Strength of Materials

Important terms

Stress
Elastic Strain
Plastic Strain
Proportional limit
Elastic limit
Hooke’s Law
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity
True stress
True strain
Modulus of Rigidity
Ductility
Brittleness
Cold Working
Strain Hardening
Lecture 2: May 18, 2004

Agenda items:

1. questions, comments?
2. review introductory material

Load Geometry stress

Pushing/pulling, Area F/A
F
Twisting, T Distance to neutral axis, r, Polar Tr/J
Moment of Inertia, J
Bending, M Distance to neutral axis, c, 2nd Mc/I
Moment of Area, I
Transverse 2nd Moment of Area, I VQ/It
shear, V 1st Moment of Area, Q
thickness, t

3. Objectives for today

a. Understanding how to determine if a material is ductile

i. Reduction in Area
ii. Area under stress strain curve
b. How to calculate true stress and true strain
c. How to calculate new strengths given a % of cold working
i. Advantages to cold working
ii. Disadvantages to cold working
Understanding how to determine if a material is ductile
Reduction in Area:

Instead of considering stress as a function of strain, it is just as meaningful

to consider the amount of reduction in area due to a particular amount
of loading.

This Load vs. Area Deformation curve behaves in the same way that the
stress-strain curve behaves. Applying a load Py, and then releasing it,
allows the component to retain its original area, Ao. However if the load,
Pi is applied, yielding the material, and then released, the component will
be permanently deformed and the area will have been reduced from Ao
to Ai’

The % amount by which the original area is reduced is:

Ao − Ai′
R=
Ao
This measure of reduced area gives us an indication of how “ductile” the
material is; anything above 5% reduction in area is considered to be
ductile.

Since small changes in diameter are hard to measure, it is appropriate to

use Ai instead of Ai’ to determine ductility. The percent cold working is
also this ratio:

Ao − Ai
W =
Ao

Once we know the % of cold working, we can compute new values of

yield and ultimate tensile strength:

Pi
S y' = = σ o ε im
Ai
S u Ao Su
S u' = =
A o (1 − W ) (1 − W )

iii. Area under stress strain curve

The amount of energy that can be absorbed by a material is also a

measure of its ductility. The area under the stress-strain curve, up to the
point of yield is given by the following:

ε εy
1 2 1 1
= ∫ σdε = ∫ Eεdε = Eε = Eε y = S y ε y
2

0 0
2 2 2

The more ductile a material is, the more area under the stress-strain curve,
the more energy it can absorb. This fact will become important when we
talk about failure theories.
How to calculate true stress and true strain

Calculation of strain in the elastic region is:

L − Lo
ε=
Lo

This is the engineering strain and true strain. However when the part
begins to neck down, the engineering strain and true strain are no longer
the same. The engineering strain in the plastic region can be used to find
true strain:

ε T = ln(1 + ε )

Remember, it becomes easier to measure changes in area or volume in

the plastic region than it is to measure changes from gage length--so it is
perfectly appropriate to use:

Ao
ε= −1
A

If we need to know a functional expression of the true stress in the plastic

region of a material we can determine it from the following equation:

σ = σ oε m
What are each of these parameters?

σo is called the strength coefficient

ε is the true plastic strain
m is the strain-strengthening coefficient

So what do these parameters tell us:

σo tells us the value of stress when the true plastic strain is 0.0—or the value
of stress right at the beginning of plasticity

ε is the true plastic strain

m tells how quickly the true stress changes with increasing values of true
plastic strain.
Cold Working

Hot rolling:

Used most commonly in producing common shapes with a particular dimension

(rounds, squares, flats, channels, I beams, etc.)

Cold drawing:

Component’s dimensions are “drawn” down to a smaller size at room

temperature.

Look at the graph above and answer the following questions:

• Which material is stronger at .2 in elongation?

• Which material is more brittle at .2 in elongation?
• Which material is more ductile?
• Which material will do best in compression?
• Which material will do best in shear?
In class assignment:

Break into groups of 3 or 4 and work through the following problem

Compute the true stress and the logarithmic strain using the data of Prob. 3-9
and plot the results on log-log paper. Then find the plastic strength coefficient
0 and the strain-strengthening exponent m. Find also the yield strength and
the ultimate strength after the specimen has had 20 percent cold work.

A specimen of medium-carbon steel having an initial diameter of 0.503 in was

tested in tension using a gauge length of 2 in. The following data were
obtained for the elastic and plastic states:

Elastic State Plastic State

Load Elongatio Load Area
P, lb n, in P, lb Air in2
1 000 0.0004 8 800 0.1984
2 000 0.0006 9 200 0.1978
3 000 0.0010 9 100 0.1963
4 000 0.0013 13 200 0.1924
7 000 0.0023 15 200 0.1875
8 400 0.0028 17 000 0.1563
8 800 0.0036 16 400 0.1307
9 200 0.0089 14 800 0.1077

Note that there is some overlap in the data. Plot the engineering or nominal
stress-strain diagram using two scales for the unit strain , one from zero to
about 0.02 in/in and the other from zero to maximum strain. From this
diagram find the modulus of elasticity, the 0.2 percent offset yield strength,
the ultimate strength, and the percent reduction in area.