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?0 ) E# ,3 *) & 4 # 0 & ? 2 3 7 )& GMg++ ? # A
NADH 03 P " Alcohol dehyrogenase 0 " & $
B K
B 4 ,3 *) 0 $
Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi 2Ethanol + 2ATP + 2CO2
.# H NADH = 0 .# K$ K$ ? 2 # F$! )
+ ,3 *) & 4 #= $ : # ? # # # U 3 G1 * ) # '3 & #
% &, $ !
; &" % = ./ + 1 '
E< $ Hypoxia @ "# 8 6 #3 ,5 @
0 " & = ?0 ) E # =* ) 0
D2 NADH 03 P * 1 $ Lactate dehydrogenase
@ ! "# 8 R E< K$ : F$! "

G( # ! # H NADH . # 8 *) K = ;"
< K >" 5 6 ! K 5 LDH-M4 I 0 " & ! ?0) R $
$ * ? P E 2 1 ! * . $ 6 8 70"
Gluconeogenesis ( 0 " # E# 0 * ) ?, *) / !
Cori cycle 1 . . * ! *) ? P E C . 0
B6 *+, 1 7 & 0 & F 1S 4 ! V#
4C 7 - *+,
B 4 ! *) 0 $
Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi 2Lactate + 2ATP
H NADH = 0 .# K$ K$ ? ! F$! )
* ) $ : # # # # U 3 G1 * ) # '3 & # .#
+ !
1 (Acetyl-CoA) A 629 F + ./ + 1 -3
2 0 " & ?0) E# # " $ .#8
NADH ; & H -D 2 * Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
+ Q " ' 1 # G°' @ ) # !
6/ # - $ . 5( . & ! & & $ )
2 # # 6FADH2 NADH 5 0 C @ GTP <* @E D )
B 4 CoA #8 * ) 0 $ + @E D 3 3
Glucose + 3NAD+ + 2ADP + 2Pi + CoA-SH

2Acetyl CoA + 3NADH + 3H+ + 2ATP + CO2
@2
# ?F
W . E #E 2 ; X & ) . <8 ? # 0 ) ,!, /
. A E , !
; . * ?& E, E< (# !
B 629 D: Feedback inhibition
+ # -6 0 0 E# E, Hexokinase 6 2
J 1 (# ! # ?F ; & ; ?03 9 B 62 " ?
> @ * 1 $ 1 # 8 F
W 03 ?03 #
# ATP 0 ? 0 3 E , . Regulatory site ?F >@ Active site
8 ?03 0$ $ 6 # % Fuels ; @ 5 - $8
B 23 6 %E 0 E< / ADP AMP , @E
+;2$= 4# " "
ATP AMP 0 ?03 E, Pyruvate kinase 6 2 %
% ,' 0 E< - $8 A ? 0 3 P #8 = #
+6 Y0 ? 0 3 ;E , = 8 - $ 5 #
# * . E# ? ADP # / !
;
ATP
/ ATP (# ! # E< G @ ATP $ 1 G #
# 4 . # 3 2 ! ATP % 0" * ) $ NADH
D 3 8 5 AMP ADP . 0 $ 1 %E # ) G
+0 # ?0) E< ! (# ! # E< 6 @E
4 ' @1
-6 G* 1 B 23 -' % ,2 * 7 + &
4
0 ' ?0) $ & ) # $ " ! < , . # )
* Phosphorylase 0 # ?0 ) $ 0 * $ -amylase
* $ 0 # ?0) . 0 8 1 # ' 0
+- + , @1=*: 2 ? (# ! # ! # ' 0
#* ) $ 2@ 7 8 ; 0) 0 # 0 ! 0 % , # $
/ * Sucrase 0 # Lactase 0 ! Maltase 0 0)? # $
A = Trehalase 0 & ?0) 0 & $
0 # – 60 * )0 0 . # ? 0 # & ?0)? #
0 . < (# ! # # ' 0 + * # '
# ' 0 ;" 0 0 0 # # ? 0 ) E # 6. 0 5 ; F # '
$ 0 " Fructokinase 0 ?0) G( # ! #
& # # # # % ,* =
; $ 8 1 # ' 0 *
+ , F$= Fructose 1-phosphate aldolase 0 # ' 0 ?0)
4 > & 1 1 B 23 7 + 1 - *+,
0 = N Galactokinase 0 ! ?0) E# : # ? 0 ! 1 $8 # )
+, & ) < ! . E# # ' 0 *) $ 1 # '
UDP-glucose 0 # % , > # ' 0 = G- *
0 # # ' 0 = ?0 ) # ' 0
E # # -6 0 *) 8 $ Galactose 1- phosphate uridyl transferase
+( # ! # 1 0 #
4 " 6 . 6 + 1 - *+,
'/ 4- # > " * 1 $5 . # (# ! # E# > " ) '9

> " " # %
+ 7 # " E
+0
% , -3G1 , @E A " !
; GATP % 0" ? # '
+ATP ADP * ) # & " E ) # # #
C % 7 (# ! # " E# ? # ' "

B Z &
# ?0) # -3 # *) $ # # # % ,9 )'
NADH 9 Glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase 0 " & # '
A 7 - A
X!
; < 4 $ ? # # -3 * ) # # % , -3G1 $ )'
# # % , ?0) E# # # -3G2 * ) # # -3G1 $
* ) 8 $ ? , Bisphosphoglycerate mutase 0
0 # # # % , -3 G2 ? 0 ) # # -3
A ) G- + , * F$= 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate phosphatase
"# 8 2 * & > E 1 # # % , -3G2 9
7 8 "# 8 > ? @4 K "# 8 "/ & "
+ &
62/ ) " B 23 ; . " B 23 ; + 1 - *+,
. & + 1 3 Bisphosphoglycerate mutase 6 " B 23
6 " " B 23 -3 ;2 6 2/ + " "
42,3-Bisphosphoglycerate phosphatase
# 8 # 8 , Reagents < - (# ! # ! E, '

# *) : $ C # " 0 # > " *) 1 S =
? # (0" ! # " ! *) : 0 '0 # & # #
+;2$= & ) P E
Krebs cycle 7
61937 ? . - 1 Krebs ( ? *) #5 ( . #
- $. Tricarboxylic cycle # ,!, - $ . ; *#
+6 . H * ; # 5 Citric acid cycle / #
7 <
8 - $8 - $8 . # 8 %& # &4 ( .
.# & [$ + &" 7 $3 ?F @ $ ! "# 8 " ?
+. *) 6(Acetyl CoA) A ? 0 3 P # 5
+?#" "# ! > " [$ B % 7 #$

+ B & 7 #$
7
Acetyl CoA + 3NAD+ + FAD + GDP + Pi + 2H2O

CoA-SH + 3NADH + 3H+ + FADH2 + GTP + 2CO2
)5 * $ $ .#8? # ( . ! F$!
+6 # , % 0" <* D .# * & .
7 ' (
NADH ? 0 3 2 <* 0 C 2 ; "; K . '
2 # # @E D 3? # 6.$ % 0"5 FADH2 6 % 0" [!,5
+ 3
?0) ATP % 0" * ) $ GTP % 0" <* @E ; K . '9
A ./ 2 Nucleoside diphosphate kinase 0 # % , #
GTP + ADP GDP + ATP
8 - $8 - $8 G % - 8. " E# ? # ' "

+6;2$= ? # 5
+C # 03 6 F 5 . E# " E# - '
- +, * 7 ))&
'!"# $%&
7 5" )&
+ . / B 6% + 1 " 9" & K . @
.# , CO2 0) * 8 # % )& H 3 + 1 (Aceytal CoA) A 629 F
BE# < E 4 CoA ). 8 . E 6 ) $ 0)5
$ "# 8 $ (# ! #
< " 0 ) ,!, .0 $ ! # ! # , 0) : # ?
Pyruvate dehydogenase complex 2 0 " & ?0)* # 2 0)> "
/ ! - $ 6TPP5 # , ?03 # # / <
P " !
; NAD+ FAD (CoASH) A ? 0 3 P Lipic acid (Lip.)
'\ G°' 5 # 1 V Mg++ ? # A
B 4 6 / "
03 ] & 0 ) ,!, * ) D $ ! $ )
Dihydrolipoyl Dehydrogenase0 # ( = % , 0 " & B
+, @1=* = ? Dihydrolipoyl Dehydrogenas 0 " & = % ,
B6
; CO2 " $* 6TPP5 # , '
+ E1 0 " & ?0)? # CH3CHOH-TPP
+CH3CO-S-Lip-SH * CH3CHOH-TPP . # * / ! - $ '9
- $ A?0 3 P # / ;" CoA-SH * CH3CO-S-Lip-SH 2 ' "
0 # ( = % , ?0 )? # ? 0 : < / !
+(Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase E2) E2
? # FADH2 * ) $ / .#S : $ *) / - $. )* FAD ? 2 '
+(Dihydrolipoyl Dehydrogenase E3) E3 0 " & = % , ?0)
?03 ( FAD * =
; $ NADH * ) NAD+ 0 ? 2 H FADH2 ) '
+ @E * "$ * # C . ?, 6E35 2 # . E
A 629 F + . + 1 ' + 6/ 7 - *+,
+, % 62/ 3 3 76"1 " &+ &' ' 23 6/ !
3 3 629 D: 0 62% > 62/ . 0 62/ # %
6 2 + = B 23 -Pyruvate dehydrogenase E1* -E1* 6 2% >
-E3*6 2 % > + = (Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase E2) -E2*
# % &+ " 8 , (Dihydrolipoyl Dehydrogenase E3)
FAD A 6 29 F 8 1 " ' 3 0 629
4NAD+
0 62% > 62/ @2

# 8 F 03 C $ 0 " & ? 0 ) 4 ;2 # ?
H 1 @ E , ATP E # & # $ +. # 0) . # & ?F
ADP ? # &E , ?0M . # )+A?03 P #
1 ? # A " 0 # ?0)? # :E < . ) # ?03
+? # 4 < 0$
A ?03 P 2 ? 0 3 E , NADH A ? 0 3 P # H )
?0) $ ; & ; & ADP # 4 D #= +:E< NAD+
ATP
+2 0 " &
7 " 2 7 . +& 2 A 629 F + '
A ) 02 > %/ ' >% 2 " & " D:
E # # # 0 8 > CoA # I , ? '
Synthase 0 , # ? 0 ) : F$! 9" 5 Citrate synthase 0 , # # ?0)
* D $ 1 Synthatase 0 , # ? 0 ) ( ATP % 0" * "$ ? *
% 0" $ # &" $ : $ @E * D $ ) +6 ATP % 0"
D2 @1= @ E A CoA #
[ $ ) Aconitase 0 8 ?0) 0 $ # 08 *) # $ '9

cis-Aconitate (# *) =
; $ Dehydration 7 % 0" $* 8 E
= # 0 Hydration 7 % 0" )? , . E
BD 2
) ? # 0 ? 0 3 ;E , Fluoroacetate # ? #
+0 8 ?0) E, 1 # # 0 > , * CoA #
' CO2 0) . # # 0 8 % 0" ) ' "
0 " & # 0 ?0 ) NADH -Ketoglutarate
F 03 $ 5 # Isocitrate dehydrogenase
# # 0 * ) # 08 & #4 * 8 )& H 3 H 1 C: 6( .
H 6 NADPH 5 NADH 03 P * " & 2 Oxalosuccinate
, . E ## 0 8 CO2 0 ?, : ? 0 3 E 6NADPH 5 NADH
' * $ # # 0 9 , , . E Mn2+ 0 A "
A = @1= G
P # # CO2 0) . # ; ' 9 )'

03 > " -D 2 *0 " & ' ?0) NADH A?03
; D $ $ 9 [$ 2 0 " & ?0R : < 2
# *) $ ; . 5 0) # # 0 ) ,!, * )
?03 E , +6( . F 5 # ! ; 6A ? 0 3 P
+ ' >" * 1 # 8 ? #
; $ Succinyl synthetase 0 , # # # ?0) # # * CoA ## $ '

# #9 @E #) , . K P! " GTP <* @E
+CoA
. E Symmetric . F % 0" " ## % 0" F$! *"
2 A ?03 P # 2 0 = & E
+ # 0 8
6CoA # #5 ( #8 . @E . # 8 & GTP % 0" )
. C # . # Substrate-link phosphorylation ( #8 . E . # *#
3 2 ;2$= &$ < ? # Substrate level phosphorylation ( #8
+ #4 . #
# # ?0 ) E # * ) # # $ ! 0 .# ? '
* =
; $ FAD 08 P * 1 $ Succinate dehydrogenase 0 " &
B6D 2 @1=5 FADH2 0 <
9 " : < / - $ E# ;# 0 " & # # ?0) E,

+ # 0 8 @0 " ;# E, / $
0 ?0 ) * 6Hydration S 5 7 ) '1
2 $ *) $ [ $ ) G( <* 3 Fumarase
* ) 2 = $ $ ?, 7 # & " ) 6Carbanion 5
D2 " & )
* )=
; $ % 0" 6Dehydrogenation " & 0)5 . # [ $ '/
NADH ; $ Malate dehydrogenase 0 " & ?0) E# # 0
D2 I
7 @2
@E ?#" " $ EA # 03 ! " < F ( .
- + , *. F$! $ + % ?#" &" $ E#
@2 62/ 3 3 + $ ' 7 - @2 * 7 ) ) 02 H 3 % '
+NADH ATP . 0 :E < E , 1 6 32 62/
+ ATP NADH 0 :E < E , 1 6 2% > 6 ?
NADH CoA ## 0 :E < E , 1 6 2% > " %
+ ATP
! 0 0 ? # E# E< ? < 0 " & 0)
+ @ E * ) D $= ! ]2
7 ' @1
NADH <* 0 C 2 !
; . A 4 ?
& K ? # . " E# - R GTP <* @ E FADH2
A " ' % 1 $ 7 ## %
?0 ) E# ' #8 * ) > :E # 0 8 $ '
Glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT) 0 ( # 0
D $ Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) 0 # #8 ; *#
A ; 0); # : K B6 *)
)+ : K ## #8 8 - $ F$! ;
+ 8 - $8 - 7 & # " #8
?0) E# *) 8 > :E ' $'

; *# 5 Glutamate pyruvate transaminase (GPT) 0 (
B6 *) D $ 6Alanine aminotransferase(ALT) 0 # = ?0)
B Z
(-ketoglutarate + alanine Pyruvate + glutamate
# #8 8 - $8 = / - $ !
+ $ 9 $ ?#" & K
-Aminolevulenate ' *) #! > :E R CoA ## $ '

- a* + , F$= -Aminolevulenate synthase 0 , # ' ?0)
I 7 & 7 ?& % 0" % . :K ? # 1
+7 7 & # !
;
+- b + , * 6> K >" 5 ? & % 0" 7 ? # &
& 'B )-Aminolevulenate 2 " 2 B 6% E 2 - *+ ,

4-b* 2 ;-a*7 2 0 01
0 = # ?0 ) E # ?0! # # $ CoA # '

A CoA 03 P ATP % 0" " Citrate lyase
- $8 7 (% K & ?0! # CoA # % 0" " )

- $ 7 # 0 !
; #
' ' # . ! N 6;2 # 5 #8 8
+66[ , K 5 - K & P E ? # 5
?# " $ 5 Acetoacetate # # > CoA # # '

P # # N -Ketoacyl-CoA transferase ? 0 ) E # 6Ketone bodies
%0 " N Thiolase 0 , ?0) $ 1 6Acetoacetyl CoA5 A ? 0 3
# # !
; G @E D 3 ( . A?03 P #8
- *+, F$!
F + ' ' B 6% >2 'J # CoA + 2 + " - *+,

4A 629
- $ * # & " )- A G # # *) ' $ ? # '

6C 5 Ascorbate #= " - = * #! 8
* ) ' $ G Prolyl hydroxylase 0 # ?0)
+ 7 ? # 1
: "&2 < 7 ' E2 G 7 ) & 2 ?
" . * " 7 8 2> ) 6 K02 ' ?%
> ) ?1 +% > &' -Anaplerotic reactions E
A = 26 1
?0 ) * ) CO2 ) E# # 0 8 ]2 - '
03 P ATP " Pyruvate carboxylase 0 #
D2
Malic enzyme / ?0) * $ E# ]2 - '

NADPH . 0 :! 1 # ) F$! NADPH "
NADPH K $ 5 ?#" "$ * # & !& #
A 6?0! #
8 " 2 ! ' # 0 ]2 - '
8 " 2 ! 2 # = - $8 * Transamination
+- + , @1=*
=5 8 - $8 # $ ?& ]2 - '
8 - $8 ? # * < 1 - *+ , F$= 6 , # #! ##
+( . ]2 -
' 2 # % +02 " ) 2 1 K02 ' - *+,

4 62% 2 + &6 E2
]2 . #= # . K CoA # * K$ '
B 8 K
5; 2$= & P E ? # 6 -Oxidation .# 5 - $8 . # -i
+6 - Q[ , K
@E ; " ; K 6 A 7 # # 7 * K 5 ? #" . # -ii
+; ? CoA # &
, # # 0 , = - $8 - . # -iii
+66 8 - $8 - 5> K >" 5
B 2 ' 7 8 , %
' 0) ? # FAD 9 1 6 ! 5 B2 '
+0 " & ## 0 " &
# 0 0 " & 0 ) ,!, ? # NAD+ 9 1 # '
+0 " & 0 " & ' 0 " &
CO2 03 ; 0 ) ;2 ? # TPP # , <* 6 ,5 B1 '
+2 0 " & ' ?0) !
* # - $8 E ! ; 0 ) ;2 1 CoA 9 70" G/ , '
+CoA # CoA ## , #
Glyoxylate cycle 7
6Glyoxylic acid / # ! - $. ; *# 5
7 <
- $8 D 3( . $ . # ! .
+ 8
6 <= ( # 2 , 5 &" % [$ #$
>2 ? 7 8 : ' 2= H1 =
& " . *) K$ S ? '
> * 1 $ ## % 0" & D CoA # @
% 0" % * D CoA # % * #3 ( .
+ . 0 K$ " = 1 CO2
?0 ) , . " . &" $ 03 - *) #3 2 '9
+Malate synthetase 0 , # ? 0 ) Isocitratase 0 # 0
Acetyl CoA + NAD+ + 2H2O Succinate + CoA-SH + NADH + 2H+
7 ' (
+% ' 8 : 6 ' 7
@1=* 6;2$= ? # 5 (0" # * ) : ^70" $ '
+- +,
+Porphyrins 7 : . #= 1 CoA # # *) $ @ '9
+?#" D $ * ; # #8 , 8 - $8 - * ) $ ' "
+& # 0 0 - A &# . # : - A : X ^70" *2 '
+? < @E ; K ? # '
- +, * +, 7 ))&
4 7 - *+,
7 5" )&
?0 ) # # 0 8 > . # *) CoA #8 , '
+( . Citrate synthase 0 , # #
+( . ; Aconitase 0 ?0) # 08 *) # $ '9
0 # 0 ? 0 ) E # Glyoxylate # ! # # * ) # 0 $ ' "
+- *+, F$! 6 Isocitrate lyase 0 = # 0 *# 5 Isocitratase
D 3 CoA # # *) $ # 0 8 * ) ?#" "$ * ; # ## $ '
+ %F & &
. # *) CoA #8 %0" > # ! , ! N '
+Malate synthase 0 , # ?0) E#
0 " & ? 0 ) E # 6( . 5 # 0 8 *) $ '
+ NADH % 0" Malate dehydrogenase
7 @2
B 8 # 0 3 E # .; . ?F
46 32
46 = 6 ?
46 32 %
. 0 *) 3 . K2 . 0* ; # 2 03 7 0
+6Y8 : + 5 0 = # 0 ?0) E, ) # .
7 ' @1
? 0# Glyoxysomes ? 0 # ! * 2 "# " '
( . 0) *) 3 . # 0 3 1 $ Peroxisomes
+ "
2< CoA #8 $ @ ) . . . %# . '9
+ . *# . * 0 - $8 . #
CoA ATP " #8 :% CoA # * K$ ' "
= Acetyl CoA synthetase 0 , # CoA # ?0)
Acetate + CoA + ATP Acetyl CoA + AMP + PPi
@E A K8 /!& # * = ! AMP F$! *"

+ATP % 0" &
P #8 0&" (0" # *) ## $ '
6 - Q[ , K _ 2$= ? # 5 .# A?03
+- + , @1=*
7 + 1 ' 7 ' A 629 F + - *+,
8 17 +& C: Succinate 2 . Glyoxylate cycle
E2 !2 7 " = ' C: . + 1 Citric acid cycle
' Gluconeogenesis 62% 2 7 = 1 2 ' Hexoses
4 Sucrose 6 +3 1 B 23 . + 1 ' '
Phosphogluconate pathway 2 " "
# 1 $8 0 # & $ # *#
# 0 # Hexose monophosphate shunt (HMS)
# " *) ) < 7 #8 > " ) F$! 5 Pentose phosphate pathway
+6 # 7 , = $
<
+( # ! !
; 60 ,5 # - 2 # .
8 . A . <@ "# 8 .A "# # [$ % !$
$ # - $8 * E< >@ - ?
+ & "# 8 ; 2 #
+6 # # 5 ?0! # & #$
Glucose 6-phosphate + 2NADP+

Ribose 5-phosphate + 2NADPH + 2H+ + CO2
' (
7 , " . ? # ?0! # NADPH < 0 . @ '
0 , ?0 ) , # - $8
+C - 8 Glutathion reductase
? # 1 0 # ;K K # # '9
FADH2 NADH ATP ,5 0) 2 RNA DNA - $8
+6CoASH
G # # ,!, # *) $8 - # # # $ ' "
+?#" # & - A
+ % 9 ?!F CO2 0 # / < '
- +, * 2 " " ))&
' 2 " "

5" )&
= # '6 * ) $ # '6 0 .# '
# '6 0 ?0 ) E # NADPH ; " 6-phosophoglucono -lactone
+0 " &
0 ! ?0 ) E # # '6 * ) 8 H ! $ '9
+ ! ;%2 $ 1 " $ Lactonase
# ' 6 ?0 ) CO2 0) . # # – 6 % 0" ' "
+NADPH !
; # '50 'D 0 " &
0 # ?0) E# # '50 'D * ) # ' 50 'D 9 $ '
+ # # $ # Phosphopentose isomerase 0 0
@2
- E =$ 5 # '60 . 0 # E< 0 '
# & # # NADPH # H . 0 *) 1 S 6Von Geirks / "
- $/ 0 & 2 ? & 0 7 1 0
6Gout / 7 5] 2 - * ) ; S Hyperuricemia E $ * /
; 5 - 9 E & (% 9# - [ $ , 9 #8
+6 Q?A ' ? E / - $0
K # # ]2 NADPH ]2 K$ # E< 0 '9
+0 'D #
0 9 # ATP # '50 NADPH ?#" D $ * = ' "
1 # '50 # (# ! 1 # ! # '6
B = . " 4 :
+ = D%=
7 ! ?# 2 $ ;NADPH ' 3 " -5 6 . / L 1= 2
0 * ) $ # '60 9 R GDNA 9 $ &K
0)? # +( # ! # ! # '3 & # * ) ?, # '6
& # % 0" # '60 % 0" $ 0 ( 0 (
A # ! # '50 % 0" ,!, * ) # '3
5 Glucose 6-phosphate + ATP 6 Ribose 5-phosphate + ADP + H+

23 D%=
: " $ G " -5 6 NADPH ' . / L 1= 2
0 # NADPH % 0" # '5 0 * # '6 0 $ "
B #
Glucose 6- phosphate + 2 NADP+ + H2O

Ribose 5- phosphate + 2 NADPH + 2 H+ + CO2
H 3 D%=
- $8 7 $ ; " -5 6 ' 3 NADPH . / L 1= 2
3 3 8 2 :/ + CO2 * ) # 4 # # '6 0 % 0" R "# 8
%0 " # '50 # 0 # ! .# 8 J "
# '3 & # # '6 0 *) # '5 0 $ ?, G NADPH
& # # '6 0 ? # ?, G0 ( 0 ( 0) E#
! F$! (0" # ! # '6 0 7 # -3
A
6 Glucose 6-phosphate + 12 NADP+ + 6 H2O

6 Ribose 5-phosphate + 12 NADPH +12 H+ +6 CO2
6 Ribose 5-phosphate
4 Fructose 6-phosphate + 2 Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
4 Fructose 6-phosphate + 2 Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate + H2O

5 Glucose 6-phosphate + Pi
= = 51 '
+
Glucose 6-phosphate + 12 NADP + 7 H2O
6 CO2 + 12 NADPH + 12H+ + Pi
> CO2 % 0" #H # '6 0 .#8 R /

0 * ) & $ . # '5 0 ) +NADPH .
+( 0 " # 0)- 0 ( 0 ( 0)? # # '6
# D%=
# " # 50 % 0" 4 ATP NADPH ' +M . / % L 1 2
# + * ) ?, # '6 0 *) $ # 0
B Z F$= % 0" !
; NADPH ATP % 0"
3 Glucose 6-phosphate + 6 NADP+ + 5 NAD+ + 5 Pi + 8 ADP

5 Pyruvate + 3 CO2 + 6 NADPH + 5 NADH + 8 ATP + 2 H2O + 8 H+
C % 0" .# ! ! H )
+ 7 & # ATP
2 " ' @1
0) C = $ # -5 0 # -5 0 B , H @'
( ?0R GTPP # , 03 # " 0 ( 0 (
D2 6 & ! "5 2 ? 2 Transketolase 0
# ' 0 0 * 0 ( ?0 3 / !
;
& # H Erythrose 4-phosphate # ' 0 , > Xylulose 5-phosphate
A # ' 0 # '
# % , "5 [!, 2 0 $ Transaldolase 0 ( ?0)
# # = $ &# * (# ! 0 ) > / <= +6 #8
# ' 0 # ,5 # # # # ,!,
BD 2 @1= 6 # # 1 Sedoheptulose 7-phosphate
?0! # NADPH < 0 . 2 (% # # # ) '9

>2 % NADPH N & 5 82
B Z Malic enzyme / ?0) *) $ '
0 " & # 0 ?0 ) E # ' * ) # 0 $ '
D D # % 0" )G D Isocitrate dehydrogenase
D2 6( . . E 5 $
; # ! Glutathion peroxidase(GPx) 0 # , ?0) # 0 # ' "

0 &" # GHemolysis & $ $ ? $ "
, *) =
; $ GSSG . # S , % 0" 0 . 1 NADPH
, $ ?, GGlutathion reductase(GRd)0 , ?0) GSH 0
" 50 # , ?0) H2O2 " & # : 0R # S *) 0
2 * H2O2 03 & ! G6? #
+- +, * & $ ".#4 $ ?
4 <8 = 2 ## P E
, @2
' 0 NADPH 629 F , " & 7 O 6/ - *+,

6/ . + C: +6 & ' 3 ' P N & 5 2 " "
.
) 3 Hydroxyl free radical ( OH) 1 + > :% +3 N & 7
Proteins 2 Lipids ' ' 1 E )1 7
4DNA +3 2 1
= # - $8 7 1 NADPH 03 P !
;
03 2 7 # ' 0 R / Sterols
0 * # ' 0 $ ) G6;2 # ? 5 - $8
- *+ , F$! 0 ( 0 ( 0) # '
4 % +& 7 : " & E2 ' I ))& - *+,
# ' 0 ?0) # ' 0 0* =

; $ # ' 0 '
A Ribose 5-phosphate epimerase 0 )
6 2 " " . 7 3O +
+ # 7 * ; @1 0 " & # -6 0 ?0)C # '
+?0! # 6NADP+ QNAD+5 . # S C 2 # '
+0 ( ?0) $
N # , C # K2 '
7 " " 2 9 +02
Electron transpart and oxidative phosphorylation
<
NADH 03 # 3 D 08 2 & K2 3 2
# - $8 . # ( . (# ! # " 5 FADH2
## ! 3 2 High transfer potential ` @ &" & 6. # 8
? # @E . $ "# 8 * ) 6 # ## 5 3 2
+ATP % 0"
NADH 3 ATP % 0" . 7 " "
2 @E . # . # 15 3 2 ## E# O2 "# 8 * ) FADH2
+6 # ## "# 8 * ) 0 C 2 3
+ ?#" 7 > " ? % #$
. 2 >K & PE ) G - +, * & #$
2 2$ ! 5 % & % ATP <* @E K & @E
+. % ! 0! 7 < . " 6.
4 2 - *+,
B ATP % 0" [!, & H NADH . $ :% 0" . # '

+ +
NADH + H + 3 ADP + 3 Pi + 1/2 O2 NAD + 3 ATP + H2O
B ATP % 0" & H FADH2 % 0" . # '9

FADH2 + 2 ADP + 2 Pi + 1/2 O2 FAD + 2 ATP + H2O
' (
+FADH2 NADH % 0" . # ATP <* @E D ) '
+FAD NAD+ <* . # S C @ D ) '9
4- +, * 7 " " 2 9 + 0 2 ))&
4 2 2 = +02 2 - *+ ,
5" )&
NADH dehydrogenase 0 " & NADH # # NADH ) '
+6 NADH-Q oxidoreductase 0 # NADH-Q ; # 1 5
; 6Coenzyme Q 5 Q ? 0 3 # # # FADH2 ) '9
+ # ## @ *) 3 2 ?, QH2
FADH2 * # @ NADH * # >@ ,!, ATP % 0" ' "
* ) $ ADP % 0" >@ # ) #4 . # E # ##
B- +, * #$ D: ATP
+CoQ NADH K$ + #$
+c ? # b? # K$ 2 3 #$
+ "# = c? # K$ H 3 #$
B 7 " " Q " H 3 82 '
:Chemical coupling hypothesis C L 6=
"# 8 * ) 0 C 2 3 2 : 4 Slater #? @
# . KZ . &K ? # @E # . K E# 9
D2 = @1= ATP @E
A: + B~X A~X + B:
B~X + Pi X~Pi + A
X~Pi + ADP ATP + X
Substrate link-phosophorylation ( #8 . E . # X* * D )
* ) GDP . # ?0! # # # % , -3G1 * ) # # -3 . #
0 Z $ = $ > " < +CoA # # E# GTP
+ @E $ E# 9
: Boyer ? - ' 3 3 ? (
,!, 9 A * 1S "# 8 * 0 C 2 3 2
> " < GATP <* @E D ) * # ##
+ ,3 = $
Mitchell " ? - BChemiosomotic hypothesis C : 2
2 +6H+5 !A
# # "# 8 * ) 6FADH2 NADH5 3 @ $ 3
# ## R +D $ !A 2 9# #
" 0 $< ! ! " . @ a
. 2 6 @E $ 5 $ G- +, *
+, * @ 1= ATP synthase 0 , # ATP ? 0 ) E # Pi > ADP $ ATP % 0"
-?
-*
-?*
4 2 & % 2 6 21, ' < &= - * - *+,

' ATP B 6% ' 7 $ 2 6 21, ' < &= -?*
& % ATP synthase 6 32 ATP 62/ ) Pi # ADP 1
4 2
@2 +B
FADH NADH 03 # . 0> @ E ?#" D $
@E D 3 #4 . # 0 C 2 *) 1 S #
+?#" . %F ? #
7 " " 2 9 +02 ' @1

2 . 2 "2 C 1
* 1 $ 6Flavoprotein ! I 5 62% > NADH
FMN 1 $ ! * 6Prosthetic @ 5 E "
* Flavin mononucleotide(oxidized) # S < FMN $ 0 .#
.
?, ) R Semiquinone intermediate FMNH #S : < E# <
) Flavin mononucleotide (reduced) FMNH2 0 < * $
D2 + , @1 )
1 D FMNH2 . FMN + 6 & @1 : ;' " =1 - *+,

4 )
K 1 Ubiquinone ' 2 P . -Coenzyme Q* Q 629

! ) Isoprenoid 08 " ## * 1 $
& 08 $ . < * 1 $ $ "# 8 G K
$ ) +6 +, 5 6Coenzyme Q10 5 Q10 ? 0 3 P * 9
Semiquinone # *) $ 1 < 9 .#S
< & C . & ) 6H+5 $ 6 5 ) )
* ; C . * &$ ) 2# * 2 & / G: 0
+ 3 2 ## % & &" P
+, . O + , ' Ubiquinone (Q) -Q ' 2 *' 2 + 1 - *+,
-' 2 ! ,* ' 2 ) 1 P Ubiquinol (QH2) ' 2 +6 &
4 Semiquinone radical (.QH) :% . C 1
$ ?& % 0" E " * 1 $ Cytochromes

2 + "# = *) 3 2 7 , 0 = .#8 1 $ *
K * ; # c, b, a # % K ,!, * ) # Keilin ? K
B 8 # ## . " # + % ]K = E .0
Cyt b Cyt c1 Cyt c Cyt (a + a3)
> # . Kb E Cyt c Cyt c1 ?& % 0" )

? # ; ; # # 5 a3 + a ? # # . Kb E Cyt b
+, * Formyl " * ?& & % 0" 1 $ 6 Cytochrome oxidase 0 #
"# 8 * ) 3 " 0 9& 8 a3 * ) a 3 2 ) 4-
1 $ + Cu++ # S < *) L 0 : < a3 9 1 $ ($ $ 7
& G & : < & ' $ E " * #
> " . " # +Hemproteins & K >2 ; "
. 9# * ! 92 , # "# 8 1 $ G "# 8
+ " & #!# *) # K *# #
4c R 2 > B 6% - *+,
)+- +, * # 4 . # 3 2 E, / '9
% , '4,2 ATP Pi > ADP D 0 E, /
*) . 0* +Gramicidin # Valinomycin #
" ATP . 2 2 / !A
# , / / !
; + # . # E,
- -
# 8 H2S " & 6N3 5 0 CO # CN
& $ 7 , 3 #E , * Amytal Rotenone
? #E , * 6 08 5 # !
; , 6 3 2 # #5 # ## !
6Fe+25 0 $ E, # $ Fe+3 > & a3+a
NADH ? # > 0 " & NADH ? 0 ) * ) 2 2) * !
+- = + , @1=* ( # .
$0 ' ) 7 " " 2 = +02 ) 3 #$ - *+,
+ , C: * Complex I 0 # $ ' ) 3 4 G B )3
' 2 2 + , C: * Complex II -6 ' 2 NADH
-6 c C + 2 + , C: * Complex III -6
4-6 '% 6 c C + , C: *Complex IV
## 3 2 ! Superoxide anion 9 # # # " ' "

# 3 D 0 2 "# = * ) $ ) 2 #
B A @1= #
.-
O2 + * O2
5 ?" & . .#8 " )

03 ? # & 0) ? ? )6 # - $8
Superoxide dismutase (SOD) 0 # # # ? 0 ) , 6. # 8 0 )5
A 9 # # # " 0) * 1
.-
2O2 + 2H+ H2O2 + O2
* ,S . " .#S " & # /

B 4 Catalase0 ? 0 R : 0) ?
2H2O2 2H2O + O2
7 " " "2 ./ 2 L &' NADH + &
< 1 & ( ( . ! FADH2 NADH <* 0 C 2 )
H D ! / + &8 #4 . # &
) # # % , 3,1 * ) # -3 & # $ (# ! # NADH &
#4 . # & =) 0 . 2 & $ @E . #= =
* ; # ! 4 ? G& @E D 3
+0 2 < NADH 2 / 'S 8 : NADH % 0" V# =/ 1
' 1 F )' 2 < GF & . 0 > + & ' +& ./
' A Shuttle
3 2 / Malate-Aspartate shuttle 8
?0 ) * ) 0 1 Oxaloacetate # 0 8 * ) NADH
@ P E ?, Malate dehydrogenase 0 " &
?0 ) # 0 8 *) # 4 G ' ' *#
; $ NAD+ 03 P * 1 $ Malate dehydrogenase 0 " &
# 0 8 G # 4 . # NADH <* 3
0 ( 5 Aminotransferase 0 # 0R #8 * ) $
# 0 8 *) " $ ?0! # *) #8 A ?, 6 Transaminase
" 6?#" "$ " # 0 )5 0 # 0) (
ATP % 0" [!, & H / ! NADH . # ) +- +, 5
+ 92 "# [$
4 T 8 - *+,
2 / Glycerol phosphate shuttle " + 8

# # # % ,* ) NADH 3
0 " & # ' # ?0) 0 1 Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
* ): ?, # -3 # *) =
; $ Glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
6Y * . < . = 5 K !2# P E
. D - + , * FAD E # # # % , *) / =
; $
FADH2 % 0" C . ?0! # *) C
? # 4 ATP % 0" & H #4 . # 3 2 ## &
.$ % 0" ATP % 0" $ / @ : H / I
+O ! "# / I [$
4 " + 8 - *+,
' " & ' 2 " $ % @E A D ) F$! '

7 " "
. E . # Substrate level phosphorylation ( #8 . C # . # '
-3 * ) # # % , -3,1 $ Substrate-link phosphorylation ( #8
# - +, * *) ) # $ # #
? ?0! # N ! $ ! ATP * ) $ Pi E ADP
+( . GTP * ) GDP . # ! ; . # I
ATP % 0" . Oxidative phosphorylation 6 % & 5 #4 . # '
# # 3 2 " @E . 9 #$ * Pi > ADP $ 4
+6O25 % 0" "# 8 * ) FADH NADH #
2,4-dinitrophenol(DNP) % ,' . ? # . # 0
0 # , ,!, ' # .
E , G- + , * Carbanoylcyanide-p-trifluromethoxyphenylhydrazone(FCCP)
- * . 0P E "# 8 * ) 3 2
? # ## 3 2 " " ]2
* ,S # " ADP #4 . # D 0= K$
+- + , * E2 # . #
3 3 3 2 +2 + 2 2 B 23 ' - *+,
4' 6 +2
4ATP ' L 6= H 1 #2 )3 ' 2 + & - *+,

Creatine phosphate shuttle " ' 8 '
9 / ! 2 )+ & 2 "# 8 / I [$
?0! # * )6 2 & ! 5 6 @E 5 #
:! H 1 * ) Creatine kinase-a (CK-a) 0 ?0) E# / $
+- + , * ATP <* @E
4 " ' 8 - 28* + ,

Glycogenolysis pathway -' % 0* 2%
<
: $ ?#" " ! 6 !$ 5 - 2 & ! ? (# " !
+( # ! # 1 # ' 0 *)
0 # % PE PE = ! 0 % #$
+ " !
+?0! # & #$
- 29 + , )
4Nonreducing end 6 & G >2 ' ' % +1 - *+,
' (
? , # -1 0 % 0" * ) & $ P E @E D 3 " ! - 2
+ # -6 0 *) & $ (# ! # *) &
:- +, * 2% ))&
+ 2% - *+,
5" )&
" ! ## & Glycogen phosphorylase 0 # " ! ? 0 ) ?" & '
# ! 64-15 K . # # -1 0 $ *) )!
; $ 0
K ?03 @ -D 2 * 60 $ E K 8 5
0 # ?0) + " ! " #!# I E2 * 0 $
! 8 6? F 5 ,4 $ >2 1 F 03
+;2$= ? # Cascade reactions ! *#
E2 0 $ [!, 2 ? 2 Transferase 0 # ?0) / 4 '9
" ! ?0 ) @ "& C 8 ## & *) & $ I
+- +, * & 2 0 #
66-15 ?0 ); * # 5 Debranching enzyme 9 < 0 ?0) Z 4 ' "
E2 . " 0 6 ' 5. K "& ? 2 1 6 -1,6-Glucosidase 0 #
D2 0 .$ / ; $ I
?0 ) E # # -6 0 *) $ ! # -1 0 )'
! (# ! # *) 1 Phosphogluco mutase 0 #
0 ?0) $ 0 *) # -6 0 $ @ E D 3 .; <
+C 8 "# 8 * ) :2 E ? *) 0 9 Glucose 6-phosphatase 0 # -6
! " : 6 / 5 =
; 0 # -6 0 ?0) )
6 6 2/ + + O 5 +6 ! " ! 5
4- U D 6 "
2% @2 +B
+ F 03 ? # F ?
+6ATP5 @ E @ 0 '
E< 1 " ! - 2 # F 03 $ 0 # " ! ? 0 ) ? 2 '9
# . 0* 6Epinephrin 35 8 ,4
+? & # - 2 6 " ! - 2 5( # " !
* E# ? $ ! H 6cAMP 5 2 $ AMP ' "
,4 &F Second massenger ; , !
; # ) " ! 7 - 2
?0 ) @ : $ : E, 1
#8 0 ) ?03 0 Phosphodiesterase 0 # #
E , * ! 1< " 1 , . &2 " !
: ! ?#" :E < : ; # 2 $ AMP *2 0 # # ?0)
+
4 2% ' @1
/ &K 2 ! . % , ! 0 (# " ! # )'
0 0 # ?0) . 0 " ! $ ? # 0 # ?0) E<
) K <3 2 & < $ G6Ca++5 ? # @
# # 0) P *) D $ 0 # ?0)? # " ! - 2
P & 8 " G6B6 <3 $ 1 5 Pyridoxal phosphate
@ 1= ? 0 3 #! 8 - $ > &E Schiff base < @ N 03
D2 + ,
' 6 29 ' 2 1 # PLP + " ) - *+,

4 Schiff base < , $
" ! # -1 0 D 3 " ! - 2 / <

6HPO4= 5 ! # > # # % 0" 5' >@ #
; @ '; $; # !
; 2 # ? , 7 E ) E#
4- + , * Acid- base catalyst
4' % 0 6 " " 2 - *+,
& ) )+ 3 @ 0$ " ! $ ) '9

0 $ @ , #* G F ; & ; 9 2 $ AMP *
+ E # ? 0 # * F $ " ! $ 0)
Cascade reactions "

$ " , @4 [ $ ! ## . " <
+ 7 8 E< a 0 # * ) E< b0 # ?0)
+ "# 8 % #$
?0! # & #$
Phosphorylase b Phosphorylase a
(Inactive) ),2 G (Active) ),2
" ' (
- 2 : #= 0 # ?0) *) 0 # ?0) $
+ @E D ) & #= # ' 0 $ *) 8 $ " !
4- +, * " 5" ))&
4 " - *+,
- +, * " 5" )&

< * ): $ Adenyl cyclase 0 # 8 ?0) 6 0 35 8 0$ '
+
+Cyclic AMP 6cAMP5 2 $ AMP * ) ATP $ 0 # ? 0 ) ? 2 '9
+Protein kinase 0 ?0) E< * 2 $ 'AMP 9 )' "
Phosphorylase kinase 0 0 # ?0). # * E< 0 ?0)? 2 '
+ ATP E # E< < * ) E<
" E< a 0 # * ) E< b0 # $ E< 0 0 # ?0) ? 2 '
+ Mg+2 P ATP
+ # ' 0 ;" " ! - 2 * E< a 0 # ? 2 '
" . @1
? # # / Phosphorylation . # 0 0 # ?0) E<
0! # < ? # . $ &K 2 "# 8 ; 0
+Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Glycogenesis - 62% *'% E2
+ 0 " ! * 0 $ ) & ? / <

+ ! % #$
+?0! # & #$
(Glycogen) n + Glucose + 2 ATP + H2O (Glycogen) n+1 + 2 ADP + 3 Pi
: # :0 # : " ! * 0 $ ) ' ( '

. 0 [$ +. 0 >< [$ "$ @
0 - 5 Von-Grirks / " - , =$ - # -6 0
+ Glucose 6-phosphatase 0 # ' 0 ? 0 ) ]2 " 6II " !
+, =
Glucose 6 – phosphate Glucose 1 – phosphate
Glucose 1– phosphate + UTP UDP- glucose + PPi
PPi + H2O 2 Pi
UDP- glucose + (Glycogen)n (Glycogen)n+1 + UDP
62% 5" )& 7

B 8 E . (0" ! #
= 0 # ?0) 5 0 ?0) E# # ' 0 *) 0 $ '
+6? 0 0 *
0 # ?0 ) E # # ' 0 * ) # ' 0 $ '9
C . *) . " $ : 0 1 5 Phosphoglucomutase
+6 % 0" (
Uridine diphosphate glucose # % , 0 *) # ' 0 $ ' "
. UDPG G0 # # % , 0 ?0) E# (UDPG)
D2 " ! 7 8
; " ! ## 0 & * UDPG . . " 0 .$ 2 '

+Glycogen synthase 0 , # " ! ?0) # ! 6 ' 5 . K
$ C 8 ## * " ! ## 0 $ ># # 2 ? '

I ?0 ) " ! # #7 6 ' 5 . K
+- = + , @1=* Glycoge-branching enzyme
>2 ' 6 1 # + 02 '% " ' - *+,
4 " 7 5 ' Nonreducing end 6& G 2%
" 2 / & # . 3 UTP * & $ # " UDP % 0" ) '

+ " UDP * ATP #
UDP + ATP UTP + ADP
62% @2
0 . " $ R 1 9" "= # :" . 0 " '
- 2 $ 9 # "= # :" 0 @ 6 " ! 7 5 " ! *
+6( # " !5 " !
- 2 7 F # . # 0) . # 0,# " ! ? F ? '9
0, # " ! ?0) E, 0 # " ! ? 0 ) E< . # + " !
F 03 . # 0) $ G7 # @ %# " ! - 2
?0 ) !
; 5 &Q + 3 : : 2 @ %# " ! 7 VK (
+ 8 # F # # $ * 62 0 " &
! * 0 &# ! " ! 7 0 $ * #8 ' "
+ # ' 0 % * " ! * : ) ?, # ' 0 * : $
62% ' @1
? # * 8 GATP % 0" * ) " ! ## *) 0 .$ ) D $ '
, # ' 0 * : $ 60 ?0) 0 # ?0) E# 5 . #
+UTP * ) UDP % 0" $
? # c 8-2 0 c 1-0.5 0 ! " ! 0 '9
R G. $ . / ]2 0! @E ; & ; K :K !
Q? A ' 5 E # ? 0 0 * F $ (% " !
+6 ?
Gluconeogenesis - 62% 2 *6 E2
60 5 :! ? # (0" < '

+ # 0 # ! 8 - $8
" ! : 4 ? K 7 , "# 8 O # #8 @ . 0 )
E ? E I E2 = =$ # ' . 0 ?#" 0 0
6 ,!, # $ H 5 # # 0 K 4
? 2 Propionate 6 8 - $8 - 2 2< 5 - $8
+A?03 P # # *) : $ ( . 1 - $8 $
! O . # [$ % #$
+7 d Epithelium cells &F ! ; &, $ %
+?0! # Z 70" # ^70" ? B & #$
2Pyruvate + 2NADH + 2H+ + 4ATP + 2GTP + 2H2O

Glucose + 2NAD+ + 4ADP + 2GDP + 6Pi
' (
Q? A 110 -70 2 E # 5 E C # ? 0 # * F $ '
! , [!, * 1 $ @ ? # ! / 6? 100
+0 * & $ #
Glycoprotein E 7 $ . % , #7 '9
4- * <
' ' ) E2 1 7 B 23 E2 - *+,
1 CO2 3 + &' + + 3 3 2 1
4 " & E2 71 " 6 B 6% ' @1 : 4 2
- +, * +, ))&
4 62% 2 - *+,
5" )&
/ " 1 # - 36* + , F$! (0" # )
# 0 ) ,!, / (# ! # # < # 03
# F 03 # # # : < =6 F 5
. E ? (0" # C 0R 0 " ? (# !
B E / K 4
; + 2/ " ./ + 1
?0 ) # 0 8 * ) $ '
ATP % 0" * ) D $ )G Pyruvate carboxylase 0 #
? CO2 , ; % F$! 5 * : , CO2 Biotin 03 P
: ) < ?03 6ATP .$ % 0" 0 # 0) > ? #
+6 # 85 F 03
L & > & ' 8 2> G D # 0 . 2 ? ; F '

6
Transaminase 8 " 2 0) $ #8 8 - $ * $ 'i
* C . $ ?0! # * K P E A 1
+ 8 " 2 0)( # 0 8
NADH 03 P D $ 1 0 " & ?0) *) 0 'ii
K P E ; ?0! # *) D
+ NADH ;" 0 " & ?0) # 0 8 * : # 1
) # * ) ?0! # # 0 8 $ '
0 # ) # ? 0 ) E # Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)
> GDP * ) $ GTP % 0" Mg++ P D $ PEP carboxy kinase
D2 CO2 J E
B 6PEP5 ) # * $ K$ )
Pyruvate + ATP + GTP Phosphoenolpyruvate + GDP + ADP + Pi
+ Q. # \ G°'
* $ # R @E 1 ADP # : 4 D #=
ATP
NADH
# )+ # * K 1 # 0 8
NAD+
A * # 0 8 0 E< ( .
+0 7 : #=
% , -6G1 0 ?0) E# # -6 0 *) # % , -6G1 0 $ '9
+Fructose 1,6 – diphosphatase 0 #
0 # -6 0 ?0 ) 0 * ) # -6 0 $ ' "
+Glucose 6- phosphatase
62% 2 @2
* . E# $ F %# ? 9" 0 /!& # 7
6( 0 " # 50 7 1 " !
; , C d @ $
8 2 # & . E# ?F 9" 6( # ! # 50 - 2 ;
' @2 '
+ 03 F # '
+ & F # '9
629 @2
62% 2 P B P ? 62/ # 82
E< . # CoA # E# E , B6 2 % > '
+6( 0 " 50 7 #
+0 7 $ # :" CoA # E # E< B6 '
: - $8 = 8 - $ ?03 E, 62 '
+ *) ) # $
?0 3 E @2 ?
'0 # 0)? F * ! ' ' 2 2 !
; )
0 9 * & . E# ! 0 # % , ' G1 0 6PFK-15
# % ,' 0 *) # ' 0 $ 1 # % ,'
% ,' G 0 ?0) ? : $ G6PFK-25 2-0 # ?0) E#
+ Fructose 2,6–bisphosphatase (F 2,6-Pase) 0 #
% , -6G2 0 0 . 0 # 8 ? 2 ?#" 0 C # > ' 2
'0 # E< 1 6 * 0 &# . 0 P E 5 #
E , (# ! # E< 0 # % , ' G1 0 ? 0 ) E , 6PFK-15
+( 0 " #
' 0 9 2 P E (0" # E< & ) B'
@1= G( # ! # E , . # '0 # ?0) E , # % ,
4- *+,
6 6 ) 62% 2 C @2 - *+,
46 " " B 23 ;1 6 62/ 62 " 62/ " " B 23
62% 2 ' @1
B A B> G 5 6 E2 & 5 '/
6Lysine # = Leucine # 5 " 2 1 > "'
. & ?# @ ) + Glycogenic amino acids / " ! *# 8 - $8
) # *) $ %& " *) $ 8 ?#2 (
+0 # =
; K C = $ 1
+0 * ) & $ ?, ) # *) = $ '
(0" # # G # ,!, $ H + '
+ # # # % , *) : $
# Ruminants " 0 (% K Propionate 2 '
B6D 2 + , F$=5 Z = $ ! ( . (0"
4 2 - *+,
% 0" * ) D $ 1 Acyl CoA synthetase ? 0 ) CoA *) $ '

+CoASH ATP
0 # CoA ?0) E# CoA , 'D * ) CoA $ '9
+ ATP % 0" * ) D $ 1 Propanol CoA carboxylase
CoA , ?0) CoA , 'L * ) CoA ' , 'D $ ' "
+Mathylmalonyl-CoA racemase 0 #
CoA , ?0 ) CoA ' , 'L $ CoA ## '
+; 0); 2 B12 " Methylmalonyl-CoA isomerase 0 0
= $ . ( . E# $ 1 CoA ##
+ E & 0
6C17 C15 , 5 & ## )* $ - $8 )
# # & ! # 1 & # & E
+CoA
&# NADH ATP % 0" 4 / @E *) D $ 7 )? ?
- + % * 8 & #$ (0" # !
B #1 # % 0" * ) D $ 0 #7
2 Pyruvate Glucose
2 × 3C 6C
46 B 6% E 2 > NADH ATP B 6% - *+ %

8 > = + " 2
2ATP + # 0 *) '
62ATP ~ 5 2 GTP + ) # *) # 0 '9
2ATP + # # % , -3,1 * ) # # ' ' "
2NADH + # ' & # *) # # % , -3,1 '
6ATP V 2NADH R %
ATP % 0" # /&# 0 % 0" 4 ! "

& H 0 - 2 4 (# ! # ( $ NADH % 0"
@E =) [ $ = 7 4 NADH % 0" ATP % 0"
+60 ,5. ( 7 &" ) , @E &# 7 . "
Substrate cycle 7 7
-Futile cycle 7 B " 7 P . *
7 <
P$ E . E <$ - 1 " ! . ( #8 . .
C . *) A . $ * !
; , ! $ < #3 C K$ = # ;
! . + 0)? # B. $ A . I " ) ?, B
# 5 # . ! " 0)? # [$ . # 0) . #
+6;2$= ?
7
* ) ATP % 0" $ &! H . [$ &! ! . /
B 8 < . $ <* @E Pi ADP
ATP + H2O ADP + Pi + Heat
0 ?, 0 # ?0) # -6 0 *) 0 $ '
B 8 < F$= 0 # -6 0 ?0) E# 0 *) # -6 0 $
46 . ! % 3 " -6 6 ./ 6 + 1 - *+,
' 0 ?0) E# # ' 0 *) # % ,' G 0 $ '9

?0 ) # % ,' 0 * ) # ' 0 $ 0 # % ,
B 8 < F$= ' 0 #
6 ./ ! % 3 " " B 23 ; 6 ./ " 6 + 1 - *+,

4 "
0 ?0 )? # ) # * ) $ ! ' "
Pyruvate 0 # 0)? # * : " ?, Pyruvate kinase
4D 2 + , PEP carboxykinase 0 # ) # carboxylase
+ 2/ " ./ + 1 . + 2/ " + 1 - *+,

4
0 . $ . $ ;K 2 " ! *) 0 # ?0)? # " ! $ '
" ! ?0 ) E# " ! *) # ' 0 .$ I " # ' 0
+ " ! 7 6 = = F$=5 0 , #
(Glycogen)n +2ATP+H2O (Glycogen)n-1 +Glucose 1-phosphate+2ADP+3Pi
(Glycogen)n-1 +Glucose 1-phosphate+2ATP+H2O (Glycogen)n +2ADP+3Pi
7 ' (
03 " #3 & K$ = .% . &# F$! . )
% @1 7 ' G +( 0 " (# ! 1 # F
8: " F1 ) 7 ) ,1
. $ " - *$ E - A 6Pi LADP * )5 ATP $ . $ '
+ % " *)
+Metabolic signals 8 0 M ; Amplification 6;2 5 ; #" . E '9
Photosynthesis B ?
<
% @E ? # G7 7 % 9
+ "# *) # , 7 $ 1 % @E *) & $
2 & #$
& < 7 #! % 9 ?
. # 7 AK * 1 $ G6 8 70" , K >" 5 6 ' < 5
+ % 9 03 > "* Chlorophyl
4-Chloroplast *E & - *+,

- , E * B $)
6H2O + CO2 C6H12O6 + 6O2
+ Glucose
' (
"# , I - 7 7
+Purple bacteria
- +, * +, ))&
4 B ? - *+,
B ? 5" )&
' 1 . B ?
Dark reactions ?!F ! '9 Light reactions 7 ! '
! * % @E *) % @E $ < ! ) BE "
B 8 ? +7
@E C # *) & )- > H& % @E % 0" ] '
4- *+, NADPH # , 9 # 0 &" / &
4 2 = W> E K5 - *+,
3 . 2 #!# ? # 3 @ ## *) 2 3 )
@E $ ) +NADPH * ) : 0 ; # NADP+ * ) $ " @E
. # #% , +Photophosphorylation % . # * [$
%
H2O + NADP+ + 2ADP + 2Pi 1/2 O2 + NADPH + H+ + 2ATP
: ? 3 ]2 ; ) K@ % % 0" V K '
+- + , * "# 8 $ 6 M : 2 15 7 .# P E
4' % ATP $ ) NADPH 6 & N $ ' E " - *+,

$ ## * ! % 0" * ) 3 R 9@
ATP NADPH f ? # + % . # E# ATP ? @
9 CO2 6 ,5 0 7 !
+ %
, * < 1 & 7 " * ) D $ = ?!F ! ) @ " ?

? - A & NADPH ATP ? # 6< 0 5 CO2
0 . *# Calvin cycle . *# . $ [!, !
B 8 [$ - + , * Photosynthetic carbon reduction 7
4'" 7 - *+,
" " B 23 -5;1 6 B 6% . CO2 3 1 . 1
0 ?0) Ribulose 1,5-diphosphate # % , -5G1 0 > CO2
?0 ); * 5 Ribulose 1,5-diphosphate carboxylase 0 # # % , -5G1
# #8 )+ # # -3 % 0" * ) / ;2 H 6Rubisco #
# (# ! # ! & < 2 E ! 2 ) # $
+ # 0
" -3 > ./ " -3 + 1 > + 6 &= 1 23 1
% 0 " * ) 67 ! " 5 ATP ) E# # # % 0" $

+0 # # -3 ? 0 ) # # % , -3 G1 - $
H 5 NADPH " # -3 & # *) # # % , -3 G $
K 1 0 " & # -3 & # ?0) 67 !
# -5 0 9 K ; G # %& H 0
+CO2 ,
/ (# ! # 2 E 0 *) # -3 & # $
$ / # -6 0 *) $ ?, # -6 0 ?, # % , -6G1 0
+0 *)
" & 1 . CO " " B 23 -5;1 6 ' 7 / 1 3 3 1
0 , > 1 # # # % , *) # -3 & # $ @
1 # -7 Sedoheptulose0 # N Erythrose 4-phosphate # '4
-5 0 0 # -5 0 B 0 % 0" # -3 & # >
+ #
B 8 ?!F !
CO2 + 12NADPH + 12H+ + 18ATP + H2O

C6H12O6 + 12NADP+ + 18ADP+ 18Pi
B ? ' @1
. P E 6Algae <8 I - 5 0 @'
+6 2 # . 5 Gloxylate cycle # !
B * % 9 ? 2 ! > " 1 $ '9
" E 2$ > * 1 $ 1 6Chlorophyll a5 '
" E 08 ## * ; 1 $ +Mg++ >
+ @ * - + , F$=5 $
4(Chlorophyll b) ? + (Chlorophyll a) + - *+,
% 0" ! + "# d . ! " 6Chlorophyll b5 9 '

=
; 2$ E & " * :% $R a % 0" b
4-D + , @1=* ,8 "
? ( " * ) >< CO2 R ?!F ! # : " Calvin ? V ' "

+ $ . K@ . < E# ] < : 0 ?, <8
? !
; , G 2 E % 9 ? 2 C $ % / '
# ) "# 8 D ) & ? = 2 E +Purple bacteria . #
A P "# 8 =
; H / 7 =
; 6H2S5 " &
6 CO2 + 12 H2S C6H12O6 + 12 S + 6 H2O

% 0" - # % 9 ? 2 C ; /
A @1 " & 9&
6 CO2 + 12 (CH3)2CHOH C6H12O6 + 12 CH3COCH3 + 6 H2O

+ 2 6 6 '
' Triacylglycerols & & $ ! %# $ " Triglycerides !
20! 1 ,./ ( $ ,- ) * +% (
4, 5 0 6 + + $ , 3 ) ! * /
,./ ; <$ 6 + :, ) &9 78
!
% # %+ + ! 6 + * + ! - & !
%
7+ * . ! 8 =,
2 $ >
7+/ & * $ + / + =
7B 7$ !
% # @, 3A & ?> & 6 +
& -2 + D,$ <$ $ C # ( 7+/ @, %# $
2E $6 , - 6 > +
& + A : ' 3 3 " + / 0 3 C F#
G@ $
2 . H1 26 + % H1
2& % $ H2 3 3 H2
2; + 6 H3 2; + 6 : H3
2C)H)O ( < H4 2C)H)O)P)N ( < H4
@I " C3 < 6* H5 @I " F3 < 6* H5
2' + ( / 2' + ( /
! " #
$ " # #
2' ! "& & $ ! C > H1
2 6 +/ < 4 H2
2 C / 4 H3
2 3 3 C > H
2 ! 4 H
2' 3 3 " 3 3 4 H
2 +3 1 4 H
2& 4 H
24 3( C / 4 & C > H
&'& !( !( %&'&
! ) * ) 1
& -& & $ ! & 9 4 ,5 0 > $ &
& 7 6 / # Lipases ! - C /
2' C J -oxidation $" C / C >
- / C / &> + / 6 + %, ! ) -. 2
2 + / ( $ $ !# $ $ ?> $
C / C > $6 ! & 6 ! %, ! ) -. 3
2 6 ' $"
) ) 4
Lipase
Triglyceride + H2O Glycerol + Fatty acids
C / $E C L ! -& $ K & -
2 $ 7# > 6 - &>
! ) / 5
- 7 $L + 0 4 + & +6 H$
2* M 1
2 ATP & 9 * M - H?
2 FADH2 NADH - > &9 D *M -H +
2 #$ & <, A 6 1 0 & $M -H
$ ) 345 + 0 (1 ! ) 22 6
: ( '(
9 (
-oxidation
! )! !6 2 7
& & $ ! & 7 6 8 4 7'& !( %&'& ! 0+
& & 7 6 & !4 C / & - 'Lipolysis & "
$" C / $ 7 6 9 & & !4 3 $
G , > & & & (3 B '
Lipolysis !4
9 )@! $ Lipases ! -6 6 &
, B N / $ cAMP
2%> :
& 7 - 7 * & $ @,
6 + ! 6A F 2* 3 + / - @, &> , C /
2 F & C / 6 O ! (
% ( %" & 8 < !( 4 ;

G B $ -& & K & -
+ Glycerol kinase & 6 - 3 H3 & -& 3 H
2ATP
& 3 NADH +M - 3 $ 3 H3 & $H
& 6 Glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase + 7 3 & 6 -
E 3 H3 7 $ E L ! 3 $
3 $ "& * $ &!
% L + - ' Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
= 5 ) %, ( +
4 >
E B NP <, -oxidation $ C / C > L -
A6 1 0 & / - C / / 6 C >
' . & & " 3 4 6 $ * - > :& & $
26 + + %
Carnitine shuttle ( ? ( 1
& 7 $C 5 6 ! & + C / -
-' 7 ( " 7 -6 = 6 ?+
& 6 / ! 1 1 <
G Q 7 9 :
% $ C /
6 -& 3 (Fatty acyl CoA) A 6 1 0 & $ - C & H$
CoA + 'Acyl CoA synthetase CoA & $ 6 8 # $ $" Thiokinase
$ ) %, ( PPi AMP -& ATP + =,
C + <, (Fatty acyl CoA) A 6 1 0 & $ H?

R " (Carnitine acyltransferase I) I 3 & $ 6 -&3 E ,- 2
N!5 0 > E <, & $% ' + N!5 @,
2
II 3 & $ 6 -& 3 & & & $ + H +

5 <, % CoA & / - (Carnitine acyltransferase II)
$& E CoA & / $ )D $ E 4 /6 ! -
2 (1 > ! E# > 6
& $H <, N!5 & 6 -= H
& / + & & Carnitine-acyl carnitine translocase
+ / F + F &9 ; -2 -
2 # + /
>) A< >( @ ( . 0 ( 8 4 (1
D Intermembrane B 1/ %, ( C %, ( (
D ( + Matrix 9 14 8
-oxidation 9 ( 2
7 * N, E ! 6 E B 73 $ -
R FADH2 NADH CoA & $% + CoA & J &
(1 345 B ! 3 F B
& $6 -&3 / 6 G CoA - 1 E% 8 < CoA % 9 (
- # FAD 1 0 Acyl CoA dehydrogenase + 7 CoA
+ trans L &9 + (Q * + ,
2 ATP + 3 & FADH2
4F 9 ( 4 (1
. & J + (Q -4 + #- - Hydration B " , #< H?

H %+ Enoyl CoA hydratase CoA & - 6 - & 3 6 CoA F 9
2( -Hydroxyacyl CoA) A 6 1 0 & $
A+ >G >, > > ( 8> < A + > G >, > % >( 9 >( >
+ 7 CoA & $ 6 - @, 6 ( -Ketoacyl CoA)
NADH & <, NAD+ 1 0 -Hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase
2ATP + R! 3 - %# $ & 6
% *!3 A6 1 0 & $ H3 ? - GThiol cleavage & 4 '
7 %( > C CoA - CoA & $ CoA +F @
& $ " Thiolase 6 - & 3 'CoA & $&9 " ,
/ , 2'Acyl CoA acetyltransferase 3 & $A6 1 0
, N, 6 $& & , C
2NADH + FADH2 + C 7
! 0 0 34'
B F > 1 ( / & & ! - - H$
6 > )ACTH = $ $&
(cAMP) > AMP - ATP & <, Adenylate cyclase $6 - 9
! - 9 & / Protein kinase 9 6 > @
& & Triacylglycerol lipase :& & $ ! & &
% $ 22 %, ( & C / -

< ) !( %&'& Triacyl glycerol !( %&'& !4 (1

21> >) >( > ) H2 1 ) Triacylglycerol lipase '
'0 ! ! 2
& 6 / A6 1 0 & / & 7 $ C / - H?
+ > @, ) * * K = C
# $ * M 1 B 3 3 : &> & $
2 (1 4 7 &9 B /
> 9 >( > ! 0 Stage 1 8> !4 %, 4 9 ( 4 (1

>, > 9 >( >. 2 C ! 0 Stage 2 & !4 %, I -oxidation
>4 Stage 3 & & !4 %, Ciric acid cycle ? 49 %, A + G
(K 9 (G ! ! ! 0 ' ATP (1 8!0 . 2 8 J
Respiratory (Electron-transfer) chain
B $ R @! $ J $H +
, <$ ) C F* * , $ -%
O ! R 7 C J 3$ $ $2 C & +
C J ( -oxidation) $ $ $ 0 / + $ , %# $ R
2 7 =, ! # &(
& +K C J $ & - (1 A ! H
C CoA & / / )FADH2 NADH CoA & $
< <, C16:0 = C 6 !
% ) E ,F + 7
2 16 6 > E / K B $ E $ , 16
$4 +/ 7 -M $ + CoA & / 8K
G / > 0 C <$ / + - %# $ ,-
!" #
L 0
G@ $ A ! CoA FADH2 NADH 7K & B
Palmitoyl CoA + 7CoA + 7FAD+ + 7NAD+ +7H2O
8 Acetyl CoA + 7FADH2 +7NADH +7H+
& B 3 3 FADH2 + $ B 6
$ ATP + R! 7 K 7 , NADH $ ATP +M -
NADH +7 FADH2 + 7 K $ @! $ C $
G B F + &(
ATP 14 = 2 x 7 7 FADH2
ATP 21 = 3 x 7 7 NADH
ATP LM
& = C 7 CoA & $ + $ K =,
3 3 - GTP FADH2 + NADH + R! +
CoA & $ $ + ATP +; + ,- ATP & 9 * M 1 B
B CoA & $ + $= C $ $ + 12
7NADH + " ATP + 35 #- + 96 = 12 x 8 * ; +
= &! " C & )131 K B '7FADH2
ATP + / (Q ) 9 &! ATP (S + '
+ PPi & (Q ' PPi " < # : 3 AMP %*!3
/ + ATP ( '2Pi" # ! 3 3
2 + 129 = C
>4 C18:0 % 4 9 ( ATP (1 8!0 . 2 / " 0; 4 &

?
4
G E 8=1H T
9 Acetyl CoA ) 8 FADH2 )8 NADH
2C18:0 $ + ATP + T V T × U × U ×
( N ) A 4 9 (
+ ) , + 7 + C / 6A -
C " C17:0 C15:0 & %# $ $ , C $
+ / , C / $ > L3 6 C / @, B '
, -2 , R! < CoA & N / 7
<, CoA & ? -E 7 3 ! 3 ?
:= C & $ <, (1 345 = C
G (1 ! 3 @,7 N( )E $
6 - (D-Methyl malonyl CoA) CoA & & –D - CoA & & H

+ CO2 - 2Propionyl CoA carboxylase CoA &
2 1 0 ATP + -M CoA &
- CoA & & 6 - & 3 CoA & & –L CoA & & –D & H2
2 & Methyl malonyl CoA epimerase
CoA & & 6 -& 3 CoA & - CoA & & –L & H
Adenosyl cobalamin $& & $ -M Methyl malonyl CoA mutase
2B12 >9 % - %> E3(
N ) A 4 9 ( O CoA 9 ( 4 (1
)1 E 4 9 ( >
7 $ 6 4 ,5 0 L &9 > 9 . C / -
D# ! 0B & !(1 ? ( 9 C J $
'C18:2 = C18:1 = / C & " 9 . C / H1
trans L + ($ K $ cis + (Q
2 $6 -6 6 9 @, ?5
A $ , - 9 . C / K H
trans- 3-Enoyl-CoA & ?+ <, trans- 2) cis- 4
Dienoyl ;
/ Isomerase / Reductase - +
(1 W#
cis-$9I cis-$12 C 18:2 Linoleic acid ? 49 ( (1
%# $ N!5 , N!5 $ 1 F + F> H

A 3 43 $? ,7 B 3 3 7+ : &> 7+ F*
C / $ K CoA & / B 2 C / $ + *
2%# $ L - * 4 CO2 -
! 6 -&3 C > D (> + >* 4 / R H

7 & 7 4 3( X! $ )Pancreatic lipase
& = Emulsification of fat ?! 7 &! 6 1
G7 ! 6 - 9
26 H1
24 3( X! $ H2
! B + = , 2& & $ ! + C / H3
2 / $ ; $&
)& & $ ! + C / & H4
2= $= < = ; $& = $= C
6 - 9 + ( / ) C J F9 6 + H5
2 !
: ( (+ % 4 B
Biosynthesis of ketone bodies (Ketogenesis)
! ) * )
G ! &9 6 +$ 7B L + N
2A6 1 0 & / / H $ $
2 + %, ! ) -.
2 ! %, ! ) -.
(1 (+ + B ! ) + ) 22
Free Fatty
Acids
(+ P 2 + ( 22 (1
B /
,- ) 4 (1 $ ; + * % ( 6 +$ %65 % > 6
? > O + / -6 0 &> 6 +$ $
2* M - L 7 $0 6 + 7 3 $ , !#
(+ B ! ) !6 2
G (1 Q ! 3 6 +$ 4 6 CoA & / ? ! , B
2Thiolase 6 - & 3 CoA & $ $ CoA & $ +N H$
& & 6 - & 3 CoA & $ $ F CoA & / D $ +N H?
CoA & & H -3 4 + HMG-CoA synthase CoA
2(HMG-CoA)
9 : 6 - CoA & $ $ $ - HMG-CoA + 9 H +
HMG-CoA Cleavage enzyme (HMG-CoA lyase" : HMG-CoA
G / > ! 3 (
2CH3COCoA + H2O CH3COCH2CO2H + 2CoASH
+ 7 H 6 -&3 H $ / & H
2 NADH + -Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase
Acetoacetate $ $ 6 - & 3 CO2 >3 $ $ + %# $ H
2Acetone / -& decarboxylase
(+ B ! 0 (1
(1 %$( 9 ( '0 Q# ( , (+ 9 ( 0
+ 7 H 6 -&3 $ $ H & H$
2NADH 1 0 & 3 , <, -Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase
3 A6 : 0 & $ H 6 - & 3 CoA & $ $ - $ $& H?
2 -& CoA & + -Ketoacyl CoA transferase
6 -& 3 CoA & $ + % 9 CoA & $ $ -H +
M 1= C CoA & $ + & 6 2CoA + Thiolase
: 6 +/ / $ <$" 6 + + $F + 6 - $2*
2' 6
(+ ( 9 ( (1
(+ B ! ) 3 "
G L + 6A 6 A & R! =
=, ) C J 6 Ketosis L R - H1
Adipose tissues + / &! &( $ ?+ 4 A &
2 (1 A : Lipolysis 7 &
6 +$ -& $ $ $ G78 - C / & H2
- 2 3 3 ! -& Esterification $ $
E & > <, 'CPT-I" I 3 6 -6 7 A 6 /
% # $ @P 6 1 , ' Starvation + ( "; + E 9 ,5
2 C J $ A 1 $
& $= C B $ - $ + CoA & $ + - H3
6 +$ -& 6 C / 2 6 +$ 4
= C B 7 & * 6 * ' Ketogenesis 6 +$ 4 "
$ 6 +$ 4 - CoA & $& = , 2CO2 - Citric acid cycle
,- 26 + 7+ ATP : A & = C -
ATP + '%> , " ATP + 129 = C $
2 -3 $ ATP + $ $ $
(+ B ! 0+3 (1
(+ B ! 0 0 0 34'
G (+ H$
2 C3 H
2 & H
2 9 ; + H
2 4 (1 H
$ Flourazine 3 6 & 2& 0 > -<I & H
2'& 0 X "< < :
,7 7 L3 73 ( 6 + F : 67 + 6 +$ H?
" 7 ;3 ' 4 ( "6 7 F3
6 # * L3 Ketonemia K '6 & 100 Y 65 2-1.5
7$ !
% # '7.38 &* - C3 + 7 L/ * <$" Ketoacidosis (Ketosis)
- 6 +$ 4 -H +
C & * 7 7 $ ! * 4 - /
(1 * M 1 / CoA & / 0 =
, 8 D 4 D ( Muscle !#) 8 ( (+ (1
? 49 NA A + G
Biosynthesis of fatty acids 4F % 4 B
! ) * ) 1
>> 4 7 0 CoA & / C / 4
2 . $ C / 4 <$ Denovo biosynthesis
2 + / O R G+ %, ! ) -. 2
26 ! ! %, ! ) -. 3
!( ) 4
G 'C16:0"= C 4
8 CH3COCoA + 7 ATP + 14 NADPH + 14 H+

CH3(CH2)14CO2H + 7 ADP + Pi + 14 NADP+ + 6 H2O + 8 CoA
! ) / 5
2= C 4 ? 3 C / 4
G (1 + 0 (1 " ! ) 22 6
Condensing enzyme (CE)
Acyl carrier protein (ACP)
4 B 2 (1
4 B !6 2 7
6 90 %K $ CoA & / -M C / 4
G7 $ ' &(3 > , "6 +
+ $ , Citrate lyase : 6 -&3 6 > &
) %, ( 6 ! - CoA & / M W :
$
D > 6 $ @! $ K $ / B 6 +
1 0 M <, " Malic enzyme = 6 - NADPH & 9
$ CoA & / -D $ & =, 6 'NADP+
& : CoA & / 6 ! - M -, 2 $ :
>, 9 80 D $ -E + - /
CoA & $ +& 6 ! NADPH +M - 7 5 (1
$ 5 ) %, ( 4 ( $ 73( D > @, 6
Malate dehydrogenase
+
Oxaloacetate + NADH + H Malate + NAD+
Malate + NADP+ Malic enzyme Pyruvate + CO2 + NADPH + H+
Pyruvate carboxylase
Pyruvate + CO2 + ATP + H2O Oxaloacetate + ADP + Pi + 2 H+
'0 M
NADP+ + NADH + ATP + H2O NADPH + NAD+ + ADP + Pi + 2 H+
, 9 (1
2 4 ,5 0 > C / $ H?
2CoA & / -& &! C > H +
C / F &(3 A :" 0 CoA & / - 7 : C / C H
2' 7 $ CoA & / :
(1 4 B '0 C < ( CoA 6 0* ) + )

%K (
CoA & $6 - & 3 CO2 + #- 0 CoA & CoA & / & H1
+ + ' A 1 " Acetyl CoA Carboxylase
C / 4 & $& 3 , ,- (ADP + Pi) -& ATP
$ 5 ) %,
1 F+ &3 NADPH + CoA & CoA & / #- $ H

< <, <, Fatty acid synthetase >
& $ ?+ CoA & CoA & $ #- < + $ &* ) 3 -
+ @P <, Acyl carrier protein (ACP) & J & F 4 7
(-SH) & + % > 1 F+ Prosthetic ' * "
$ 5 ) %, ( CoA & / CoA & F ACP
Acetyl CoA + ACP Acetyl ACP + CoA
Malonyl CoA + ACP Malonyl ACP + CoA
C 3 Acetyl S-synthase –S & $6 - -A !

2 Q A ! & F E3
% 4 B '0 (1
N 6 - & 3 (ACP) & J & & / & +N H

ACP & $ % -ketoacyl ACP synthase III ACP & $
(Acetoacetyl ACP" ACP & $ / #$ <, ' -ketoacyl ACP)
ACP & $ 6 -& 3 ACP & $ & H
ACP & NADPH + -ketoacyl ACP reductase
2( -Hydroxybutyryl ACP)
6 -& 3 Dehydration 4 + - ACP H5
2
L % -Hydroxybutyryl ACP dehydratase 7 ACP & $
2'(Crotonyl ACP) ACP & # <, " (trans- 2-Enoyl-ACP" ACP &
ACP & -6 - ACP & $ ACP & 2
L & H6
#- 7 $ * & )NADPH + Enoyl-ACP-reductase
&! P 4 / & <, ' , # <$ " CoA & /
8 , 16 <, = C 4 2 ,F $ @,
" ACP & +& & D $ -M
& 3 ACP &(3 <, Palmitoyl ACP & 7 $ - 'ATP -M
%>, > ( = C K ' 7 - $ ) Thioesterase - 6 -
$ )
Palmitoyl - ACP + H2O Palmitate + ACP
4 B 3 " 8
4 B ! 0
G Q 7+ - C / 4 6A $ =
CoA & $6 - 9 & Short term 6 1
2 (1 CoA & / & 4 @ 6 > <,
Carnitine + Fatty acid CoA Free Fatty acids
RMalonyl CoA
Fatty acyl-carnitine
RAcetyl CoA
RAcetyl CoA Citrate
Pyruvate
4 B ! ) 6 +3 (1
( C J 4 - I B A/ - Long term 2 2
1 F+ : CoA & $ - $ A ! 6 ( &! 2 +
" ,./ & B W (L 67 9 &> C / 4 >
24 = 9 1 9 '!
%
4F 9 ( ! ) 3 " ;
& CoA & & ,- ) $ 6A % 7 CoA
? ( >( !( % ( B =, !
% # 3 & $ 6 -
G Q C / 4 C$ % 7 %
4 9 CoA & - C /
2'Lipogenesis
C / & =, CoA & 6 - 9 <$ * M - $ 9 &
267
4 B ! 0 0 34' 9
+ L $ C / C > $ - H$
6 ! : # , C / .2 C
2 C / L
C Elongation &+ 6 ! L K = C H?
& , #- CoA & :
% CoA & / 6 ),
$2 , 24-18 : > &( *
:
% CoA & -M 9 . C / ! : 9
& 3 R Q C 3 ) CoA & /
G (1 Fatty acid elongase -' :" 6 -
+ ( %, % 4 2 (1
'& : " : %# $ 6 $ NADH 1 0 -

2NADPH &#3
$0 6 '6 + & I " 9 . C / -H +
+ M <, C 9 , F* * (/
> ) %>, ( Desaturase N, 6 - & 3 cis - 9
' NADPH " NADH
=
Palmitoyl-CoA (C18:0) + NADH + H+ + O2

Oleoyl-CoA (cis $9 C18:1) + 2H2O + NAD+
, + ( / : 1 7 N, 6 - 6 +
29 6*
9 . C / - G'All cis 5,8,11,14

C20:4 ? ( % 4 B H
( $ R! $ ' 9,12
C 18:2 ; + ( < " linoleic = &
' 6,9,12
C 18:3 ; + ( $ R! < " linolenic = & +
7 & ( ?+ E ' / C /" 6 + & 7 ( \ :
C = C & 4 = C 6 E :- + (
2 (1 345" Q ! 3 '+ ( $F $ < "= /
F* + (S + , 8 = C = C & H1
2 Desaturase ' + " F9 & 6 & 3 6 6*
Elongase : 6 &3 , #8 E 4 +- = C - H2
2 8,11,14
C 20:3 5 ( , 20 ] C
6 -" Desaturase + 6 &3 + , 8 & 3 K C H3
5( ,= / C % 5F * + (S 'F 9 &
2All $5,8,11,14 C 20:4
# 4 E ! = C EB ! 3 A !
4 @ % $% %# = C )= : =
2D / / C /
, ( 8 (Linoleoyl CoA) A + G , ! 4 (1
(Arachidonoyl CoA)R A + G
C / 4 6 NADPH 1 0 L ( -H
- & ! 3 NADPH ( 6 6 ' &(3 " 3
=, (1 A : H V " Malic enzyme = 6 -&3
& <, + 7 $6 -&3 M R <, & 3
2 H 3$ - &
G Q & + D < ( 4 B ,90? H
4 B
4 4 B
2' 9 " 6 H1 '& "6 ! 6 H1
F C > H2 F 4 H2
2CoA 2ACP & J & & F +
23 * 3 C > - H3 -F+ &9 4 - H3
2>
1 > C > 6 H4 1 0 4 6 H4
2FAD NAD+ 2NADPH
CoA & $C > + H5 C 4 + H5
4 CO2 & E# > E <, $E E <, =
2 B 3 3 L < 2 9 . ( $ % E +
& $&9 K C > -6 >9 , #8 6 4 H6
2CoA & -& CoA & $?
2ACP
Phospholipids metabolism 9
^ F* 6+ 7 6 - & 3 3 C > = 9 - =
Phospholipase : 3 3 1 @, (1 3 3
- 7 & -& 3 +, $ & & 3 3 + ( ( $
$ G + / 7
9 ! 0 %, ? 1 % G (1
A1 5 , 1
16 * , &( C %+ & -& 3 + 6 1 , 6+ 7
2 + > F & 4 +
A2 5 , 2
C & & ) ! ; $ / 6 & +
2& 4 + 2 6* , &(
B 5 , 3
2& 4 + 2 $1 , &( C & &
C 5 , 4
& -& 3 %+ 3 3 (S 6+ 7 &* 3 6 ; $ $
2
D 5 , 5
= 3 3 C & +% + & -& 3 +6 1 , &
2 Phosphatidic acid
& & <, A2 : 3 3 6 -6 ' " & 3 3 C >
Lysophospholipid 3 : C 2 6* F* C
Acyl transferase 3 & $ 6 - & 3 CoA & $ + 4 $ <,
: 3 :6 -& 3 Lysolecithin ' :" 3 ! -2 (1 "
3 & 16 * F * C 'A1 : 3 "
'D : 3 6 - $" 6 -& 3 % & <, Glyceryl phosphocholine
2 3 -3 & %+
( (1
Triglycerides synthesis &'& !( B
-M E =, C $ & 6 ! -
G (1 3 09 & )
& -& $ $ P L ! H1
Glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase + 7 3 & 6 -&3 3 H1
NADH 1 0 +
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) @, 6 : 6 ( &! = , & / 3 & L ( -
2 & 6 - < : + / =, !
% #
6 - & 3 CoA & $ -E ! 4 E &* E 9 6 C $
(1> %>, ( CoA ATP + 'Thiokinase %# $ " Synthatase
%
Phosphatidic acid ? 4B 22 (1
Q ># >( ?A H,N % O 0 *' *! &'& !( B ! 0 <
% 5 ( -. 8< S H" ! 0
&'& !( B , !( 1
G B + / ! : 9 6 , -
"_ 3 & $ 6 - & 3 CoA & $ F E = 3 3 3 H & & H$
$ 5 ) %, ( 'Transacylase B %# $
3 3 6 -& 3 3 3 + & = 3 3 C H?
2 H )1 -&
& $6 -& 3 ! H )1 CoA & $ H +
= 5 ) %, ( 3
!( N 4 2
$ <, 6# &! 4 J 9./ < $^
2 Chylomicron &* ! -E $
!( %&'& B , % ( %" &

C 6 #1 " ! 4 $ < -
G : 3 $ 6 '= 3 3
3 $ & $H 3 $ & H$
3 & $ 6 - & 3 CoA & $ #8 1-Acyldihydroxyacetone phosphate
$ ) %, ( Acyl transferase
2Lysophosphatidate = 3 C : 3 $ & $& H?

& <, = 3 C = 3 C : - CoA & $ + N# H +
! CoA & $ E - N # / H )1 '> >3 , "
2
Phosphoglycerides synthesis 9 !( B
< ! 1 9 4 9. ' 3 3 " 3 3 4 6

/ + 6 + $ 6 + + $ ! F + # 1
B ! ) *6 % K %, 2 (1
9 M !( %&'& B 22 (1
Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) & =!7 4 6 , CDP-choline 3 6 H?

2 (1 + / & 3 3 L ( <, 4 ,5 0
( ( B (1
Phosphatidylserine (PS) ,B 3
$ 5 ) %, ( 4 6
PE ? 7 K $ & 3 6 - & 3 PS CO2 - -
2 (1
Phosphatidyl inositol (PI) < ,B 4

G & -& 3 4 W# <, / 4 6
( < ,B (1
Phosphatidyl glycerol (PG) !( ,B 5

20 (1 6 PG ? 4 -
Diphosphatidylglycerol !( , %" & Cardiolipin 5 ( B 6
+ % .R ) : 4 / PG ? -
G / 2 (1
5 ( B (1
Sphingolipid synthesis B
6 !
% # / C 6 +3 / 4 -
= '0 8 S +3 / 4 N( C /
CoA * &( ! ) B (1
( B
0 B Exogenous cholesterol % + $ -6 + & ( - H1
& > # 7 7+ &! ^ , '& / 4 + F &(3 F+ " 4 ,5
2Endogenous cholesterol 6 + E ( % $ )Lipoproteins
F * $ :- + / 6 ! 6 & 4 - H2
2Aorta : 9 ( 4 / ! + =, !
% # 2E L
8> H>" ! 0T ! ( A< )CoA & / & 4 L ( $ H3
%$( 4 7'&
/ CoA & / + R! N Mevalonate 3 G8 !4
G (1
Mevalonate B (1
2 6 - & 3 CoA & $ $ CoA & / N H$
H H CoA & $ $ F CoA & $ +N H?
2 HMG CoA 6 - (HMG CoA) CoA & &
0 + + HMG CoA reductase 6 - & 3 :
% HMG CoA H +
6 - ,- ' , < " 3 NADPH 1
- ) ,5 ` 7 & 4 A 1 HMG CoA
N>- 6 1 , - &3
& !4
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& & !4
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2' , 30 < " <, Lanosterol & :
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( B (1
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#$ E $ C18 / $ C19 , 7 E 09 $ <, (C21)
(1> A : 7-dehydrocholosterol & 7 H <, 'Provitamin D3" D3
G /
C2 C4 C6
C5 C10 C15 C30
C17C18C19C20C21C22C23C24C25C26C27C28C29C30C31C32
B 6 4 ( 5
CoA H 1 ( ( (1
(
0 N( % > X )& 6 . ? > % 6 + X
? ,- 2& & 9 X > 4 3( C $ -E M
, ) &3 4 / & & K ? Coprostanol &
B 6 4 8< ( 4 ! ) Q# %K
W# (1 Q & 4 3( C $ -
C ' + 4 3( C $; $ "Cholic acid = C
G Chenodeoxycholic acid =
H 3 $ -7 6 -& 3 & H 3 $ H7 -& & H1
2 + / NADPH C +
& . 8 H$
P CoA-SH + O2 NADPH + 12- -Hydroxylase 6 - & 3 12
2
CoA & ? - P CoA & ? & 6 > H?
2 CoA-SH + O2 NADPH + (Chenodeoxycholyl CoA)
%# $ )Taurine #8 Taurocholic acid = C CoA & & H3
) ! #8 Glycocholic acid = ! C - 'CoA & "& $
+ - ' ! " 4 + 8 = C -& $ <,
27 F* 7
(Chenodeoxycholyl- CoA) CoA & H4
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D 24 B 6 4 8 ( 4 (1
Cholesterol ester ( <
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=
Regulation of cholesterol synthesis ( B ! 0+3

G & E 6 + & D -
2& 4 ,5 H1
# % + / & C $ H2
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& -4 / E ' 5 "M &! & X H3

2Cholestanol
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2' 67 *! W# <,
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Dietary cholesterol
Glucocorticoide
Cholesterol
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Acetyl CoA ------HMG-CoA----Mevalonate-----Cholesterol----7 -hydroxycholesterol-----Bile acid
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!
! % " "& " #$
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!
! / + , # - # .
5 ,2 " " !4 2 % " "&3 0 " 1 2 #
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!0 +
!0 + 0 ?; % . @ ! 6 %.5 #
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!% " + # -1
1- Ahmad, T. Y., and Al-Helaly, L. A., 2002. Determination and Study the Reference
Values of Some Biochemical Parameters in Mosul City and its Suburbs. Raf. Jour.
Sci. 13, (2), 23-42.
2- Berg, J. M., Tymoczko, J. L., Stryer, L. 2007. Biochemistry. 5th ed. W. H.
Freeman and Company and Sumanas, Inc. USA.
3- Kooleman, S., Roehm, K. H. 2005. Color Atlas of Biochemistry. Seconded.
Thieme. Stuttgart. New york.
4- Mader, S. S. 2004. Understanding Human Anatomy and Physiology, fifth. Front
matter, the McGraw- Hill Companies.
5- Murray, R. K., Granner, D. K., Mayes, P.A., Rodwell, V. W., 2006. Harper’s
Illustrated Biochemistry. The Mc GRAW- Hill Companies, USA.
6- Nelson, D. L., Cox, M. M., 2005. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. 4th Ed.,
USA.
7- Passarge, E. 2007. Color Atlas of Gentics. 3rd ed. Thieme. Stuttgart. New York.
8- Rinzler, C. A. 2006. Nutrition For Dummies, 4th Edition, Published by Wiley
Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana.
9- Voet, D. Voet J.G. 2004. Biochemistry Volume one. John Wiley & Sons. USA.

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GTP + ADP GDP + ATP

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(-ketoglutarate + alanine Pyruvate + glutamate

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0 = # ?0 ) E # ?0! # # $ CoA # '

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Acetyl CoA + NAD+ + 2H2O Succinate + CoA-SH + NADH + 2H+

# $ $ P$! ) ,< # ! Racemization ) / #

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4-Chloroplast E & - +,