Performance Characteristics of Centrifugal

Pump
To conduct the performance test on centrifugal pump and to plot the
operating characteristics.

INTRODUCTION

Centrifugal pump is a roto-dynamic machine that imparts energy to

fluid by rotating impeller to increase the pressure of a fluid. These pumps
are commonly used to move liquids through a piping system. When the
fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis it is
accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward into a diffuser or
volute chamber (casing), from where it exits into the downstream piping
system. Centrifugal pumps are used for large discharge through smaller
heads.
The fluid enters the inlet of the centrifugal pump under atmospheric
pressure, and flows into the eye of the impeller. The Centrifugal force
exerted on the liquid by the rotating impeller, moves the liquid away from
the impeller eye and out along the impeller vanes to their extreme tip
where the liquid is then forced against the inside walls of the volute and
out through the discharge of the pump.
Representation of Static Discharge Head, Static Suction Lift and Total
Static Head

Source:
(https://www.pumpsandsystems.com/topics/pumps/characteristics-
centrifugal-pumps-0912)
 Cross Section of Centrifugal pump

Source: A Brief Introduction to Centrifugal Pumps" by Joe Evans, Ph.D

Impeller:

The energy is transferred from the shaft to the impeller and from
the impeller to the water. There are three types of impellers, based on
the number of shrouds.
 Open Impeller: The vanes are cast free on both sides.
 Semi-Open Impeller: The vanes are free on one side and enclosed on
the other.
 Closed Impeller: The vanes are located between the two discs, all in a
single casting.
 Types of Impeller
Source: (https://www.michael-smith-engineers.co.uk/resources/useful-
info/centrifugal-pumps)

Volute Case:

The volute is a curve shaped region that expands in cross-

sectional area as it wraps around the pump casing. The purpose of the
volute is to collect the liquid discharged from the periphery of the
impeller at high velocity and gradually cause a reduction in fluid velocity
by increasing the flow area. This converts the velocity head to static
pressure. The fluid is then discharged from the centrifugal pump through
the discharge connection.
The performance characteristics of centrifugal pump can be
determined by following formulae.
 Total Head, H = Hd + Hs + z

Where,

Hd=Discharge head

Hs=Suction Head

z = difference in the height of pressure gauges

 Input power, I.P = WR x WC x ηm x Np

Where, WR = Watt meter reading

WC = Wattmeter constant
ηm = Efficiency of motor
 Np = Number of phases
 Output power, O.P = γ x Q x H = ρ x g x Q x H

where, ρ = Density of the water

g = Acceleration due to gravity
Q = Discharge
H = Total head

 Efficiency, =

Performance Characteristics of Centrifugal

Pump
 These procedure steps will be followed on the simulator

1. Open the centrifugal pump experiment and click on the arrow to

start as shown in the circle.
2. Click on the green button to start the pump.
3. Click on the arrow at the bottom of the page to proceed.
4. Rotate the handle to set the speed of the motor as shown below.
5. Insert the tachometer into the pump to determine the speed.
6. Click on the arrow at the bottom of the page to proceed.
7. Rotate the valve to fill the water in the channel till the crest level.
8. Turn the knob of hook gauge to know the initial reading.
9. Increase the flow by turning the valve.
10. Turn the knob of hook gauge to get the final reading and calculate
Actual Discharge.
11. Click on the arrow at the bottom of the page to proceed.
12. Click on the delivery gauge to determine the delivery head.
13. Click on the arrow at the bottom of the page to proceed.
14. Click on the suction gauge to know the suction head.
15. Click on the arrow at the bottom of the page to proceed.
16. Click on the wattmeter to get the wattmeter reading.
17. Click on the arrow at the bottom of the page to proceed.
18. Calculate the Efficiency and click NEXT to proceed.
19. Repeat the above steps for certain number of trials and click on the
red button to stop the pump and click NEXT.
20. Click on each label to view the plotted graph.
Performance Characteristics of Francis
Turbine
To conduct performance test on francis turbine under various heads,
speeds and loads and to plot the operating characteristics.

INTRODUCTION

The Francis turbine is a reaction turbine, in which the fluid changes

pressure as it moves through the turbine, giving up its energy. The
turbine is located between the high pressure water source and the low
pressure water exit. The inlet of turbine is in spiral shape. The guide
vanes direct the water tangentially to the turbine wheel which is known
as a runner. This radial flow of water acts on the runner's vanes, causing
the runner to spin. The guide vanes may be adjustable to allow efficient
turbine operation for a range of water flow conditions. At the point of exit,
the water leaves with no swirl and very little kinetic or potential energy.
The shape of the turbine's exit tube helps to decelerate the flow of water
and recover the pressure.
 Sectional View of Francis Turbine

Source: (https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Basic-features-of-a-
Francis-turbine-6_fig1_326934034)

Main parts:

1. Spiral casing: The runner is completely enclosed in an air-tight

spiral casing. The casing and runner are always full of water. The water
from the penstocks enters the casing in which area of cross-section of
the casing goes on decreasing gradually. Since the casing is spiral
shape, the water enters the runner at constant velocity throughout the
circumference of the runner.
2. Guide vanes: The guide vanes allow the water to strike the
vanes fixed on the runner without any shake at the inlet. Also by a
suitable arrangement, the width between two adjacent vanes of a guide’s
mechanism can be adjusted, so that the amount of water striking the
runner can be varied.
3. Runner/Impeller: It is a circular wheel on which a series of
radial curved vanes are fixed and the surface of the vanes is made very
smooth. The radial curved vanes are so shaped that the water enters
and leaves the runner without shock. The runners are made of cast
steel, cast iron or stainless steel. The runner is connected to the shaft.
4. Draft tube: Draft tube is or pipe of gradually increasing area
which is used for discharging the water from the turbine to the tail race.
The pressure at the exit of the runner is generally less than atmosphere
pressure. Hence the water is discharged to tail race through the draft
tube.

Let,
= Radius of wheel at inlet of the vane
= Radius of wheel at outlet of the vane
= Angular speed of the wheel
 Tangential speed of the vane at inlet =
Tangential speed of the vane at outlet =
The velocity triangles at inlet and outlet are drawn as shown in
figure. and are the angles between the absolute velocities of jet and
vane at inlet and outlet respectively. and are vane angles at inlet and
outlet respectively.
The mass of water striking a series of vanes per second =
where, a is the area of jet or flow and is the velocity of flow at
inlet.
The momentum of water striking a series of vanes per second at
inlet is given by the product of mass of water striking per second and the
component of velocity of flow at inlet = , where is the
velocity component of flow at inlet along tangential direction. Similarly
momentum of water striking a series of vanes per second at outlet is
given by , where is the velocity component of flow at inlet
along tangential direction and the -ve sign is because the velocity
component is acting in the opposite direction. Now angular momentum
per second at inlet is given by the product of momentum of water at inlet
and its radial distance = and angular momentum per
second at inlet =−
Torque exerted by water on the wheel is given by impulse
momentum theorem as the rate of change of angular momentum

Work done per second on the wheel = Torque x Angular velocity

=

As and
 We can simplify the above equation as

In the above case, always the velocity of whirl at outlet is given by

both magnitude and direction as

If the discharge is radial at outlet, then and

Hence the equation reduces to,

Efficiency of the reaction turbine is given by,

Note: The value of the velocity of whirl at outlet is to be substituted

as along with its sign.

Speed ratio =

Where, H is the Head on turbine, it varies from 0.6 to 0.9.

Flow ratio=

Where, is the velocity of flow at inlet, it varies from 0.15 to 0.3.

Discharge flowing through the reaction turbine is given by
 Where, and are the diameter of the runner at inlet and
outlet. and are the width of the runner at inlet and
outlet. and velocity at inlet and outlet. If the thickness of the
vane is to be considered, then
The area through which flow takes place is given by

Where, n is the number of vanes mounted on the runner.

Discharge flowing through the reaction turbine is given by

The head on the turbine is given by

and

Hydraulic efficiency is

If the discharge at the exit is radial then ,

Hence hydraulic efficiency is

Comparison of Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine

Francis Turbine Kaplan Turbine

Normal range of head:30-550m Normal range of head:1.5-80m

 Francis Turbine Kaplan Turbine

Number of vanes:15-25 Number of vanes:3-8

Specific speed:50-250 60-400 Specific speed:300-1000

Cavitation susceptibility Greater cavitation susceptibility

Overall efficiency is good Overall efficiency is better than Francis turb

Requires large area Requires less area

Normal speed of runner:90-1000 Normal speed of runner:70-600

Flow of water is radially and mixed flow type Flow of water is axial

Flow regulation is by guide vanes Flow regulation is by needle valve fitted into n

ines works by medium discharge at average head Turbines works by high discharge low hea

Cavitation:

Cavitation is an effect mainly on the reaction turbine when water

pressure drops below the critical pressure (generally vapour pressure) at
constant temperature and vapour cavities are formed and grow based on
the dynamic pressure reduction. Cavitation in hydraulic machines
negatively affects their performance and may cause severe damages.
Cavitation commonly occurs in hydraulic turbines, around runner exit
and in the draft tube.
Cavitation is a phenomenon occurs when the static pressure of the
liquid falls below its vapour pressure, the liquid boils and large number of
small bubbles of vapours are formed. These bubbles mainly formed due
to low pressure and carried by the stream to higher pressure zones
where the vapours condense and the bubbles suddenly collapse, as the
vapours are condensed to liquid again. This results in the formation of a
cavity and the surrounding liquid rushes to fill it from all direction which
collide at the centre of cavity giving rise to a very high local pressure
whose magnitude may be as high as 7000 atm. Formation of cavity and
high pressure are repeated many thousand times a second. This causes
pitting on the metallic surface of runner blades or draft tube. The material
then fails by fatigue, added by corrosion.
There are two ways to reduce the cavitation damage. One involves
optimizing the hydraulic design of equipment and the other involves
developing coatings for the substrates of wetted parts, which can
prolong the overhaul interval of hydraulic components.
Cavitation in general is slow process but the effect of cavitation is
severe. Damaged caused by cavitation, if summarized are: erosion of
material from turbine parts, distortion of blade angle, loss of efficiency
due to erosion/distortion (Santa JF et al, 2009) . Prof. D Thoma
Suggested a dimensionless number called as Thoma's Cavitation factor
σ (sigma), which can be used for determining the region where cavitation
takes place in reaction turbines

Where,
is the atmospheric pressure head in m of water
is the suction pressure at outlet of reaction turbine in m of water
or height of turbine runner above the tail water surface,
is vapour pressure head,
is the net head on the turbine in m of water
The value of depends on (specific speed) of the turbine and for
a turbine of given the factor can be reduced up-to a certain value up
to which its efficiency, remains constant. A further decrease in value
of can be reduced up-to a certain value up to which its
efficiency, remains constant. A further decrease in value of results in
a sharp fall in . The value of at this turning point is called critical
cavitation factor . The value of for different turbines may be
determined with the help of following empirical relationships:
For Francis Turbine:

The values of from equation (1) is compared with the value

of from equation (2) and if value of is greater than , cavitation will
not occur in that turbine.
Francis Turbine Working Principle

Source: (https://www.ishwaranand.com/2020/09/francis-turbine.html)

Performance characteristics of Francis Turbine:

Performance characteristics are of three types:

a. Constant head characteristics:
In order to obtain these curves the tests are performed on the
turbine by maintaining a constant head and a constant gate opening and
the speed is raised by changing the load on the turbine.
 Constant Head Characteristics

Source: (http://mechanics4change.blogspot.com/2017/12/turbine-
characteristic-curve.html)

b. Constant speed characteristics:

In order to obtain these curves the tests are performed on the
turbine by operating them at constant speed.
 Constant Speed Characteristics

Source: (http://mechanics4change.blogspot.com/2017/12/turbine-
characteristic-curve.html)

c. Constant efficiency curves:

These curves show the efficiency of the turbine for all conditions of
running and hence these are also known as universal characteristic
curves.
Constant Speed Characteristics
 These procedure steps will be followed on the simulator

Francis Turbine-Constant Head

1. Open the Francis Turbine- Constant Head experiment and click on the NEXT
button shown at the bottom right corner and also description provided.
2. Click on the green button to start the pump and select the head from the drop
down menu,click NEXT button to proceed.
3. Click on the hand to rotate the inlet valve and allow the water to flow, click NEXT
button to proceed.
4. Click on to add weight on the pan and calculate the Torque, click NEXT button to
proceed.
5. Click on to insert a Tachometer to note the speed of the motor
6. Note down the speed and click NEXT button to proceed.
7. Click on the hook gauge to note the readings, calculate the Actual
Discharge,answer the question displayed and click NEXT button to proceed.
8. Calculate the efficiency,unit power, unit speed, unit discharge with the help of
formulas given, click NEXT button to proceed.
9. Repeat the above steps for certain number of trials and click on the red button to
stop the pump, click NEXT button to proceed.
10. Click on each label button to see the different graphs plotted.
 Francis Turbine-Constant Speed

1. Open the Francis Turbine- Constant Speed experiment and click on the NEXT
button shown at the bottom right corner and also description provided.
2. Click on the green button to start the pump,click NEXT button to proceed.
3. Select the constant speed to be taken from the drop down menu. Click OK.
4. Click on the hand to add weight on the pan, calculate the torque and click NEXT
button to proceed.
5. Click on to insert a Tachometer to determine the speed of the motor.
6. Note down the speed and click NEXT button to proceed.
7. Note down the supply head reading and click NEXT button to proceed.
8. Note down the vacuum head reading and calculate the Total Pressure click
NEXT button to proceed.
9. Click on the hook gauge to note the readings, calculate the Actual
Discharge,click NEXT button to proceed.
10. Calculate the efficiency with the help of formulas given, click NEXT
button to proceed.
11. Repeat the above steps for certain number of trials and click on the
red button to stop the pump, click NEXT button to proceed.
12. Click on each label button to see the different graphs plotted.
Friction in Pipes

Theory
When a gas or a liquid flows through a pipe, the flow of fluid through a
pipe is resisted by viscous shear stresses within the fluid and the turbulence
that occurs along the internal pipe wall. Due to this there will be a loss of
pressure in the fluid, because energy is required to overcome the viscous or
frictional forces exerted by the walls of the pipe on the moving fluid. In addition
to the energy lost due to frictional forces, there will be a loss in energy when
the fluid flows through fittings, such as valves, elbows, contractions and
expansions. This loss in pressure is mainly due to the local flow separation as it
moves through such fittings. The pressure loss in pipe flows is commonly
referred to as head loss. The frictional losses are mainly caused in a straight
pipe, friction loss induced in fittings, such as bends, couplings, valves, or
transitions in hose or pipe accounts for minor losses. The frictional losses are
referred to as major losses (hf) while losses through fittings, etc, are
called minor losses (hm). Together they make up the total head losses (h) for
pipe flows.
 Types of fittings

In practice, loss in a pipe flow comes into picture in cases like calculation
of rate of flow in the pipes connecting two reservoirs at different levels or to
calculate the additional head required to double the rate of flow along an
existing pipeline. These pipe losses are dependent on number of factors like
viscosity of the fluid, the size of the internal pipe diameter, the internal
roughness of the inner surface of the pipe, the change in elevation between the
ends of the pipe, material of the pipe and the length of the pipe along which
the fluid travels.

Pipes with smooth surface does not account for larger friction loss,
whereas pipes with less smooth walls such as concrete, cast iron and steel fluid
requires large energy to overcome the friction induced in a pipe due to the
viscosity of liquid. Rougher the inner wall of the pipe, more will be the pressure
loss due to friction.

Internal surface of smooth and rough pipes

 (Source: Haung et al 2013)

Friction loss in pipe

The friction loss in a uniform, straight sections of pipe, known as "major

loss", is caused by the effects of viscosity, the movement of fluid molecules
against each other or against the (possibly rough) wall of the pipe. Here, it is
greatly affected by whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.

Laminar Flow:It occurs when the fluid flows in parallel layers without adjacent
mixing between the layers. In this type of flow there are neither eddies nor
cross currents, with fast flow over the center part of the pipe and no movement
near the pipe surface. The roughness of the pipe surface influences neither the
fluid flow nor the friction loss. For laminar flow Reynolds’s number (Re) <
2100.
Turbulent Flow:It occurs when the liquid is moving fast with mixing between
layers. The speed of the fluid at a point continuously undergoes changes in
both magnitude and direction. For turbulent flow Reynolds's number 2100 <
Re < 4000

Transitional flow: is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow, with turbulence

flow in the center of the pipe and laminar flow near the edges of the pipe. Each
of these flows behaves in different manners in terms of their frictional energy
loss while flowing and have different equations that predict their behaviour. For
transitional flow Reynolds's number Re > 4000.

It is useful to characterize that roughness as the ratio of the roughness

height k to the pipe diameter D, the "relative roughness". Three sub-domains
pertain to turbulent flow:
 In the smooth pipe domain, friction loss is relatively insensitive to
roughness.
 In the rough pipe domain, friction loss is dominated by the
relative roughness and is insensitive to Reynolds number.
 In the transition domain, friction loss is sensitive to both.

The Darcy Equation is a theoretical equation that predicts the frictional

energy loss in a pipe based on the velocity of the fluid and the resistance due to
friction. It is used almost exclusively to calculate head loss due to friction in
turbulent flow.

Where:
  hf = Friction head loss
 f = Darcy resistance factor
 L = Length of the pipe
 D = Pipe diameter
 v = Mean velocity
 g = acceleration due to gravity

In turbulent flow, the friction factor, f depends upon the Reynolds

number and on the relative roughness of the pipe, k/D, where, k is the
roughness parameter and D is the inner diameter of the pipe. When k is very
small compared to the pipe diameter D i.e., k/D > 0, f depends only on Re.
When k/D is a significant value, at low Re, the flow can be considered as in
smooth regime (no effect of roughness). As Re increases, the flow becomes
transitionally rough, called as transition regime in which the friction factor rises
above the smooth value and is a function of both k and Re and Re increases
more and more the flow eventually reaches a fully rough regime in which f is
independent of Re. For design purposes, the frictional characteristics of round
pipes, both smooth and rough are summarized by the friction factor chart,
which is a log-log of fanning friction factor vs Re which is based on Moody's
chart.
Procedure
Objective:
To determine friction in pipes.
Steps:
Open Friction in Pipes experiment, a window will appear as shown.

Select the required diameter of pipe, then click NEXT button.

Click on the selected pipe inlet valve to allow the flow through it.
Click on main inlet valve to allow the flow through it and then click on pipe valve to allow
water flow to test for air bubbles.
Click on knot to change from isolated position to air-vent position and again click to
change it to read position.
Now click on tank outlet valve to open and allow flow, note the manometer reading.
Here click on tank outlet valve to close and then calculate Head Loss value.
Calculate the discharge, velocity and analytical friction factor with the help the observation
given here.
Repeat the same procedure for other trials.
 Performance Characteristics of Hydraulic
Ram
To conduct the performance test on hydraulic ram and to plot the
operating characteristics.

INTRODUCTION

Everything on earth requires energy to carry out work. Various

technologies are used to transform one source of energy to another like
chemical energy of the fuel into mechanical energy, electricity to
transform electrical energy into potential energy of the lifted water. There
are two types of energy conversion system:
1. Hydrostatic system: In this system transmission is due to hydraulic
pressure. The main elements are,
1. Pumping unit: That act as a power source to develop the hydraulic
pressure from mechanical work, usually it is a rotary or a reciprocating
pump.
2. Transmission line: Through the transmission line power and energy are
transmitted from the place of production to the place of its necessity.
3. Hydraulic motor: This reconverts the hydraulic pressure into
mechanical work. Again this can be of rotary or reciprocating type in the
form of cylinder and piston. Piston in the cylinder is moved by the fluid
pressure providing useful work. E.g. Hydraulic press, lift, crane etc.

2. Hydro Kinematics system: In this transmission is due to change in the

velocity and the direction of fluid flow. With negligible change in the
pressure of the fluid it has two main elements.
1. Pump: Impeller driven by the driving shaft.
2. Turbine Runner to run the driven shaft: There is circulation of oil from
the pump impeller to the runner that transmits power. e.g. Hydraulic
Ram.

The hydraulic Ram pump or hydram is a complete automatic

device that uses the energy in the flowing water such as spring, stream
or river to pump part of the water to a height above that of the source.
With a continuous flow of water a hydram operates continuously with no
external energy source. It works on the principle of water hammer effect
in inertia force of water in a pipe line. When a flowing fluid is brought to
rest suddenly a rise of pressure occurs. This can be utilized to raise a
portion of water to a higher level. It does not require any external power
for its operation. It consists of a two moving parts waste valve and
delivery valve, both being none return valves. The delivery pipe is
connected to an air vessel to carry the air compressed. A delivery pipe
connects the available water source to the valve chamber.
At particular moment assume that the delivery valve is closed and
the waste valve open. Water flows down the supply pipe into the valve
chamber and then through the waste valves into waste water tunnel. As
the velocity of water in the pipe increases, the dynamic pressure on the
underside of the waste valve becomes high. This closes the waste valve
which was open due to its own weight. With the sudden closure of the
waste valve the velocity reduces to zero and the pressure in the valve
chamber increases. The higher pressure of water forcibly opens the
delivery. A pressure vessel containing air cushions the hydraulic
pressure shock when the waste valve closes, it improves the pumping
efficiency by allowing more constant flow thorough the delivery pipe.

Working principle:

Ram pump have a cyclic pumping action that produces their

characteristic beat during operation. The cycle can be divided into three
phases; acceleration, delivery, and recoil.
 Acceleration:

When the waste valve is open the water accelerates down the
drive pipe and discharges through the waste valve. As the flow increases
it reaches a speed where the drag force is sufficient to start closing the
valve. Once it has begun to move the valve closes very quickly.

Delivery:

As the waste water valve slams shut it stops the flow of water
through it. The water that has been flowing in the drive pipe has
considerable momentum which has to be dissipated. For a fraction of
second, the water in the body of the pump is compressed causing a
large surge in pressure. This type of pressure rise is known as water
hammer. As the pressure rises higher than that in the air chamber it
forces water through the delivery valve. The delivery valve stays open
until the water in the drive pipe has almost completely slowed and the
pressure in the pump body drops below the delivery pressure. The
delivery valve then closes, stopping any back flow from the air vessel
into the pump and drive pipe.

Recoil:

The remaining flow in the drive pipe recoils against the closed
delivery valve. This causes the pressure in the body of the pump to drop
low enough for the waste valve to reopen. The recoil also sucks a small
amount of air in through the snifter valve. The air sits under the delivery
valve until the next cycle when it is pumped with the delivery water into
the air vessel. This ensures that the air vessel stays full of air. When the
recoil energy is finished, water begins to accelerate down the pipe and
out through the open waste valve, starting the cycle again. Throughout
the cycle the pressure in the air vessel steadily forces water up the
delivery pipe. The air vessel smoothes the pulsing in flow through the
delivery valve into an even outflow up the delivery pipe. The pumping
cycle happens very quickly typically 40 to 120 times per minute.
 Water Hammer Effect

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/niravdon/full-report-of-hydraulic-
ramp-pump-53604068

Components of Hydraulic Ram

A hydraulic ram consists of a supply, a drive pipe, waste valve,

delivery valve, snifter valve, valve chamber, ram, a supply line and a
storage tank.
Supply: The intake supply line is designed to keep trash and sand
out of the supply since these can plug up the ram. If the water is not
naturally free of these materials, the intake should be screened by
placing suitable screening device. When the source is remote from the
ram site, the supply line can be designed to conduct the water to a drive
pipe. If needed the supply line should be at least one pipe diameter
larger than the drive pipe.
Drive pipe: For maximum efficiency the drive pipe must be of a
non-flexible material. Generally the drive pipe will be of galvanized iron
pipe, although other materials cased in concrete will work. In order to
reduce head loss due to friction, the length to diameter ratio of the pipe
should be within the range of 150-1,000.
Snifter valve: It is a device to allow the air to enter the air vessel
located above delivery valve but below delivery pipe. It is very important
for air to enter because air in the air vessel mixes with water while
hydram is running. As a result the volume of the air in the air vessel
decreases and this will bring about the reduction in pump efficiency, thus
it is important to have snifter valve. In short the snifter valve enables the
maintenance of a necessary air level inside the air vessel.
Ram: Rams will be constructed using commercially available
check valves or by fabricating check valves securely attached to an
immovable base, preferably concrete. Rams can be used in tandem to
pump water if one ram is not large enough to supply the need. Each ram
must have its own drive pipe, but all can pump through a common
delivery pipe securely attached to an immovable base, preferably
concrete, and that the waste-water is drained away. The pump can-not
operate when submerged.

Cross-section of Hydraulic Ram

Source: (https://www.brighthubengineering.com/hydraulics-civil-
engineering/44729-learn-about-hydraulic-ram-pumps)

Let Q be the discharge from the supply tank to the valve box and q
be the discharge from the valve box to delivery tank. Also let hs and hd be
the head of water in the supply tank and delivery tank respectively above
valve box.
Then the energy supplied by the supply tank is

The energy delivered by the ram is

The efficiency of the ram may be written as

The efficiency is known as D'Aubuisson's efficiency. Another

efficiency called Rankine's efficiency was defined based on the fact
that amount of water is lifted by a height by utilizing ( )
amount of water.

Accordingly the Rankine's efficiency is,

These hydraulic ram can be used for water supply to country side
and remote areas where a source having large quantity of water at a
smaller heights is available.
These procedure steps will be followed on the simulator

Open the Hydraulic Ram experiment and click on the arrow mark shown at the
bottom right corner.
Click on the green button to start the pump and click on NEXT button.
Click on inlet valve and click on hand to rotate the inlet valve.
Note the supply head reading and click on the NEXT button as shown in circle.
Click on delivery valve and click on the hand to open the delivery valve.
Note the delivery head of water and click on NEXT button.
Note the time and calculate the discharge in the waste water tank which is collected
upto 10cm height over a period of time. Click on NEXT button.
Note the time and calculate the discharge in the useful water tank which is collected
upto 10cm height over a period of time. Click on NEXT button.
Note the results of first trial and click on NEXT button.

. Repeat the same procedure, after certain trials, click on the red
button to stop the pump and click on the NEXT button to see the characteristic
graphs.
. Click on each label button to see the different characteristic graph.
Impact of Jet

Theory
The liquid comes out in the form of a jet from the outlet of a nozzle,
which is fitted to a pipe through which the liquid if flowing under pressure. If
some plate, which may be fixed or moving, is placed in the path of the jet, a
force is exerted by the jet on the plate. This force is obtained from Newton’s
second law of motion or from impulse-moment equation. Thus impact of jet
means the force exerted by the jet on a plate which may be stationary or
moving. In this chapter, the following cases of the impact jet i.e., the force
exerted by the jet on a plate, will be considered:

1. Force exerted by a jet on a stationary plate when

a. Plate is vertical to the jet,
b. Plate is inclined to the jet, and
c. Plate is curved.

2. Force is exerted by the jet on the moving plate, when

a. Plate is vertical to the jet,
b. Plate is inclined to the jet, and
c. Plate is curved

Force exerted by a jet on a stationary vertical plate :

Consider a jet of water coming out of the nozzle, strikes a flat vertical plate as
shown in the Figure 1.
let,

The jet after striking the plate will move along the plate. But the plate is
right angles to the jet. Hence the jet after striking will get deflected by 90°.
Hence the component of the velocity of the jet, in the direction of the jet, after
striking will be zero. The force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction of
the jet.

= (initial momentum - final momentum)/ time

 For deriving the above equation, we have taken initial velocity minus final
velocity and not final velocity minus initial velocity. If the force exerted on the
jet is to be calculated then final minus the initial velocity is taken. But if the
force exerted by the jet on the plate is to calculated, then initial velocity minus
the final velocity is taken.

Force exerted by a jet on a stationary inclined flat plate :

Let a jet of water, coming out from the nozzle; strike an inclined flat plate as
shown in the figure.2.
Let

v = velocity of the jet in the direction of X

θ = Angle between the jet and the plate

If the plate is assumed smooth and if it is assumed that there is no loss of

energy due to the impact of the jet, then the jet will move over the plate after
striking with a velocity equal to initial velocity i.e., with a velocity V.
Let find the force exerted by the jet on the plate In the direction normal to the
plate. Let this force is represented by Fn
then, Fn = Mass of the jet striking per second × [initial velocity of the jet
before striking in the direction of n - final velocity of the jet after striking in the
direction of n

If the force can be resolved into two components, one in the direction of the jet
and the other perpendicular to the direction of the flow. Then we have,

(along the direction of the flow) and

(perpendicular to flow)

Force exerted by a jet on a stationary cover plate

Jet strikes the curved plate at the centre. Let a jet of water strike a fixed
curved plate at the centre as shown in figure.3. The jet after striking the plate
comes out with the same velocity if the plate is smooth and there is no loss of
energy due to impact of the jet, in the tangential direction of the curved plate.
The velocity at the outlet of the plate can be resolved in to two components,
one in the direction of the jet and the other perpendicular to the direction of
the jet.

Component of velocity In the direction of the jet =

(-ve sign is taken as the velocity at the outlet is in the opposite direction of the
jet of water coming out from nozzle).
Component of the velocity perpendicular to the jet =

Force exerted by the jet In the direction of the jet,

where

v2 = final velocity in the direction of the jet= v cos θ

similarly

where

-ve sign means the force is acting in the downward direction. In this case the

angle of deflection of the jet =

Jet strikes the curved plate at on e end tangentially when the plate is
symmetrical Let the jet strike the curved plate at one end tangentially as shown
in the figure.4. Let the curved is symmetrical about x-axis. Then the angle
made by the tangents at the two ends of the plate will b same.
Let V = Velocity of the jet of water
θ =angle made by jet with x-axis at inlet tip of the curved plate.
If the plate is smooth and loss of energy due to impact is zero, then the velocity
of the water at the outlet tip of the curved plate will be equal to V. The force
exerted by the jet of water in the direction of x and y are
 Jet strikes the curved plate at one end tangentially when the plate is
unsymmetrical When the curve plate is unsymmetrical about x axis, then the
angles made by the tangents drawn at the inlet and outlet tips of the plate with
x-axis will be different.
θ = angle made by the tangent at the tip with the x – axis,
φ = angle made by the tangent at the outlet tip with x-axis.
The two component of the velocity at inlet are

The two component of the velocity at outlet are

∴ The force exerted by the jet of water in the direction o x and y are
Procedure
Objective:
To determine the coefficient of impact of jet on vanes.
Steps:
Open Impact of Jet on Vanes experiment, a window will appear as shown.

Select the type of vanes to be used in the experiment, then click NEXT button
Click on spirit level, and then click on counter balance to move it and make the arm
horizontal.
Here to measure the length of weighing pan and counter balance distance click on scale,
then click NEXT button.
Click on pan, the region will get zoomed, again click on weight to add it to the weighing
pan.
Now open the inlet valve and adjust the counter balance to make arm horizontal.
Click on tank outlet valve to measure the discharge by closing the valve and record time
taken for 5cm rise.
The observation and calculation of the trial is given here. Now repeat the same procedure
for other trials.
Click on graph title to plot the graph.
Performance Characteristics of Kaplan
Turbine
To conduct the performance test on kaplan turbine under constant head
and to plot the operating characteristics.

INTRODUCTION

Turbines are the turbo machines transferring fluid energy into

mechanical energy. Victor Kaplan designed a turbine similar to the
propellers of ships for generating hydropower in locations where large
quantities of water are available under a relatively low head. The Kaplan
Turbine is also called as Propeller Turbine. It has a propeller like blades,
here Instead of displacing the water axially using shaft power and
creating axial thrust, the axial force of water acts on the blades of Kaplan
Turbine and generates shaft power. To generate substantial amount of
power from small heads of water using Kaplan Turbine it is necessary to
have large flow rates through the turbine. Kaplan Turbine is designed to
accommodate the required large flow rates. Consequently the specific
speed of these turbines is high, viz., 300 to 1000.
Kaplan Turbine is an Axial Flow Reaction Turbine, which means
that the flow direction does not change as it crosses the rotor. For Axial
Flow Turbines, the water flows through the runner along the direction
parallel to the axis of rotation of the runner. Reaction Turbine means that
the water at the inlet of the Turbine possesses kinetic energy as well as
pressure energy.
 Kaplan Turbine

Source: (http://engineering.myindialist.com/2009/lab-manual-kaplan-
turbine/#.XWTJpegzbIU)

Components of Kaplan Turbine:

Except the alignment of the blades the construction of the Kaplan

Turbine is very much similar to that of the Francis Turbine.
 Sectional View of Kaplan Turbine

Source: (https://www.brainkart.com/article/Kaplan-turbine_5578)

1. Penstock: It is a waterway used to carry the water from reservoir to

turbine. At the inlet of the penstock trash cracks are used to prevent the
debris going into the turbine.
2. Scroll Casing: The annular channel surrounding the turbine runners to
which water is fed spiral in its layout and also called as spiral casing.
Casing constitutes a closed passage whose cross sectional area
gradually decreases along the flow direction, area is maximum at the
inlet and nearly zero at the outlet.
3. Guide Vane Mechanism: A series of aerofoil shaped vanes arranged
inside the casing to form a number of flow passages between the casing
and the runner blades. The water from the penstocks enters the scroll
casing and then moves to the guide vanes. From the guide vanes, the
water turns through 90° and flows axially through the runner.
4. Hub: For Kaplan Turbine, the shaft of the turbine is vertical. The lower
end of the shaft is made larger and is called ‘Hub’ or ‘Boss’. The vanes
are fixed on the hub and hence Hub acts as runner for axial flow turbine.
5. Runner: The runner of a Kaplan Turbine has four to six or even eight
blades and it closely resembles a shape of a ships propeller. The blades
are attached to the hub, the runner blades are fixed but the angle of
inclination may be adjusted while the turbine is in motion.
 Kaplan Turbine Rotor Blade Positions

Source: (https://www.renewablesfirst.co.uk/hydropower/hydropower-
learning-centre/kaplan-turbines/)

6. Draft Tube: The draft tube is a pipe or passage of gradually increasing

cross sectional area which connects the runner exit to the tail race. It
may be made of cast or plate steel or concrete. It permits the negative or
suction head to be established at the runner exit and also converts large
proportion of velocity energy rejected from the runner into useful
pressure energy.
Specifications:
1. Type – Reaction turbine
2. Type of flow – Axial
3. Head – Low (below 40 m)
4. Number of blades on runner – 3 or 4 (max. 6)
5. Specific speed – High - 250 to 850
6. Discharge – High
Operations & Maintenance:
It is commonly accepted that turbines normally suffer from a
progressive deterioration in performance over time. Usual causes
include cavitation damage, abrasive erosion wear, galvanic corrosion,
striking damage from debris passing through, and errors in welding
repairs to original blade profiles and surface finish. A certain amount of
cavitation is inherent in a Kaplan runner, primarily due to gaps between
the blade inner periphery and hub, and between the blade outer
periphery and throat rings. Kaplan runner blades are designed with
stress relief grooves at the leading and trailing sides of the blade
intersection. These grooves, located to minimize the possibility of
cracking in the high stress areas of the blade create cavities in the flow
profile which cause downstream disturbances in the form of low pressure
vertices and can result in cavitation erosion on the hub and nose cone.
Cavitation is unavoidable in Kaplan turbine because there is huge
pressure drop associated with energy extraction from fluid. Cladding with
309L stainless steel welding electrode provides some cavitation
resistance. Turbine shaft areas near the shaft seal that are exposed to
water should be sealed with a robust coating such as an epoxy paint to
prevent corrosion of the shaft. Adequate coating of the turbine wetted
components not only prevents corrosion but has added benefits of
improved performance. The typical areas of cavitation damage are
shown in the figure.

Deterioration in Kaplan Turbine

Source: (HAP project 2012)

 Comparison between reaction turbine and impulse turbine:

Reaction Turbine

Only a fraction of the available hydraulic energy is converted All the available
into kinetic energy before the fluid enters the runner. energy by a nozz

Both pressure and velocity change as the fluid passes through It is the velocity o
the runner. Pressure at inlet is much higher than at the outlet.

The runner must be enclosed within a watertight casing (scroll Water-tight casin
casing). function to perfo

Water is admitted over the entire circumference of the runner. Water is admitted
more jets strikin

Water completely fills at the passages between the blades and The turbine does
while flowing between inlet and outlet sections does work on
the blades

The turbine is connected to the tail race through a draft tube The turbine is alw
which is a gradually expanding passage. It may be installed
above or below the tail race.

The flow regulation is carried out by means of a guide-vane Flow regulation is

assembly. Other component parts are scroll casing, stay ring,
runner and the draft tube
 Working proportions of a Kaplan Turbine:
Consider a Kaplan turbine with H= Net head on the turbine, N=
Rotational speed in rpm, P= Power developed by it, Do = Outer diameter
of the runner, Db = Outer diameter of the hub, q= Discharge through
turbine under head of H.

Area of flow at inlet

Velocity of flow at inlet and outlet in Kaplan turbine is same.

Velocity of inlet = velocity of outlet

Peripheral velocity at inlet and outlet are equal,

Discharge through the runner is

Discharge through a rectangular notch is

 Torque,

Where, -applied load in kg, - spring reading in kg, -radius of

brake drum in m
Input power

Where, -Density of water, -Acceleration due to gravity, -

Discharge in m3/sec, -Total head in m
Output power

Where, -speed in rpm, -torque in N-m

Unit speed is the speed of a given turbine when running under a
unit head.

When =1 m, then = unit speed

Unit discharge is the discharge of the turbine under a head of one
meter.
= area × discharge
But area = constant

When =1 m, then
Where is constant of proportionality,
When =1m, then

Then substituting
 These procedure steps will be followed on the simulator

. Open the Kaplan turbine experiment under constant head condition and click on
the arrow mark shown at the bottom right corner.
. Click on the green button to start the pump, select the head and click on NEXT
button.
. Click on the hand wheel to rotate the inlet valve and allow the water to flow.
. Note the constant head reading and click on NEXT button.
. Calculate the torque reading for the corresponding applied weight, and click on
NEXT button.
. Click on the hand to insert the tachometer.
. Note the speed of motor and click on the NEXT button.
. Note the initial hook gauge reading and click on the hook gauge knob.
. Note the final hook gauge reading,calculate the actual discharge and then click on
the NEXT button.
0. Note the results of Trial 1 and then click on the NEXT button to
continue the experiment.

1. Repeat the same procedure, after certain trials click on the red
button to stop the pump and click on the NEXT button to see the characteristic
graphs.
2. Click on each label box to see the different characteristic graph.
Performance Characteristics of Pelton
Turbine
To conduct performance test on pelton turbine under various heads,
speeds and loads and to plot the operating characteristics.

INTRODUCTION

Pelton wheel is impulse type water turbine which extracts energy

from impulse of moving water when the water strikes the pelton cup at
very high speed, it induces an impulsive force which makes the turbine
rotate. In short the pelton wheel transforms the kinetic energy of water
jet into rotational energy.

Cross-section of Hydraulic Ram

Source:
(https://aybu.edu.tr/muhendislik/makina/contents/files/MCE%20403-
Pelton%20Turbine%20Experiment%20Sheet.pdf)

The spoon shaped buckets are mounted on the circumferential rim

of drive wheel called runner. As the high-speed jet of water impinges
 upon the pelton cups, the direction of the water velocity is changed to
follow the contour of the bucket. The impulse energy of water exerts
torque on the bucket and makes the wheel to spin, and finally the water
takes U-turn and exits at the sides of pelton cup with low velocity. The
tangential action turbine with partial charge is very sensible at the
geometrical deviation of the real jet from the theoretical axis. The
possible error from the design, assign, assembly, wrong fitting and
others, have negative consequences over the turbine performances.
Control of the turbine is maintained by hydraulically operated
needle nozzles in each jet. In addition, a jet deflector is provided for
emergency shutdown. The deflector diverts the water jet from the
buckets to the wall of the pit liner. This feature provides surge protection
for the penstock without the need for a pressure relief valve because
load can be rapidly removed from the generator without changing the
flow rate. Control of the turbine may also be accomplished by the
deflector alone. On these units the needle nozzle is manually operated
and the deflector diverts a portion of the jet for lower loads. This method
is less efficient and normally used for speed regulation of the turbine
under constant load.
The main parts of Pelton Turbine are:
1. Nozzle and Flow regulation arrangement: The amount of water
flowing out from the nozzle is regulated by providing a spear in the
nozzle. The spear is a conical shaped needle which is operated by
manually or automatically in an axial direction depending upon the size
of the unit.

Nozzle and Flow Regulation Arrangement

 Source: (https://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/pelton-turbine-parts-
working-design-aspects/2894/)
2. Runner and Buckets: Runner consists of a circular disc on the
periphery of which number of buckets are attached with equal spacing.
The pelton buckets are in cup or bowl shape and each bucket is divided
into symmetrical parts by a wall called splitter. The splitter divides the jet
of water into two equal parts. The buckets are designed in such a way
that the water jet gets deflected through 160° or 170°. The buckets are
made of bronze, cast iron or stainless steel depending upon the head at
the inlet of the turbine.
3. Casing: The function of water is to prevent the splashing of water and to
guide the discharged water to tail race. The casing of Pelton Wheel does
not perform any Hydraulic function.
4. Breaking Jet: When the nozzle is closed completely by moving the
spear in forward direction, the amount of water striking the bucket
reduces to zero. But due inertia, the runner goes on revolving for some
more time. To stop the runner in a short time, a small nozzle is provided
which directs the water from the back of the buckets. This water jet is
known as breaking jet.

Important terms:

Potential Energy of Turbine

 Source: (https://ecoandsustainable.com/2013/03/17/hydropower/)

Headrace: A dam constructed across a river or a channel to store

water. The reservoir is also known as Headrace.
Tailrace: It is the channel which conveys the water out from the
turbine casing after hitting the pelton bucket.

Gross head ( ): It is the vertical difference between headrace

and tailrace.
Net head ( ): It is the actual head available at the inlet of the
turbine to work.

Where,

= total loss of head due to friction during the transit of water from
headrace to tailrace and is given by,

Where,
= coefficient of friction of penstock depending on the type of
material of penstock
= total length of penstock
= mean flow velocity of water through the penstock
= diameter of penstock and
= acceleration due to gravity
 Governing mechanism in Pelton Wheel:
A governing mechanism which controls position of the spear head
meets the power demand requirement. With lowering power demand the
spear head at water inlet nozzle is moved in. So that water flow rate get
reduced. If power demand increases spear head is moved out this will
increase the flow rate.
So, in pelton wheel, the power supply can be made to meet the
power demand by controlling the water flow rate. So this governing
mechanism in turn will balance the power supply and power demand and
will make sure that the turbine will rotates at the constant speed. This
speed is also conforms to power supply frequency. So this mechanism
acts as speed governing mechanism in pelton wheel.
Number of buckets in pelton wheel:
Number of buckets in pelton wheel is one of the most important
parameter in the design of pelton turbine. If the number of buckets are
inadequate, then, this will result in loss of water jet. That is, when one of
bucket comes in contact with water jet, the next bucket may not get
engaged with water jet. This will result in loss of water jet for a short
duration which later tends to sudden drop in efficiency.

Number of buckets

Where, = jet ratio =

Since the water jet is always open to atmosphere, the pressure at
inlet and outlet will be same as atmospheric pressure. However absolute
velocity of fluid will have huge drop from inlet to exit of the bucket. This
drop of kinetic energy is the maximum energy that the bucket can
absorb.
So it is clear that, pelton turbine gains mechanical energy purely
due to change in kinetic energy of jet, not due to pressure energy
change. Which means, pelton turbine is a pure impulse machine.
Power extraction:
 If the pelton wheel buckets are held stationary, then the power
extraction is zero. If the pelton wheel buckets are rotating with the same
speed of water jet, the jet won’t be able to hit the bucket. Hence in this
case also the power extraction will be zero. Hence the power extraction
is zero both at speed of bucket is zero and when bucket speed is same
as jet speed.
Types of efficiencies:
Depending on the considerations of input and output, the
efficiencies can be classified as
 Hydraulic Efficiency
 Mechanical Efficiency
 Overall Efficiency
Hydraulic Efficiency( ):
It is the ratio of the power developed by the runner of a turbine to
the power supplied at the inlet of a turbine. Since the power supplied is
hydraulic, and the probable loss is between the striking jet and vane it is
rightly called hydraulic efficiency.

Mechanical Efficiency( ):
It is the ratio of the power available at the shaft to the power
developed by the runner of a turbine. This depends on the slips and
other mechanical problems that will create a loss of energy between the
runner in the annular area between the nozzle and spear, the amount of
water reduces as the spear is pushed forward and vice – versa and shaft
which is purely mechanical and hence mechanical efficiency.

Overall Efficiency( ):
It is the ratio of the power available at the shaft to the power
supplied at the inlet of a turbine. As this covers over all problems of
losses in energy, it is known as overall efficiency. This depends on both
the hydraulic losses and the slips and other mechanical problems that
will create a loss of energy between the jet power supplied and the
power generated at the shaft available for coupling of the generator.
 These procedure steps will be followed on the simulator

Pelton Turbine-Constant Speed

1. Open the Pelton Turbine- Constant Head experiment and click on

the NEXT button shown at the bottom right corner and also description provided.
2. Click on the green button to start the pump and select the head
from the drop down menu,click NEXT button to proceed.
3. Click on the hand to rotate the inlet valve and allow the water to
flow, note down the pressure and head, click NEXT button to proceed.
4. Click on to add weight on the pan and calculate the Torque, click
NEXT button to proceed.
5. Click on to note the speed of the motor and click NEXT button to
proceed.
6. Click on the hook gauge to note the readings, calculate the Actual
Discharge and click NEXT button to proceed.
7. Click on to answer the question displayed and note down the
parameters for calculation.
8. Calculate the efficiency,unit power, unit speed, unit discharge with
the help of formulas given, click NEXT button to proceed.
9. Repeat the above steps for certain number of trials and click on the
red button to stop the pump, click NEXT button to proceed.
10. Click on each label button to see the different graphs plotted.
Pelton Turbine-Constant Speed

1. Open the Pelton Turbine-Constant Speed experiment and click on

the NEXT button shown at the bottom right corner and also description provided.
2. Click on the green button to start the pump,select the constant
speed to be taken from the drop down menu and click NEXT button to proceed.
3. Click on the hand to add weight on the pan, calculate the torque
and click NEXT button to proceed.
4. Click on the hand to set constant speed
5. Note down the speed and click NEXT button to proceed.
6. Note down the head and calculate the total head,click NEXT button
to proceed.
7. Click on the hook gauge to note the readings, calculate the Actual
Discharge,click NEXT button to proceed.
8. Calculate the efficiency with the help of formulas given, click NEXT
button to proceed.
9. Repeat the above steps for certain number of trials and click on the
red button to stop the pump, click NEXT button to proceed.
10. Click on each label button to see the different graphs plotted.
 Pipe Bursting
To find out the bursting pressure of PVC pipe.

INTRODUCTION

The pipelines carrying water, sewage or other natural gas needs

proper investigation to avoid leakage of the substance from the pipe.
The pressure exerted by the flowing liquids/ gas inside the pipe and its
purpose decides the size and strength of the pipe need to be used. In
the service time, the pipe may undergo severe pressure depending upon
the purpose of use. It should have sufficient strength to withstand the
maximum pressure acting on it without failure. The pipe mainly needs to
be tested for its working pressure and bursting pressure.
 Working pressure is the maximum allowable pressure a pipe may be
subjected to while in-service.
 Burst pressure is the pressure that a pressure vessel like pipe or tube
can handle before rupturing or “bursting”. It is the minimum pressure that
causes irreversible damage on the pipe by bursting.
The test is carried out by sending oil pressure from the pipe. It
induces three types of pressure on the pipe i.e., normal stress in
longitudinal direction, in circumferential direction and in radial direction.
From these three stresses, Von-Mises stress is computed. In order to
find the bursting pressure, the Von-Mises stress is equated to the
ultimate tensile strength of the material at a given temperature.
Pipe Showing Induced Stress when Subjected to Internal Pressure
These procedure steps will be followed on the simulator

Open the Pipe Bursting experiment and click on the NEXT button shown at the
bottom right corner and also description provided.
Click on the pipe to check for uniform ends and answer the question displayed.
Note down the dimensions of the pipe, click NEXT button to proceed.
Click on flanges to mount it on the pipe.
Click on the vent bolt to tighten them.
Click on the pipe assembly to place it on the test platform and click NEXT button to
proceed.
Click on the green button to start pumping the oil and then click on the red button to
stop.
Click on the top bolt to avoid leak and click NEXT button to proceed.
Click on the green button to start the machine and apply pressure until longitudinal
cracks appaer, click NEXT button to proceed.
. Calculate the pipe bursting pressure from the observation.
Calibration of Rectangular Notch

Theory
A Notch is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a liquid
through a small channel or a tank. It may be defined as an opening in the side
of a tank or vessel such as liquid surface in the tank is below the level of
opening.
Notches can be of different shapes such as triangular, rectangular,
trapezoidal, stepped notch, etc. the bottom of the notch over which the water
flows is known as crest or sill and the thin sheet of water flowing through the
notch is known as nappe or vein. The edges of the notch are bevelled on the
downstream side so as to have a sharp-edged sides and crest resulting in
minimum contact with the flowing fluid.
 The discharge over notch is measured by measuring the head acting over
the notch. As water approaches the notch, its surface becomes curved.
Therefore, the head over the notch is to be measured at the upstream of the
notch where the effect of curvature is minimum. Also, it should be close to the
notch so that the loss of energy between head measuring section and notch is
negligible. In practical, the head over notch is measured at a distance of 3 to 4
times the maximum head from the notch.

Classifications of notch:

Rectangular notch:
It takes its name from the shape of its notch. The discharge through a
weir or notch is directly related to the water depth or head (H). This head is
affected by the condition of the crest, the contraction, the velocity of
approaching stream and the elevation of the water surface downstream from
the weir.

Trapezoidal or Cipolletti notch:

The Cipolletti notch is trapezoidal in shape. The slope of the sides,
inclined outwardly from the crest and should be one horizontal to four vertical.
V-Notch
In this case, the notch is "V" in shape. Depth of water above the bottom
of the V is called head (H). The V-notch design causes small changes in
discharge hence causing a large change in depth and thus allowing more
accurate measurement than with a rectangular notch.

Stepped notch:
A stepped notch is a combination of rectangular notches as shown in
figure. It is thus obvious that the discharge over such a notch will be the sum of
the discharges over the different rectangular notches.
Let us consider a horizontal strip of water of thickness dh at a depth of h from
the water level as shown in figure.

Let,
H = Height of water above sill of notch
b = Width or length of the notch
Cd = Coefficient of discharge

-------(1)
We know that,
The theoretical velocity of water through the strip -------(2)

Discharge through the strip,

The total discharge over the whole notch may be found out by integrating the
above equation within the limits 0 and H.

Ventilation of notch or weirs:

The nappe emerging out from the notch or weir touches the side walls of
the channel. The air below the nappe and the walls are trapped. This air
gradually carried along with flowing water and the pressure between the nappe
and wall is reduced below atmospheric pressure. Eventually negative pressure is
developed and as a result, the nappe starts to depress. The nappe is coming
near the wall of the weir and such type of nappe is called depressed nappe.
 When water emerges out, the initial nappe becomes depressed nappe
where pressure falls below in this area. The discharge increases due to low
pressure in the downstream. When no air is left in the space, the nappe adheres
to the weir or notch and the nappe is called clinging nappe. During this clinging
of nappe, the ventilated holes are made on the wall and the weir. These holes
are known as ventilation holes and the notch is known as notch.
The experimental data shows that the ventilated area may be about 0.5%
of (L x Z), where L is the length of crest and Z is the depth of water.

Effect of computed discharge due to measurement of head:

The equation of discharge in rectangular notch is
 Let dQ and dH be the errors in measurement of discharge and head.

i.e., an error of 1% in the discharge is equal to 1.5% of error in the head of

rectangular channel.

Procedure
Objective:
To determine the coefficient of discharge of Rectangular notch.
Steps:
1. Open the Calibration of Rectangularnotch experiment and click on the
next button shown at the bottom right corner.
2. Start the pump by clicking on green button and then click on the next
button.
3. Click on the inlet valve to rotate it.
4. Click on hand to rotate the inlet valve and click on the next button.
5. Note the initial reading of the hook gauge and click on the hook gauge.
6. Calculate head of water, theoretical discharge of rectangular notch and
click the next button.
7. Note the initial reading of the hook gauge and click on the hook gauge.
8. Calculate head of water, actual discharge of V-notch and click the next
button.
9. Calculate coefficient of discharge for rectangular notch.
10. Repeat the same procedure, after certain trials, click on the red button to
stop the pump.
Venturimeter

Theory
Venturi meter is a flow measurement device, which is based on the
principle of Bernoulli's equation. Inside the pipe pressure difference is created
by reducing the cross-sectional area of the flow passage. This difference in
pressure is measured with the help of manometer and helps in determining rate
of fluid flow or other discharge from the pipe line. Venturi meter has a
cylindrical entrance section, converging conical inlet, a cylindrical throat and a
diverging recovery cone.

Components of venturimeter:

a) Cylindrical entrance section:This is the section having the size of a pipe to

which it is attached. The venturi meter should be proceeded by a straight pipe
of not less than 5 to 10 times the pipe diameter and free from fittings,
misalignment and other source of large scale turbulence.

b) Converging conical section:The converging takes place at an angle of

21±2°. The velocity of fluid increases as it passes through the converging
section and correspondingly the static pressure falls.

c) Throat:This is a cylindrical section of minimum area. The velocity is

maximum and the pressure is minimum. The throat diameter is usually between
½ to ¼ of the inlet diameter. Length of the throat equals its diameter.
d) Diverging section:This is a section in which there is a change of stream area
back to the entrance area. The recovery of kinetic energy by its conversion to
pressure energy is nearly complete and so the overall pressure loss is small. To
accomplish a maximum recovery of kinetic energy the diffuser section is made
with an included angle of 5° to 7°. This angle has to be kept less so that the
flowing fluid has least tendency to separate out from the boundary of the
section.

Types of Venturi Tubes

1. a standard long-form or classic venturi tube
2. a modified short form where the outlet cone is shortened
3. an eccentric form to handle mixed phases or to minimize build-
up of heavy materials
4. a rectangular form used in duct work

The major disadvantages of this type of flow detection are the high initial
costs for installation and difficulty in installation and inspection. The Venturi
effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows through a
constricted section of pipe. The fluid velocity must increase through the
constriction to satisfy the equation of continuity, while its pressure must
decrease due to conservation of energy: the gain in kinetic energy is balanced
by a drop in pressure or a pressure gradient force. An equation for the drop in
pressure due to venturi effect may be derived from a combination of
Bernoulli’s principle and the equation of continuity.

Let d1 = Diameter at inlet or at section 1

V1 = velocity of fluid at section 1

P1 = Pressure at section 1

and d2, V2, a2 and P2 are the corresponding values at section 2.

Applying Bernoulli’s equations at section 1 and section 2, we get,

Since the pipe is horizontal, so z1 = z2

Now applying continuity equation at section 1 and 2

Substituting value of v1 in equation (1.4) we get
Where x = difference between the liquid column in U tube, �L = density of
lighter liquid, � = density of liquid flowing through pipe.

But, discharge through venturimeter,

Q=a2v2
Equation (1.5) gives the discharge under ideal conditions and is called as
theoretical discharge.

Actual discharge is given by,

Actual discharge = Coefficient of venturimeter x Theoretical discharge

Recovery of Pressure Drop in Orifices, Nozzles and Venturi Meters:

The pressure drop in orifice meter and nozzles are significantly higher
than the venture meters. Venturi causes less overall pressure loss in a system
and thus saves energy: the overall pressure loss is generally between 5 and 20
per cent of the measured differential pressure. The venturi meter has an
 advantage over the orifice plate in that it does not have a sharp edge which can
become rounded; however, the venturi meter is more susceptible to errors due
to burrs or deposits round the downstream (throat) tapping. The lengths of
straight pipe required for upstream and downstream of a venturi meter for
accurate flow measurement are given in ISO 5167-1: 1991.

Procedure
Objective:
To determine the coefficient of discharge of given venturimeter.
Steps:
Open Venturimeter experiment, a window will appear as shown.
Select the required diameter of pipe, then click NEXT button.
Click on the main inlet valve to allow the flow through it.
Click on pipe inlet valve to allow the flow through it.
Click on manometer knot to change it from isolated position to air-vent position to remove
air bubbles and again click to change it to read position.
Here the manometer reading is noted down. The calculate the value of Head Loss.
Click on tank outlet valve to close it to measure the discharge.
The observation and calculations of the trial is given here.
Calculate actual discharge, theoretical discharge and coefficient of discharge. Repeat the
same procedure for other trials.
 Calibration of V-Notch
Theory
A notch is an opening in the side of a measuring tank or reservoir extending above the free
surface. These notches are used to measure discharge of open channel flows, by passing or placing
or constructing them across the stream. Notches are generally used for measuring discharge in
small open channels or laboratory flumes.
Notches can be of different shapes such as triangular, rectangular, trapezoidal, stepped notch,
etc. the bottom of the notch over which the water flows is known as crest or sill and the thin sheet
of water flowing through the notch is known as nappe or vein. The edges of the notch are bevelled
on the downstream side so as to have a sharp-edged sides and crest resulting in minimum contact
with the flowing fluid.

The discharge over notch is measured by measuring the head acting over the notch. As water
approaches the notch, its surface becomes curved. Therefore, the head over the notch is to be
measured at the upstream of the notch where the effect of curvature is minimum. Also, it should
be close to the notch so that the loss of energy between head measuring section and notch is
neglegible. In practical, the head over notch is measured at a distance of 3 to 4 times the
maximum head from the notch.

V-notch or Triangular notch

The V-notch or triangular notch is sharp crested notch, which is maily used to determine the low
rate of flow.
Let,
H = Height of the liquid above the apex of the notch
θ = Angle of the notch
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
From the geometry of the figure, we find that,

We know that the theoretical velocity of water through the strip

and discharge over the notch,

 The total discharge over the whole notch may be found out only by integrating the above
equation within the limits 0 and H.

Procedure
Objective:
To determine the coefficient of discharge of V-notch.
Steps:
1. Open the Calibration of V-notch experiment and click on the next button shown at the bottom right corner.
Start the pump by clicking on green button and then click on the next button.
3. Click on the inlet valve to rotate it.
4. Click on hand to rotate the inlet valve and click on the next button.
5. Note the initial reading of the hook gauge and click on the knob.
6. Calculate head of water and theoretical discharge. Then click the next button.
7. Click on ball valve to close it and allow the water to rise in collecting tank.
8. Calculate actual discharge of V-notch and click on the next button.
9. Repeat the same procedure, after certain trials, click on the red button to stop the pump and click on the next
button.
10. Click on the label button to see the graph.
11. Click on next button to see the results obtained by the graph.
12. Note the results obtained by the graph.