ACTIVITY #2
THEORIES RELATED TO THE LEARNERS’DEVELOPMENT
1. Sigmund Freud
3 Components of Personality
Perhaps Freud's single most enduring
and important idea was that the human
psyche (personality) has more than one
aspect.
Freud's personality theory (1923) saw
the psyche structured into three parts
(i.e., tripartite), the id, ego and superego,
all developing at different stages in our
lives. These are systems, not parts of the
brain, or in any way physical.
What is the id?
The id is the primitive and instinctive
component of personality. It consists of
all the inherited (i.e., biological)
components of personality present at
birth, including the sex (life) instinct –
Eros (which contains the libido), and the
aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos.
The id is the impulsive
(and unconscious) part of our psyche
which responds directly and immediately
to basic urges, needs, and desires. The
personality of the newborn child is all id
and only later does it develop an ego and
super-ego.
The id remains infantile in its function
throughout a person's life and does not
change with time or experience, as it is
not in touch with the external world. The
id is not affected by reality, logic or the
everyday world, as it operates within the
unconscious part of the mind.
The id operates on the pleasure principle
(Freud, 1920) which is the idea that
every wishful impulse should be
satisfied immediately, regardless of the
consequences. When the id achieves its
demands, we experience pleasure when
it is denied we experience ‘unpleasure’
or tension.
The id engages in primary process
thinking, which is primitive, illogical,
irrational, and fantasy oriented. This
form of process thinking has no
comprehension of objective reality, and
is selfish and wishful in nature.
What is the Ego?
The ego is 'that part of the id which has
been modified by the direct influence of
the external world.'
The ego develops to mediate between
the unrealistic id and the external real
world. It is the decision-making
component of personality. Ideally, the
ego works by reason, whereas the id is
chaotic and unreasonable.
The ego operates according to the reality
principle, working out realistic ways of
satisfying the id’s demands, often
compromising or postponing satisfaction
to avoid negative consequences of
society. The ego considers social
realities and norms, etiquette and rules in
deciding how to behave.
 aggression. It also has the function of
persuading the ego to turn to moralistic
goals rather than simply realistic ones
and to strive for perfection.

Like the id, the ego seeks pleasure (i.e.,

tension reduction) and avoids pain, but
unlike the id, the ego is concerned with
devising a realistic strategy to obtain
pleasure. The ego has no concept of right
or wrong; something is good simply if it
achieves its end of satisfying without
causing harm to itself or the id.
Often the ego is weak relative to the
headstrong id, and the best the ego can
do is stay on, pointing the id in the right
direction and claiming some credit at the
end as if the action were its own.
If the ego fails in its attempt to use the
reality principle, and anxiety is
experienced, unconscious defense
mechanisms are employed, to help ward
off unpleasant feelings (i.e., anxiety) or
make good things feel better for the
individual.
The ego engages in secondary process
thinking, which is rational, realistic, and
orientated towards problem-solving. If a
plan of action does not work, then it is
thought through again until a solution is
found. This is known as reality testing
and enables the person to control their
impulses and demonstrate self-control,
via mastery of the ego.
An important feature of clinical and
social work is to enhance ego
functioning and help the client test
reality through assisting the client to
think through their options.
The superego consists of two systems:
The conscience and the ideal self. The
conscience can punish the ego through
causing feelings of guilt. For example, if
the ego gives in to the id's demands, the
superego may make the person feel bad
through guilt.
The ideal self (or ego-ideal) is an
imaginary picture of how you ought to
be, and represents career aspirations,
how to treat other people, and how to
behave as a member of society.
Behavior which falls short of the ideal
self may be punished by the superego
through guilt. The super-ego can also
reward us through the ideal self when we
behave ‘properly’ by making us feel
proud.
If a person’s ideal self is too high a
standard, then whatever the person does
will represent failure. The ideal self and
conscience are largely determined
in childhood from parental values and
how you were brought up.
5 Psychosexual Stages of Development

What is the superego?

The superego incorporates the values
and morals of society which are learned
from one's parents and others. It
develops around the age of 3 – 5 years
during the phallic stage of psychosexual
development.
The superego's function is to control the
id's impulses, especially those which
society forbids, such as sex and
Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year) In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the
person who wants to share things with
In the first stage of psychosexual
you.  They like giving things away.  In
development, the libido is centered in a
essence, they are 'sharing their
baby's mouth. During the oral stages, the
s**t’!’ An anal-expulsive personality is
baby gets much satisfaction from putting
also messy, disorganized and rebellious.
all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy
the libido, and thus its id demands.  Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)
Which at this stage in life are oral, or
The phallic stage is the third stage of
mouth orientated, such as sucking,
psychosexual development, spanning the
biting, and breastfeeding. 
ages of three to six years, wherein the
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to infant's libido (desire) centers upon their
an oral fixation in later life.  We see oral genitalia as the erogenous zone.
personalities all around us such as
The child becomes aware of anatomical
smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and
sex differences, which sets in motion the
thumb suckers.  Oral personalities
conflict between erotic attraction,
engage in such oral behaviors,
resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear
particularly when under stress.
which Freud called the Oedipus
complex (in boys) and the Electra
complex (in girls). 
Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)
This is resolved through the process of
During the anal stage of psychosexual
identification, which involves the child
development, the libido becomes
adopting the characteristics of the same
focused on the anus, and the child
sex parent.
derives great pleasure from defecating. 
The child is now fully aware that they Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)
are a person in their own right and that
The latency stage is the fourth stage of
their wishes can bring them into conflict
psychosexual development, spanning the
with the demands of the outside world
period of six years to puberty. During
(i.e., their ego has developed). 
this stage the libido is dormant and no
Freud believed that this type of conflict further psychosexual development takes
tends to come to a head in potty training, place (latent means hidden). 
in which adults impose restrictions on
Freud thought that most sexual impulses
when and where the child can defecate. 
are repressed during the latent stage, and
The nature of this first conflict with
sexual energy can be sublimated towards
authority can determine the child's future
school work, hobbies, and friendships. 
relationship with all forms of authority.
Much of the child's energy is channeled
Early or harsh potty training can lead to
into developing new skills and acquiring
the child becoming an anal-retentive
new knowledge, and play becomes
personality who hates mess, is
largely confined to other children of the
obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful
same gender.
of authority.  They can be stubborn and
tight-fisted with their cash and
possessions.
Genital Stage (puberty to adult)
This is all related to pleasure got from
The genital stage is the last stage of
holding on to their faeces when toddlers,
Freud's psychosexual theory of
and their mum's then insisting that they
personality development, and begins in
get rid of it by placing them on the potty
puberty.  It is a time of adolescent sexual
until they perform!
experimentation, the successful
Not as daft as it sounds.  The anal resolution of which is settling down in a
expulsive, on the other hand, underwent loving one-to-one relationship with
a liberal toilet-training regime during the another person in our 20's.
anal stage.
Sexual instinct is directed to
heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-
pleasure like during the phallic stage. 
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual
instinct in adults was through
heterosexual intercourse.  Fixation and
conflict may prevent this with the
consequence that sexual perversions may
develop. 
For example, fixation at the oral stage
may result in a person gaining sexual
pleasure primarily from kissing and oral
sex, rather than sexual intercourse.
2. Erik Erikson
8 Stages of Psychosocial Development
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
The first stage of Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development occurs
between birth and 1 year of age and is
the most fundamental stage in life.
Because an infant is utterly dependent,
developing trust is based on the
dependability and quality of the child's
caregivers.
At this point in development, the child is
utterly dependent upon adult caregivers
for everything they need to survive
including food, love, warmth, safety, and
nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide
adequate care and love, the child will
come to feel that they cannot trust or
depend upon the adults in their life.
Outcomes
If a child successfully develops trust, the
child will feel safe and secure in the
world.2 Caregivers who are inconsistent,
emotionally unavailable, or rejecting
contribute to feelings of mistrust in the
children under their care. Failure to
develop trust will result in fear and a
belief that the world is inconsistent and
unpredictable.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and
Doubt
The second stage of Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development takes place
during early childhood and is focused on
children developing a greater sense of
personal control.
Outcomes
Children who struggle and who are
shamed for their accidents may be left
without a sense of personal control.
Success during this stage of psychosocial
development leads to feelings of
autonomy; failure results in feelings of
shame and doubt.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
The third stage of psychosocial
development takes place during the
preschool years. At this point in
psychosocial development, children
begin to assert their power and control
over the world through directing play
and other social interactions.
Children who are successful at this stage
feel capable and able to lead others.
Those who fail to acquire these skills are
left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and
lack of initiative.
Outcomes
The major theme of the third stage of
psychosocial development is that
children need to begin asserting control
and power over the environment.
Success in this stage leads to a sense of
purpose. Children who try to exert too
much power experience disapproval,
resulting in a sense of guilt.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
The fourth psychosocial stage takes
place during the early school years from
approximately ages 5 to 11. Through
social interactions, children begin to
develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.
Children need to cope with new social
and academic demands. Success leads to
a sense of competence, while failure
results in feelings of inferiority.
Outcomes
Children who are encouraged and
commended by parents and teachers
develop a feeling of competence and
belief in their skills. Those who receive
little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will doubt their
abilities to be successful.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
The fifth psychosocial stage takes place
during the often-turbulent teenage years.
This stage plays an essential role in
developing a sense of personal identity
which will continue to influence
behavior and development for the rest of
a person's life. Teens need to develop a
sense of self and personal identity.
Success leads to an ability to stay true to
yourself, while failure leads to role
confusion and a weak sense of self.
During adolescence, children explore
their independence and develop a sense
of self.
Those who receive proper
encouragement and reinforcement
through personal exploration will
emerge from this stage with a strong
sense of self and feelings of
independence and control. Those who
remain unsure of their beliefs and desires
will feel insecure and confused about
themselves and the future.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Young adults need to form intimate,
loving relationships with other people.
Success leads to strong relationships,
while failure results in loneliness and
isolation. This stage covers the period of
early adulthood when people are
exploring personal relationships.2
Erikson believed it was vital that people
develop close, committed relationships
with other people. Those who are
successful at this step will form
relationships that are enduring and
secure.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Adults need to create or nurture things
that will outlast them, often by having
children or creating a positive change
that benefits other people. Success leads
to feelings of usefulness and
accomplishment, while failure results in
shallow involvement in the world.
During adulthood, we continue to build
our lives, focusing on our career and
family. Those who are successful during
this phase will feel that they are
contributing to the world by being active
in their home and community. Those
who fail to attain this skill will feel
unproductive and uninvolved in the
world.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
The final psychosocial stage occurs
during old age and is focused on
reflecting back on life. At this point in
development, people look back on the
events of their lives and determine if
they are happy with the life that they
lived or if they regret the things they did
or didn't do.
Erikson's theory differed from many
others because it addressed development
throughout the entire lifespan, including
old age. Older adults need to look back
on life and feel a sense of fulfillment.
Success at this stage leads to feelings of
wisdom, while failure results in regret,
bitterness, and despair.
At this stage, people reflect back on the
events of their lives and take stock.
Those who look back on a life they feel
was well-lived will feel satisfied and
ready to face the end of their lives with a
sense of peace. Those who look back
and only feel regret will instead feel
fearful that their lives will end without
accomplishing the things they feel they
should have.
Outcomes
Those who are unsuccessful during this
stage will feel that their life has been
wasted and may experience many
regrets. The person will be left with
feelings of bitterness and despair.
3. Jean Piaget
4 Stages of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive
development suggests that children
move through four different stages of
mental development. His theory focuses
not only on understanding how children
acquire knowledge, but also on
understanding the nature of intelligence.
The Stages
Through his observations of his
children, Piaget developed a stage theory
of intellectual development that included
four distinct stages:
The Sensorimotor Stage
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and
Developmental Changes:
 The infant knows the world through
their movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world
through basic actions such as
sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening
 Infants learn that things continue to
exist even though they cannot be
seen (object permanence)
 They are separate beings from the
people and objects around them
 They realize that their actions can
cause things to happen in the world
around them
During this earliest stage of cognitive
development, infants and toddlers
acquire knowledge through sensory
experiences and manipulating objects. A
child's entire experience at the earliest
period of this stage occurs through basic
reflexes, senses, and motor responses.
The Preoperational Stage
Ages: 2 to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and
Developmental Changes:
 Children begin to think symbolically
and learn to use words and pictures
to represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be
egocentric and struggle to see things
from the perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with
language and thinking, they still tend
to think about things in very concrete
terms.
The foundations of language
development may have been laid during
the previous stage, but it is the
emergence of language that is one of the
major hallmarks of the preoperational
stage of development.
The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and
Developmental Changes
 During this stage, children begin to
thinking logically about concrete
events
 They begin to understand the concept
of conservation; that the amount of
liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to
that in a tall, skinny glass, for
example
 Their thinking becomes more logical
and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic,
or reasoning from specific
information to a general principle
While children are still very concrete
and literal in their thinking at this point
in development, they become much
more adept at using logic.2 The
egocentrism of the previous stage begins
to disappear as kids become better at
thinking about how other people might
view a situation.
The Formal Operational Stage
Ages: 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and
Developmental Changes:
 At this stage, the adolescent or young
adult begins to think abstractly and
reason about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about
moral, philosophical, ethical, social,
and political issues that require
theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or
reasoning from a general principle to
specific information
The final stage of Piaget's theory
involves an increase in logic, the ability
to use deductive reasoning, and an
understanding of abstract ideas. At this
point, people become capable of seeing
multiple potential solutions to problems
and think more scientifically about the
world around them.
4. Lawrence Kohlberg
Kohlberg’s stages of moral
development
Kohlberg identified three levels of moral
reasoning: pre-conventional,
conventional, and post-conventional.
Each level is associated with
increasingly complex stages of moral
development.
Level 1: Preconventional
Throughout the preconventional level, a
child’s sense of morality is externally
controlled. Children accept and believe
the rules of authority figures, such as
parents and teachers.  A child with pre-
conventional morality has not yet
adopted or internalized society’s
conventions regarding what is right or
wrong, but instead focuses largely on
external consequences that certain
actions may bring.
Stage 1: Obedience-and-
Punishment Orientation
Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to
obey rules and avoid being punished. For
example, an action is perceived as
morally wrong because the perpetrator is
punished; the worse the punishment for
the act is, the more “bad” the act is
perceived to be.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for
me?” position, in which right behavior is
defined by whatever the individual
believes to be in their best interest. Stage
two reasoning shows a limited interest in
the needs of others, only to the point
where it might further the individual’s
own interests. As a result, concern for
others is not based on loyalty
or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you
scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours”
mentality. An example would be when a
child is asked by his parents to do a
chore. The child asks “what’s in it for
me?” and the parents offer the child
an incentive by giving him an
allowance.
Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a
child’s sense of morality is tied to
personal and societal relationships.
Children continue to accept the rules of
authority figures, but this is now due to
their belief that this is necessary to
ensure positive relationships and societal
order. Adherence to rules and
conventions is somewhat rigid during
these stages, and a rule’s appropriateness
or fairness is seldom questioned.
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl
Orientation
In stage 3, children want the approval of
others and act in ways to avoid
disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good
behavior and people being “nice” to
others.
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules
and convention because of their
importance in maintaining a functioning
society. Rules are seen as being the same
for everyone, and obeying rules by doing
what one is “supposed” to do is seen as
valuable and important. Moral reasoning
in stage four is beyond the need for
individual approval exhibited in stage
three. If one person violates a law,
perhaps everyone would—thus there is
an obligation and a duty to uphold laws
and rules. Most active members of
society remain at stage four, where
morality is still predominantly dictated
by an outside force.
Level 3: Postconventional
Throughout the postconventional level, a
person’s sense of morality is defined in
terms of more abstract principles and
values. People now believe that some
laws are unjust and should be changed or
eliminated. This level is marked by a
growing realization that individuals are
separate entities from society and that
individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles.
Post-conventional moralists live by their
own ethical principles—principles that
typically include such basic human
rights as life, liberty, and justice—and
view rules as useful but changeable
mechanisms, rather than absolute
dictates that must be obeyed without
question. Because post-conventional
individuals elevate their own moral
evaluation of a situation over social
conventions, their behavior, especially at
stage six, can sometimes be confused
with that of those at the pre-conventional
level. Some theorists have speculated
that many people may never reach this
level of abstract moral reasoning.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
In stage 5, the world is viewed as
holding different opinions, rights, and
values. Such perspectives should be
mutually respected as unique to each
person or community. Laws are regarded
as social contracts rather than rigid
edicts. Those that do not promote the
general welfare should be changed when
necessary to meet the greatest good for
the greatest number of people. This is
achieved through majority decision and
inevitable compromise. Democratic
government is theoretically based on
stage five reasoning.
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal
Orientation
In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on
abstract reasoning using universal ethical
principles. Generally, the chosen
principles are abstract rather than
concrete and focus on ideas such as
equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are
valid only insofar as they are grounded
in justice, and a commitment to justice
carries with it an obligation to disobey
unjust laws. People choose the ethical
principles they want to follow, and if
they violate those principles, they feel
guilty. In this way, the individual acts
because it is morally right to do so (and
not because he or she wants to avoid
punishment), it is in their best interest, it
is expected, it is legal, or it is previously
agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted
that stage six exists, he found it difficult
to identify individuals who consistently
operated at that level.
5. Vygotsky
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal
Development 
Vygotsky created the concept of the
zone of proximal development, often
abbreviated as ZPD, which came to be a
central part of his theory. Language is
the way that a child communicates with
others after they are born and they
continue to learn by interacting with
those around them. Building on his idea
of social interaction as the basis for
learning, he broached the value of a
mentor or teacher in the life of a student.
Vygotsky declared some controversial
statements that went against prominent
educational research at the time. He
dismissed the idea that there was no
ideal age for learning and instead
introduced ideal stages for learning, a
similar opinion as Piaget. He also
explained that the cognitive growth
increased less for students with a higher
intelligence than a lower intelligence
when they entered school. He coined this
term relative achievement, a method that
highlights the departure point of student
learning and not just the end result. This
led Vygotsky into the idea of the ‘zone
of proximal development,’ as it assessed
the change in cognitive development of
students and not just the final outcome.
Students benefit directly from the social
interactions in class, and ideally, reach
their learning potential with the help of
their teacher.
Vygotsky consistently defines the zone
of proximal development as the
difference between the current level of
cognitive development and the potential
level of cognitive development. He
maintains that a student is able to reach
their learning goal by completing
problem-solving tasks with their teacher
or engaging with more competent peers.
Vygotsky believed that a student would
not be able to reach the same level of
learning by working alone. As a student
leaves his zone of current development,
he travels through the zone of proximal
development towards his learning goal.
The zone of proximal development
consists of two important components:
the student’s potential development and
the role of interaction with others.
Learning occurs in the zone of proximal
development after the identification of
current knowledge. The potential
development is simply what the student
is capable of learning.
6. Urie Bronfenbrenner
The Five Environmental Systems
The ecological systems theory holds that
we encounter different environments
throughout our lifespan that may
influence our behavior in varying
degrees. These systems include the
micro system, the mesosystem, the
exosystem, the macro system, and the
chronosystem.
1. The Micro System
The micro system's setting is the direct
environment we have in our lives. Your
family, friends, classmates, teachers,
neighbors and other people who have a
direct contact with you are included in
your micro system. The micro system is
the setting in which we have direct social
interactions with these social agents. The
theory states that we are not mere
recipients of the experiences we have
when socializing with these people in the
micro system environment, but we are
contributing to the construction of such
environment.
2. The Mesosystem
The mesosystem involves the
relationships between the microsystems
in one's life. This means that your family
experience may be related to your school
experience. For example, if a child is
neglected by his parents, he may have a
low chance of developing positive
attitude towards his teachers. Also, this
child may feel awkward in the presence
of peers and may resort to withdrawal
from a group of classmates.
3. The Exosystem
The exosystem is the setting in which
there is a link between the context where
in the person does not have any active
role, and the context where in is actively
participating. Suppose a child is more
attached to his father than his mother. If
the father goes abroad to work for
several months, there may be a conflict
between the mother and the child's social
relationship, or on the other hand, this
event may result to a tighter bond
between the mother and the child.
4. The Macrosystem
The macrosystem setting is the actual
culture of an individual. The cultural
contexts involve the socioeconomic
status of the person and/or his family, his
ethnicity or race and living in a still
developing or a third world country. For
example, being born to a poor family
makes a person work harder every day.
5. The Chronosystem
The chronosystem includes the
transitions and shifts in one's lifespan.
This may also involve the socio-
historical contexts that may influence a
person. One classic example of this is
how divorce, as a major life transition,
may affect not only the couple's
relationship but also their children's
behavior. According to a majority of
research, children are negatively affected
on the first year after the divorce. The
next years after it would reveal that the
interaction within the family becomes
more stable and agreeable.