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Polyamides (PA) : General
Polyamides (PA) : General
Polyamides (PA) : General
DS – Plastics for Injection Moulding
Polyamides (PA)
Tampere University of Technology‐ Sanna Nykänen
Polyamides are most used technical plastics. For example generally known nylon is General
classed chemically as a polyamide (PA 66). There are different kinds of polyamides
which can be separated into two groups differentiated according to their structure.
PA 6, PA 11 and PA 12 have molecular chains that contain just one type of mono‐
mer. PA 66, PA 69 and PA610 are examples of polyamides which have two different
types of monomers in their molecular chains. Number after polyamides’ name
means how many carbon atoms the monomer(s) contains.
The properties of polyamides are determined by the amide group found in all
polyamides.
Figure 1: Amide group
Polyamides’ starting materials can be aliphatic, alicyclic or aromatic. Normal
Manufacturing
polyamides are aliphatic and they are manufactured either from to two starting
materials, diamine and dicarboxylic acid, or from one starting material, e.g. amino
acids or lactams.
Three manufacturing methods of linear polyamides have a commercial importance:
− Polycondensation of dicarboxylic acids and diamines via Ah‐ salt in aque‐
ous medium.
− ω‐aminoacids’ polycondensation
− Ring opening polymerization of cyclic amides (e.g. caprolactam)
Polyamide types
Aliphatic polyamides Aliphatic
Amide‐ groups have a significant effect on polyamides’ properties because they polyamides
form hydrogen bonds between molecules. Hydrogen bonds make both crystalline
and amorphous parts stronger. The longer the hydrocarbon segments between
amide‐groups are, the lower melting temperatures, tension strength, elasticity
modulus and water absorption are and the higher impact strength and elongation
are.
Polyamides that contain alicyclic‐ and aromatic‐ components With aromatic
It is possible to manufacture polyamides that do not crystallize and are transparent, components
but still have relatively high Tg – temperature and as good chemical resistance and
strength properties as normal PA‐ grades. Both aromatic ring‐structure and differ‐
ence between diamine‐ isomers prevent crystallization. Aromatic polyamides
compete with other plastics and with glass in applications where transparency and
chemical resistance is needed.
Polyamides ‐ 1
CAE DS – Plastics for Injection Moulding
Aromatic polyamides Aromatic
All structural units of aromatic polyamides contain an aromatic ring. This makes polyamides
molecules firm. Fibres made from aromatic polyamides are called aramid fibres.
Aramid fibres have an excellent chemical resistance and only few strong acids have
an effect on them. Uses of aramid fibres are based on to their two most important
properties which are mechanical strength and heat tolerance.
Properties
Polyamides are characterized by the following properties: Characteristic
− High strength, stiffness and hardness properties
− High heat distortion temperature
− High wear resistance
− Good damping capacity
− Good resistance to solvents, fuels and lubricants
− Non‐toxicity
− Good processability
− Aromatic polyamides are crystal clear
− Aliphatic polyamides are partially crystalline and opaque
− Moisture content impairs mechanical properties and affects moulding di‐
mensions
Different polyamides have some structure‐ dependent properties: Structure
dependent
− PA 6: Very hard and tough material (even at low temperatures). Some properties
grades are suitable for manufacturing film.
− PA 66: The greatest hardness, stiffness, abrasion resistance and heat deflec‐
tion temperature of all polyamide types.
− PA 69: Hard and tough and abrasion resistant material. Low moisture ab‐
sorption, dimensionally stable mouldings and suitable for manufacturing
film.
− PA 610, 612: Low water absorption and suitable for mouldings where high
dimensional stability is an important factor.
− PA 11: Very low water absorption and excellent dimensional stability in
comparison to other polyamides (exception of PA 12), lower hardness and
stiffness than PA 6. The best impact strength of all polyamides
− PA 12: Lower water absorption than PA 11 and better impact properties
than PA 6 but not as good as PA 11. The best resistance of stress corrosion
of all polyamides.
Polyamides can be modified with almost all known modification methods. Poly‐ Modification
amides that are blended and reinforced with different kind of materials are
commercial available. Copolymerization eliminates dry polyamides’ brittleness and
it has enabled generating of thermoplastic elastomers.
Polyamides ‐ 2
CAE DS – Plastics for Injection Moulding
All PA grades are hard and more or less brittle in the dry, freshly moulded state.
They become tough and wear resistant after conditioned. Methods of tailoring the
properties of polyamides are:
− variation of molecular weight
− plasticization
− lubrication
− nucleation
− stabilization
− reinforcing with powder or fibrous additives
Other ways are co‐condensation and copolymerization.
The mechanical properties of moulded polyamide materials are depended on Mechanical
molecular weight, crystallinity, moisture content and processing. properties
Mechanical prop‐ PA 6 PA 66 PA 11 PA 12
erties
Yield 40 65 50 45
stress/Ultimate
tensile strenght
(N/mm2)
Elongation at 200 150 500 300
break (%)
Modulus of elastic‐ 1400 2000 1000 1600
ity (N/mm2)
Impact strength No break No break No break No break
(kJ/m2)
Polyamides’ special property is their position towards temperature rise. They Other properties
maintain ductile and tough near their melting point. This effect occurs because
there are hydrogen bonds between polymer chains.
Property PA 6 PA 66 PA 12
Density (g/cm3) 1.13 1.13 1.02
Melting point (°C) 215‐220 255 172‐180
Water absorption in water (%) 9‐10 8‐9 1.5
Thermal conductivity (W/Km) 0.23 0.23 ‐
Polyamides absorb relatively large amounts of water when compared to other Water absorption
plastics. This water absorption affects the dimensions of the moulding. Polyam‐
ides that have relatively short carbon chains, like PA 6 and PA 66, absorb water
from the air 2 to 3 %. Polyamides that have longer carbon chains, like PA 11 and
PA 12, absorb much less water.
Polyamides have good solvent resistance. They do not have good resistance to Chemical
phenol, creosol, or strong acids. resistance
Polyamides ‐ 3
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Processing
Polyamides can be processed with all processing methods of thermoplastics e.g.
with injection moulding, extrusion, blow moulding, heat moulding, rotational
moulding and RIM. Before processing, polyamides have to be dried carefully and
after processing they have to be moisture treated. About 75% of polyamide grades
are processed by injection moulding and the rest mainly by extrusion.
Polyamides (PA6, PA66, PA610) are compatible with each others so they can be Injection
blended a certain extent when injection moulding. With other plastics polyamides moulding
are poorly or not at all compatible.
An example of injection moulding temperature recommendations for some polyam‐
ides:
− PA 6: mass temperature 250‐290 °C, mould temperature 40‐60 °C
o Fibre reinforced PA6: mass temperature 270‐290 °C, mould tem‐
perature 80‐90 °C
− PA 66: mass temperature 280‐300 °C, mould temperature 40‐60 °C
o Fibre reinforced PA66: mass temperature 290‐310 °C, mould tem‐
perature 80‐90 °C
− Copolymers 66/6: mass temperature 270‐290 °C, mould temperature 80‐90
°C
PA 66 is the preferred polyamide‐ grade for mechanically and thermally stressed
mouldings in electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, the automotive and
chemical engineering industries e.g. for spools, bearings, gears and guides.
Applications: Applications
− packaging, films
− filaments (wire, rod)
− tubes
− screws
− automotive components
− electrical industry
Trade names
PA6: PA6
− Akulon (DSM, NL)
− Amilan (Toray Ind., JP)
− Capron (BASF, DE)
− Durethan B (Bayer, DE)
− Grilon (EMS‐GRIVORY, CH)
− Ultramid B (BASF, DE)
Polyamides ‐ 4
CAE DS – Plastics for Injection Moulding
PA66 PA66
− Akulon (DSM, NL)
− Ultramid A (BASF, DE)
− Durethan A (Bayer, DE)
− Leona (Asahi Chemical Ind., JP)
− Maranyl A (ICI, GB)
PA11 PA11
− Rilsan (Arkema, USA)
PA12 PA12
− Rilsan (Arkema, USA)
− Grilamid ( EMS‐GRIVORY, CH)
References
Järvelä et al., Ruiskuvalu, Plastdata, Tampere, 2000.
Dominghaus, Plastics for engineers, Hanser 1993.
Seppälä, Polymeeriteknologian perusteet, Valopaino Oy, 2003.
Polyamides ‐ 5