Chapter 4

COURSE OUTCOMES

 RECOGNIZE THE ELEMENTS OF

WORKPLACE MOTIVATION THAT AFFECT
THE ORGANIZATION
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

Employee Drives And Needs (Page 123 – 125)

Learning Need Theory (Page 127 – 128)

Expectancy theory of motivation (Page 130 –

133)

Goal setting and feedback (Page 137 – 140)

Organizational Justice (Page 140 – 144)

 EMPLOYEE DRIVES AND NEEDS

Drives
• Also called primary needs
• Refers to hardwired characteristics of the brain
that attempt to keep us in balance by correcting
deficiencies
• It accomplish this task by producing emotions
that energizes us to act on our environment
 EMPLOYEE DRIVES AND NEEDS
(cont.)

Drives

• Are innate and universal, which means that

everyone has them and they exist from birth
• Are the “prime movers” of behavior because they
generate emotions, and these put people in a
state of readiness to act on their environment
 EMPLOYEE DRIVES AND NEEDS
(cont.)
Needs

• Refers as goal-directed forces that people

experience
• They are the motivational forces of emotions
channeled towards particular goals to correct
deficiencies or imbalances
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN
NEEDS

Self concept, social norms,

and past experience

Drives
(primary Needs Decisions and
needs) (secondary) behavior
and emotions
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN
NEEDS (cont.)
 Individual self-concept amplify or
suppress drive-based emotion
 As a result we will have stronger or
weaker needs
 Individual self-concept also regulate a
person’s motivated decisions and
behavior
MASLOW’S NEEDS HIERARCHY
THEORY
• Refer to motivation theory of needs arranged in a
hierarchy, whereby people are motivated to fulfil a higher
need as lower one becomes gratified
• Developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1940s
• The model condenses and integrates the long list of needs
that had been studies previously into a hierarchy of 5
basic categories (from lowest to highest)
• As the person satisfies a lower level need, the next higher
need in the hierarchy becomes the primary motivator and
remains so even if never satisfied
MASLOW’S NEEDS HIERARCHY
THEORY
MASLOW’S NEEDS HIERARCHY THEORY
(cont.)
 Limitations of Needs
Hierarchy Models
 Maslow’s hierarchy theory has been dismissed
by most motivation experts.
 Studies have concluded that people do
progress through the hierarchy as Maslow’s
theory predicts.
 Evidence suggests that need fulfilment exists
for a much shorter time than Maslow stated
in his writing.
 The main problem is that people don’t fit
into a one size-fits-all hierarchy.
 It is hierarchy vary from one person and the
other.
Maslow’s Contribution to Motivation
HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE:
Various needs should be studied together because human behaviour
is typically initiated by more than one need at the same time

HUMANISITIC PERSPECTIVE:
Human thought play an important role in motivation

POSITIVE PERSPECTIVE:
Maslow popularized concept of Self-actualization – people are
naturally motivated to reach their potential
Building positive qualities and perspective within individuals or
institutions as opposed to focusing on trying to fix what might be
wrong with them
 What’s wrong with needs hierarchy
models?
• Maslow’s theory ultimately failed to explain
human motivation because people don’t fit into a
one-size-fits all needs hierarchy
• Another hierarchy model, developed by Alderfer
called ERG theory, recognizes Maslow’s 5 groups
into 3 existence: Existence, Relatedness and
Growth
 LEARNED NEEDS THEORY

• Psychologist David McClelland further investigated

the idea that need strength can be altered through
social influences
• In particular, he recognized that a person’s needs
can be strengthened through reinforcement,
learning and social conditions
LEARNED NEEDS THEORY (cont.)
Need for
Achievement

Learned
needs
theory
Need
Need for
Affiliation for
Power
 Need for
Achievement
(nAch)

• A need in which people want to accomplish reasonably

challenging goals, and desire unambiguous feedback and
recognition for their success
• They prefer to working alone rather in teams, and they choose
tasks with a moderate degree of risk
• Money is weak motivator, except when it provides feedback and
recognition
• Low-nAch perform their work better when money is used as an
incentive
 Need for
Affiliation
(nAff)

• A need in which people seek approval from others, conform

to their wishes and expectations and avoid conflict and
confrontation
• Strong nAff try to project a favorable image of themselves,
tend to actively support others by trying to smooth out
workplace conflicts and work well in coordinating roles to
mediate conflicts
• They tend to be less effective at allocating scarce resources
and making other decisions that potentially generate
conflict
 Need for
Power
(nPow)

• A need in which people want to control their environment,

including people and material, resources, to benefit either
themselves (personalized power) or others (socialized
power)
• High nPow want to exercise control over others and are
concerned about maintaining their leadership position, rely
on persuasive communication, make more suggestions in
meetings and tend to publicly evaluate situations more
frequently
 • Individuals who enjoy their power for
Personalized its own sake, use it to advance
Power personal interest and wear their
power as
pesa status symbol

Socialized • Individuals who desire power as a

Power means to help others
EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION
• A motivation theory based on the idea that work
effort is directed towards behaviours that people
believe will lead to desired outcomes
• Individual motivated to select a specific behavior
over other behaviors due to what they expect the
result of that selected behavior will be
• We are motivated to achieve the goals with the
highest expected payoff
Expectancy Theory of Motivation (cont.)
P-to-O
E-to-P expectancy Valence
Probability that specific
expectancy Probability that specific
effort level will result in Probability that a effort level will result in
a specific performance specific performance a specific performance
level level will result in level
specific outcomes

+/
Outcome 1 -

+/
Effort Performance Outcome 2 -

+/
Outcome 3 -
 E-to-P expectancy
• The individual’s perception that his or her effort
will result in a particular level of performance
• In other words is the level of expectations in giving
performance to complete the task or job
 P-to-O expectancy
• The perceived probability that a specific
behavior/performance level will lead to outcome
• Employees may believe that accomplishing a
particular task (performance) will result in a
particular outcome
 Outcome Valences
• A valence is the anticipated satisfaction or
dissatisfaction that an individual feels towards an
outcome
• (+) valence when they are consistent with our
values and satisfy our needs
• (-) valence when they oppose our values and
inhibit need fulfillment
 Expectancy Theory in Practice
Expectancy Objective
theory
component
E-P expectancies To increase the belief that
employees are capable of
performing the job
successfully
P-O To increase the belief that
expectancies good performance will result
in certain (valued) outcomes
Outcome To increase the expected
valences value of outcomes resulting
from desired performances
Applications
• Train employees
• Select people with
required competencies
• Provide role clarification
• Provide sufficient
resources
• Provide coaching and
feedback
• Measure performance
accurately
• Describe outcomes of good
and poor performances
• Explain how rewards are
linked to past
performance
• Ensure the rewards are
valued
• Individualized rewards
• Minimize the presence of
countervalent outcomes
 GOAL SETTING AND FEEDBACK

The immediate for ultimate objectives that employees

are trying to accomplish from their work effort
Example of Goal
• Is the process of motivating employees and
clarifying their role perceptions by establishing
performance objectives
• It improves employee performance in two ways:
 by amplifying the intensity and persistence of effort
 by giving employees clearer role perceptions so their
effort is channeled towards behavior that will improve
work performance
Characteristics of Effective Goals

Specific Measurable Achievable

Time-
Relevant Exciting
framed

Reviewed SMARTER
 Specific

• Employees put more effort into a task when they

work towards goals that state what needs to be
accomplished, how it should be accomplished,
where, when, and with whom it should be
accomplished
• Specific goals clarify performance expectations, so
employees can direct their effort more efficiently
and reliably
 Measurable

• This measurement ideally includes how much

(quantity), how well (quality) and at what cost the
goal was achieved

Achievable

• Goals should be challenging without being so

difficult that employees lost their motivation to
achieve them
 Relevant

• Need to be relevant to the individual’s job and

within his or her control

Time-
framed

• Goals need a due date

• They should specify when the objective should be
completed or when it will be assessed for
comparison against a standard
 Exciting

• Goals tend to be more effective when employees

are committed to them, not just compliant
• Challenging goals tend to be more exciting for
most (but not all) employees because they are
more likely to fulfil a person’s achievement or
growth needs when the goal is achieved
 Reviewed

• The motivational value of goal setting depends on

employees receiving feedback about reaching
those goals
• By reviewing goal progress and accomplishment
helps employees to redirect their effort
• It is also potential source of recognition the fulfils
growth needs
• Information that lets us know whether we have
achieved the goal or are properly directing our
effort towards it
Characteristics of Effective Feedback

Timely Credible

Specific
Sufficiently
and
Frequent
Relevant
Effective
Feedback
 Specific
and
Relevant

• The information should refer to specific metrics (e.g. sales

increased by 5% last month) and to the individual’s
behavior or outcomes within their control

Timely

• The information should be available soon after the behavior

or results occur so that employee see a clear association
between their action and consequences
 Credible

• Employees are more likely to accept feedback from

trustworthy and credible sources

Sufficiently
Frequent
• First factor, employees working on new task should receive
more frequent feedback because they require more
behavior guidance and reinforcement
• Second, feedback is necessarily less frequent in jobs with a
long cycle time (executives and scientist) than in jobs with a
short cycle time (grocery store cashiers)
 Multisource (360-Degree)Feedback
(Social Feedback)
• Is a social form of feedback that has been widely used in
organizations.
• Information about an employee’s performance collected
from a full circle of people, including subordinates, peers,
supervisors and customers
• It is particularly useful when the supervisor is unable to
observe the employee’s behaviours or performance
throughout the year
• Lower level employees also feel greater
sense of fairness and open communication
when they are able to provide upward
feedback about their boss’s performance
 Ambiguous and Peers may provide
inflated rather than
conflicting accurate feedback to
feedback avoid conflicts

Employees
experience a stronger
Expensive and emotional reaction
when they receive
time-consuming critical feedback
Challenges from many people
of rather than 1 person
multisource
feedback
 Nonsocial Feedback

 Sourcesof feedback without

someone communicating that
information
 Electronic Displays
 Dashboard – statistic, graphic,
chart
 Choosing Feedback Sources
Social Feedback Non-social
(supervisor, feedback (job
client, co- itself, computer
workers) printouts)

Feedback that people

Tend to delay negative received from the study of
information, leave some of the increasing in sales,
it out and distort the bad quantity, or improving in
news in positive ways quality

The popular feedback social

sources are the 360-degree
feedback where More accurate
performance feedback
received from full circle of
people around and
employee
Evaluating Goal Setting and
Feedback
 Goal Setting
 represents “tried-and-true” in organizational behaviour
 Rated by experts as one of the top OB theories in terms of validity and
usefulness
 Problems with goal setting
 Tends to direct employee focus to a narrow subset of measurable performance
indicators while ignoring aspects of job performance that are difficult to measure
- “what gets measured, get done”
 Goal achievement tied to financial rewards, many employees are motivated to
set easy goals – can attain bonus or pay increase
 Not applying goal setting where an intense learning process is occurring
Evaluating Goal Setting and
Feedback (cont.)
 Feedback being evaluate as an excellent
reputation for improving employee
motivation and performance.
 ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE
• Is the study of people’s perception of fairness in
organizations
• Most organizational leaders know that treating
employees fairly is both morally correct and good
for employee motivation
Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness in the Procedural Justice
individual’s ration of
outcomes to The perceived fairness
contributions compared of the procedures used
with a comparison to decide the
other’s ration of distribution of
outcomes to resources
contribution

Organizational
Justice
 Equity Theory
• It is a theory explaining how people developed
perception of fairness in the distribution and
exchange of resources
• An equality principle operates when we believe
that everyone in the group should receive the
same outcomes
• It infers that people should be paid in proportion
to their contribution
 Equity Theory Model
Your own
outcome/input ration
Own outcomes
Pay benefits, Promotions,
Recognition, Workspace,
Learning and Interesting
job
Own inputs
Skills, Reputation, Effort,
Hours, Performance and
Experience
Comparison other’s
outcome/input ration
Compare
own ratio with Other’s outcomes
other’s ratio Pay benefits, Promotions,
Recognition, Workspace,
Learning and Interesting
job
Other’s inputs
Skills, Reputation, Effort,
Perception Hours, Performance and
of equity/ Experience
inequity
 Equity Theory Model
• Outcome/input ratio: The value of the outcome
you receive divided by the values of the inputs that
you provide in the exchange relationship
• We compare our outcome/input ratio with that of
a comparison other
Elements of Equity Theory

 Outcome/input ratio
 Inputs – what employee contributes (e.g., skill)
 Outcomes – what employee receives (e.g., pay)
 Comparison other
 Person/people against whom we compare our ratio
 Not easily identifiable
 Equity evaluation
 Compare outcome/input ratio with the comparison other
 Under reward
inequity
People believe that
their
outcome/input is
Equity condition lower than the Over-reward
People believe that comparison other’s inequity
their condition
outcome/input People believe that their
ratio is similar to ratio of outcomes/inputs
the ratio of the is higher than the
comparison of comparison other’s ratio
others

Consequences
of equity
 Reduce the comparison other’s
Increase the comparison outcomes
other’s input
Ensuring that that the co-worker
Ask the better paid co- get less desirable jobs or working
worker to do large share of conditions or asking the company
work to reduce the co-works pay

Increase our outcomes

Ask for a pay raises, others
make unauthorized use of
company resources Change our perception
Believe that the co-workers
really is doing more (working
Reduce our input longer hour) or that the
higher outcomes (better
Working more slowly, office) has or she receives
offering fewer suggestions, really aren't so much better
and engaging in less that what you get
organizational citizenship
behaviour
Correcting
inequity
feelings Leave the field
Change the Avoid thinking about
comparison other the inequity by keeping
Compare yourself to away from the work
someone else closer to site, take more sick
your situation (job leave, move to another
duties, pay scale) department or resign
from the company
 Individual Differences: Equity Sensitivity
• People who are under rewarded: They might still prefer
equal outcome/input ratios, but they don’t mind if others
receive more than they do for the same inputs
• People who fit the standard equity theory model: They
want their outcome/input ratio to be equal with others
• People who feel more comfortable when they receive
proportionately more than others: They might accept
having the same outcome/input ratio as others, but they
would prefer receiving more than others performing the
same work
 Evaluating Equity Theory
• The theory isn’t so easy to put into practice
because it doesn’t identify the comparison other
and doesn’t indicate which inputs or outcomes are
most valuable to each employee
• It incorrectly assumes people are individualistic,
rational and selfish
• It explains only some of our feelings or fairness or
justice in the workplace
 PROCEDURAL JUSTICE
• Refers to the fairness of the procedures used to
decide the distribution of resources
Ways to Improve Procedural Justice
Giving employees
“voice” in the progress;
encourage them to
present their facts and
perspectives on the
issue

They are given a full

explanation of the
decision and their
concerns are treated
with respect
Consequences of Procedural Justice

Employee react to restore

their self-concept and
Has a strong influence on
restore their status and
a person’s emotions and
power in the relationship
motivation
with the wrong doing of
the injustice

Employees also engage in

these counterproductive
behaviors to educate the
decision makers, trying to
minimize the likelihood of
future injustices
END OF CHAPTER 4