 + (0.03 m)(0.2 m)(0.215 m - 0.1575 m)2 d
12
M (kN"m) = 60.125(10-6) m4
2
Since c = 0.1575 m (not 0.230 m - 0.1575 m = 0.0725 m), we require
M maxc
sallow Ú
11 x (m) I
(b) 3 #
2(10 ) N m(0.1575 m)
Fig. 11–9 12(106) Pa Ú = 5.24(106) Pa OK
60.125(10-6) m4
 11.2 PRISMATIC BEAM DESIGN 551

Shear Stress. Maximum shear stress in the beam depends upon the
magnitude of Q and t. It occurs at the neutral axis, since Q is a 0.0725 m
maximum there and the neutral axis is in the web, where the thickness N A
t = 0.03 m is smallest for the cross section. For simplicity, we will use 0.1575 m
the rectangular area below the neutral axis to calculate Q, rather than
a two-part composite area above this axis, Fig. 11–9c. We have
0.03 m

0.1575 m
Q = y !A ! = a b [(0.1575 m)(0.03 m)] = 0.372(10-3) m3 (c)
2

so that
V maxQ
tallow Ú
It
1.5(103) N[0.372(10-3)] m3 0.2 m
800(103) Pa Ú = 309(103) Pa OK
60.125(10-6) m4(0.03 m)
0.03 m 0.0725 m
N A
Nail Spacing. From the shear diagram it is seen that the shear varies
over the entire span. Since the nail spacing depends on the magnitude
of shear in the beam, for simplicity (and to be conservative), we will
design the spacing on the basis of V = 1.5 kN for region BC and
(d)
V = 1 kN for region CD. Since the nails join the flange to the web,
Fig. 11–9d, we have Fig. 11–9 (cont.)

Q = y !A ! = (0.0725 m - 0.015 m)[(0.2 m)(0.03 m)] = 0.345(10-3) m3

The shear flow for each region is therefore

V BC Q 1.5(103) N[0.345(10-3) m3]

qBC = = = 8.61 kN>m
I 60.125(10-6) m4

V CDQ 1(103) N[0.345(10-3) m3]

qCD = = = 5.74 kN>m
I 60.125(10-6) m4

One nail can resist 1.50 kN in shear, so the maximum spacing becomes

1.50 kN
sBC = = 0.174 m
8.61 kN>m
1.50 kN
sCD = = 0.261 m
5.74 kN>m

For ease of measuring, use

11
sBC = 150 mm Ans.
sCD = 250 mm Ans.