Rotating Machinery: November, 2013

ROTATING MACHINERY
November, 2013

I - VARIOUS FORMS OF ENERGY
II - MECHANICAL WORK – UNIT

1 - Example of mechanical work
2 – Unit of work: the joule (J)
3 - Rotating system
III - POWER – UNIT

1 - Concept of power
2 - Unit of power: the watt W
3 - Rotating system
IV - SPECIAL UNITS FOR THERMAL ENERGY

V - EFFICIENCY
1 – Energy balance
2 – Definition of efficiency
VI - EQUIVALENCES BETWEEN THE VARIOUS FORMS OF PRIMARY ENERGY

1 – Primary energy
2 – Equivalences
VII - CONVERTING UNITS OF ENERGY
1
I - VARIOUS FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy is a physical quantity relatively difficult to understand precisely, since it can come in various more or
less familiar forms; we can talk about:
– chemical energy, stored in electrical cells or batteries
– thermal energy, released by combustion of gas for example
– mechanical energy, produced by an expanding spring
– nuclear energy, released by fission of uranium atoms for example
but also pressure, potential energy (energy of position), or kinetic energy due to the velocity of a body.
2
Furthermore, these various types of energy can be more or less easily transformed from one form to another.
So we know that the following transformations can be achieved:
– thermal energy to electrical or mechanical energy by means of steam generation and engines
– nuclear energy to electrical energy in the same way
–potential energy (energy of position) to electrical energy (dam)
– pressure energy to kinetic energy or velocity, as with steam in the nozzles of a steam turbine
– electrical energy to heat or thermal energy (heating)
–etc.
These various energies are quantified and expressed in various units, which are supposed to be best suited to
each particular case. The International System defines an official unit of energy: the joule, and in parallel a
unit of power: the watt.
Mechanical work, which represents a familiar form of energy, enables these two units to be easily defined.
3
II – MECHANICAL WORK - UNIT
1 - EXAMPLE OF MECHANICAL WORK
If we take the case of a load with mass m lifted as shown in the diagram below by height h, we need to
supply a certain mechanical work to overcome the opposing force represented by the weight of the load.
This work is normally denoted W.
Mechanical work of course depends on:

– the weight w of the load, due to its mass m via the relation
m in kg
w=m. g g = 9.81 ms-2

w in N
indeed, the greater the weight, the greater the work to supply
– the lifting height, denoted h, since the greater the height the greater the work
The corresponding work is obtained by the relation:

Work = Weight x height
W=w×h
4
2 - UNIT OF WORK: THE JOULE
In the International System
– weight P is given in Newtons (N)
– height h in meters (m)
– and work W is obtained in joules (J)
Consequently, the unit of work, the joule, is defined as the mechanical work corresponding to lifting a
weight of 1 Newton by a height of 1 meter.
Since this a relatively small unit, we prefer to use its multiples:
– the kilojoule (kJ) 1 kJ = 1000 J
– the megajoule (MJ) 1 MJ = 1000 kJ = 1000 000 J
More generally, applying a force to a mobile object displaces this object. The energy W expended to enable
this movement measures the intensity of the force and the distance of the displacement.
So the energy W is defined as the product of the movement by the force applied parallel to this displacement
Work or energy= Force × Displacement
W = F . L
Where: W in J F in N L in m
5
Application
A lifting device raises to a height of 10 m a heat exchanger with a mass of 8 metric tons. What is the work
supplied?
Weight of heat exchanger: w= ×g = N
Lifting force work: W= × = J
6
3 - ROTATING SYSTEM
The work of force F turning its point of application by one revolution is given by:
W = F × 2π × R (L = circumference)
For any angle of rotation, α, expressed in degrees:
W = F × × α/360 × 2π × R
The product F x R is the moment of force, so:
W = M × α/360 × 2π
This formula is also valid for a torque.
7
III - POWER – UNIT
1 - CONCEPT OF POWER
Power represents the speed of execution of mechanical work: Lifting a heavy load to the 10th storey of a
building represents the same work regardless of the means employed. But since a lift performs the task
quicker than a human, it deploys more power.
In the case of a machine supplying a constant work W for time t, the power P is given by the expression:
Power = P = Work / Time
For a given work, we find that the shorter the execution time, the greater the power.
8
2 - UNIT OF POWER: THE WATT
In the International System of units
work W is expressed in joules (J)
time t is expressed in seconds (s)
power P is expressed in watts (W)
So one watt is the power of a machine that supplies a work of 1 joule per second.
Both the joule and the watt are small. So we most often use its multiples:
– the kilowatt (kW) 1 kW = 1000 W
– the megawatt (MW) 1 MW = 1000 kW = 1 000 000 W
This definition can be expanded to various forms of energy. This gives us:
Power = Energy / Time
Of course this formula is applied with the same units as above.
Application
The lifting device mentioned previously is able to lift the heat exchanger in 1 min. What is its power?
Power = Work / Time = =kW

=CV
9
The formula above also shows that an energy represents the result of a power output over a certain time.
Energy = Power • Time
If power is expressed in kW and time in hours (h), we obtain a unit of energy widely used in practice: the
kilowatthour (kWh). One kWh is the work (or energy) supplied for 1 hour by a machine with a power of 1 kW.
The correspondence with SI units is as follows:

1 kWh = 3600 kJ = 3.6 MJ
Application
A 50 kW electric motor runs for 8000 hours per year. Express in megajoules and kWh the annual work.
10
3 - ROTATING SYSTEM
If a torque with moment M turns a rotating system through angle α (in degrees), the power supplied is:
The term α/360 is the number of revolutions completed per second, i.e. the rotation speed in revolutions per
second.
So the power supplied by a torque is proportional to the rotation speed.
P = M × 2π × N
P in W, M in Nm, N in rps
11
IV - SPECIAL UNITS FOR THERMAL ENERGY
Among all forms of energy, heat or thermal energy is of particular importance because it is often one of the steps in the generation
of other forms of energy, and also because loss of mechanical energy via friction in machinery always produces heat.
Furthermore, it is the fundamental energy for the chemical and oil industries, where it arises during combustion of gaseous or
liquid fuels in furnaces and boilers. It is also transferred between fluids in countless heat exchangers, cooling towers, reactors, etc.
used in the processes.
Thermal energy is expressed officially by the joule and its derivatives, but past practices had other dedicated units, which remain
in common use, especially since they have a more tangible physical significance. This applies to the calorie (cal) and its multiples:
– the kilocalorie (kcal) = 1000 cal
– the therm (th) or Mcal = 1000 kcal = 1 000 000 cal
The equivalence with SI units is as follows:

1 cal = 4.185 J 1 kWh = 0.8598 th
1 kcal = 4.185 kJ = 859.8 kcal
1 th = 4.185 MJ 1 therm = 1.163 kWh
We can also sometimes encounter the Imperial unit of thermal energy. It is called the BTU (British Thermal Unit), with:
1 Btu = 1055 J = 1.055 kJ
°
It is the equivalent of the calorie in Imperial units, i.e. the quantity of energy required to raise 1 pound of water by 1 F.
12
Application
A heat exchanger has a thermal load of 3000 th/h.
Express this power in kW
3000 th/h =
i.e. kW
13
V - EFFICIENCY
1 – ENERGY BALANCE
An energy balance can be written for any energy transformation. Part of the energy supplied is not
transformed into useful energy, and is lost in the form of waste energy, usually heat.
Energy supplied (Ws) = useful energy (Wu) + wasted energy (Ww)
The useful energy is that obtained in the desired form.

For example, the electrical energy supplied by the network to an electric motor is approximately 90 %
transformed into mechanical energy. The remaining 10 % corresponds to heat, which must be dissipated by
the motor’s cooling system
14
Since power is defined as the energy consumed or used per unit time, the efficiency can be calculated based
on the useful power (Pu) and power supplied (Ps)
15
16
17
VI – EQUIVALENCES BETWEEN THE VARIOUS FORMS OF PRIMARY ENERGY
1 - PRIMARY ENERGY
When we are looking at the energy balance of a country, or more simply of a plant, we have to factor in the
various sources of energy used. This so-called primary energy is then transformed into multiple forms better
suited to the purpose.
The following are generally deemed primary energy:
– the energy recoverable by combustion of solid mineral fuels: coal, coke, gases: natural gas, refinery gas, oil
products: fuel oils, etc.
– primary electricity obtained by hydroelectric or nuclear generation
18
2 – EQUIVALENCES
These energies are most often quantified using units other than the international system units. Furthermore,
comparisons of consumption have led to the definition of equivalences which assume conversion factors
associated with specific transformation processes.
The most commonly used reference is the metric ton of oil equivalent or toe, which corresponds to amount
of the energy released by the combustion of 1 metric ton of standard oil.
Hence we assume that:
1 toe = 42 000 MJ
Combining these various energies in the form of a homogeneous unit enables us to determine an energy
balance. By way of example, the tables below show some statistics for the French energy balance.
Since the energy value of coals is lower than that of oil, the following equivalence is used:
1 metric ton of coal = 0.619 toe
For Lacq natural gas, we have: 1000 Nm3 = 0.879 toe
19
Electrical energy is more easily expressed in kWh. The equivalence between toe and kWh must factor in the
efficiency observed in thermal power stations. Consequently we assume the following relation between fuel
consumed and electricity generated:
0.222 toe → 1000 kWh
The true equivalence is:
1 toe = 42000 MJ = 11667 kWh
0.222 toe = 2590 kWh
20
21
22
General Basic Training
Operator
PHYSICAL MAGNITUDES USED IN OPERATION
A7 -2
Certification
VISCOSITY
I- DEFINITIONS - UNITS ........................................................................................... 1

1 - Dynamic viscosity ..................................................................................................................... 1
2 - Kinematic viscosity ................................................................................................................... 1
II - MEASURING KINEMATIC VISCOSITY ................................................................. 3
III - VARIATION OF VISCOSITY WITH TEMPERATURE............................................ 5

1 - Viscosity of liquids .................................................................................................................... 5
2 - Viscosity of gases ..................................................................................................................... 5
IV - CONVERTING KINEMATIC VISCOSITY UNITS ................................................... 5

Planche 1 : Conversion en centistokes (degrés Engler ou secondes furol).................................. 6
Planche 2 : Conversion en centistokes (temps en secondes) ...................................................... 7
Planche 3 : Viscosité des fuel-oils ................................................................................................ 8
Planche 4 : Viscosité de produits divers ....................................................................................... 9
Planche 5 : Viscosité de quelques gaz ....................................................................................... 10
BA PHY - 01669_A_A - Rev. 5 26/08/2011

© 2011 - IFP Training
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I- DEFINITIONS – UNITS
Viscosity is generally defined as characterizing a fluid’s resistance to flow; it is involved in all phenomena
relating to fluid flow:
– pressure drop in pipes
– flow in valves and all types of restrictions
– pumping
– filtration - decantation
Viscosity increases as flow resistance rises, and because of the different measurement methods used to
determine it, we can distinguish two types of viscosity: dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity.
1 - DYNAMIC VISCOSITY
Dynamic viscosity µ (Mu), also known as absolute viscosity, represents the molecular interactions
within a fluid in motion. Conventionally, dynamic viscosity was expressed in poises (P) or centipoises
(cP). It is now measured in the international system of units in pascal seconds (Pa.s). In practice, the
correspondence between the 2 systems of units is simple, since the centipoise corresponds exactly to
the millipascal second (mPa.s).
1 cP = 1 mPa.s = 0,001 Pa.s
The table below gives some dynamic viscosity values for common fluids.
Dynamic viscosity at 20°C

(in cP or mPa.s)
Liquids : ether 0,24

n-octane 0,55
water 1,0
mercury 1,6
keosene 2,5
Ethylene glycol 20
Pure sulfuric acid 23
SAE 10 W 40 oils 150 (environ)
Gases : steam 0,010

air 0,019
Dynamic viscosity m of liquids can be measured for example using rotary viscosimeters, whose
working principle is based on measuring the resistant torque associated with initiating rotation of a
wheel within the sample to be analyzed.
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2- KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
Kinematic viscosity ν (Nu), commonly used for liquids, takes into account the fluid’s density r at the
same temperature. This is involved whenever we determine a viscosity by measuring a flow time
under load, i.e. the time taken by a liquid to flow through an orifice under the action of its own weight.
We can see that the time taken effectively depends not only on the liquid’s own viscosity but also on its
specific gravity.
The kinematic viscosity is obtained from the dynamic viscosity via the formula:
dynamic viscosity µ
Kinematic viscosity υ =
density ρ
where :
µ µ : in mPa.s
υ =
ρ ρ : in Kg/l
υ : in cSt
Usually expressed in stokes (St) and centistokes (cSt), kinematic viscosity in the SI system must be
measured in meters squared per second (m2/s).
The correspondence with the common units is as follows:
1 St = 10–4 m2/s
1 cSt = 0,01 St = 10–6 m2/s = 1 mm2/s
1 cSt = 1 mm2/s
Application
Give the kinematic viscosity value of the substances below:
Dynamic viscosity at Density at 20°C Kinematic viscosity at

20°C (mPa . s) (kg/m3) 20°C (mm2/s)
Water 1,00 998

Mercury 1,60 13540
Ether 0,24 710
Give the kinematic viscosity value of the substances below.
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II - MEASURING KINEMATIC VISCOSITY

Kinematic viscosity measurements of liquid hydrocarbons are taken by means of 2 types of viscosimeter,
depending on whether the mixture is clear or opaque:
– the Ubbelohde viscosimeter (suspended level) for transparent liquids
– the Cannon Fenske viscosimeter (reverse flow) for opaque liquids
Filling tube
Filing tube
Timing marks
Timing marks
Flow Flow
direction Capillary tube direction
D ANA 088 D
UBBELOHDE VISCOSIMETER CANNON-FENSKE VISCOSIMETER
— transparent liquids— — opaque liquids —
By way of example, the diagrams below show the status of the apparatus when the timer is started and
stopped.
Measurement of the time it takes a

fixed volume of fluid to flow under
D ANA 086 B
gravity through a calibrated glass

capillary tube at a fixed temperature.
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A 7 -2
Regardless of the device used, this measurement provides a time value in seconds which, multiplied by the
“apparatus constant”, enables us to directly obtain the product’s viscosity in centistokes..
The viscosity can be determined with other devices that follow the same principle: measuring a flow time of a
given volume of product through a calibrated orifice.
The most commonly used are Engler and Saybolt viscosimeters, diagrams of which are given below.
Filling
level
Thermometer Plug
ENGLER Mark SSU

degrees SSF
Liquid tested
Thermostatic Universal Ø = 1.76 mm
water bath
200 cm3 Furol Ø = 3.15 mm
Flow time Receiver Bottom of the

measurement thermostatic bath
60 cm3 Receiver
D ANA 087 B
ENGLER apparatus SAYBOLT apparatus
In this case the viscosity takes on the name of the apparatus, and is expressed:
– for the Engler viscosimeter, in degrees Engler (abbreviation °E)

– for the Saybolt viscosimeter, in Saybolt Seconds, Universal (SSU), if we use the
“universal” orifice with diameter 1.76 mm, and in Saybolt Seconds Furol (SSF) with the
3.15 mm orifice
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III - VARIATION OF VISCOSITY WITH TEMPERATURE
1- VISCOSITY OF LIQUIDS
Generally speaking, the viscosity of liquids decreases very quickly with temperature. So it is
important to take measurements at perfectly controlled temperatures, which are most often
40°C, 50°C or 100°C.
The graph curves in the appendix show the variation of viscosity with temperature in heavy fuel oil and
domestic fuel oil samples.
Application
Determine the viscosity of a No. 2 fuel at the following temperatures:
Temperature (°C) 40 60 80 100 140
Viscosity (cSt)
The plates in the appendix give examples of viscosity of various chemical compounds and engine oils.
2- VISCOSITY OF GASES
Gases have a much lower dynamic viscosity than liquids. However, conversely to liquids, gas viscosity
increases with temperature, as plate 5 in the appendix shows.
IV - CONVERTING KINEMATIC VISCOSITY UNITS

The charts below help convert viscosities measured in °E, SSF and SSU to cSt.
Application
Convert
cSt °E SSU
1
500
cSt °E SSU
10
4 600
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— Figure n°1 —
CONVERSION INTO CENTISTOKES
100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 3000 4000 6000
10000 1000
9000 Degrees Engler or seconds Furol 900
8000 800
7000 700
Kinematic viscosity cSt
6000 600
5000 ER 500
GL
4000 400
EN
S
EE
3000 300
GR
DE
2000 200
OL
UR
TF
OL
YB
ER
SA
1000 100
GL
EN
900 90
800 80
S
EE
700 70
GR
DE
600 60
500 50
400 40
300 30
200 20
10 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
Kinematic viscosity cSt
3 3
2 2
D PPC 044 B
Degrees Engler
1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100
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7
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— Figure n°2—
CONVERSION INTO CENTISTOKES
10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1000

1000 1000
900 900
800
Time ( seconds) 800
700 700
600 600
Kinematic viscosity (cSt )
500 500
400 400
300
L
300
RO
FU
T
OL
200 200
YB
SA
RD
100 100
90 DA 90
AN
L
80
SA
80
ST
70 ER 70
D
IV
OO
UN
60 60
DW
RE
50 50
OL
YB
SA
40 40
30 3000
20 2000
10 1000
9 900
8 800
RD
DA
7 700
AN
L
SA
6 600
ST
ER
D
5 500
IV
OO
UN
DW
Kinematic viscosity (cSt )
4 400
T
RE
OL
YB
SA
3 300
2 200
D PPC 045 B
Time ( seconds)
1 100
10 20 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 3000 4000 6000 10000
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— Figure n°3 —
VISCOSITY OF FUEL OILS
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

1000 1000
800 800
700
600 600
500 VISCOSITY OF FUEL OILS 500
400 Specification 400
Example of commercial
300 product 300
Viscosity interval of
200 product in question 200
110
100 100
80 80
FO 70
60 n°2 60
50 50
Kinematic viscosity (Centistokes)
FO n°1
FU
40 40 40
FU
EL
EL
-O
-O
30 IL 30
IL
n°2
n°1
20 20
15
10 10
9 9,5
8 8
7
6 6
5 5
4 4
DO
3 ME 3
ST
IC
DFO
FU
2 EL 2
-OI
LD
FO
D PPC 001 B
1 1
0 20 40 50 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temperature (°C)
— According to GUILLERMIC —
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A 7 -2
— Figure n° 4 —
VISCOSITY OF SOME LIQUIDS
2000
1000
400
Fu
200 el o
i l n°
100 2
En
gi ne
40 oil
2 0W
Die
Viscoity (cSt or mm2.s)
40
sel
20
fue
l (s
p.g
En
r=
10 gin
0.8
e
8 Cru oil S
9)
de A
6 oil E 30
(sp
.gr
5 Sul Cru =0
furi d .92
4 ca eo 5)
cid il (s Ra
at 6 p .gr pe
0% =0 oil
3 (sp .855 (sp Tu
.gr ) .gr rbi
=1 ne
.50 =0 oil
0) .93 ISO
Th 0) 32
2 Ke erm
ros
e ne al
(sp oil
. gr ( sp
= .g r=
0.7 1
90) .05
6)
Alc
oho
l
1.0
0.9
So
Me
da
0.8 diu
at
m
20
ga
%
0.7 so
line
(sp
.gr
(sp
.gr
=1
0.6 =0
.18
.71 He
0)
6) avy
Lig gas
0.5 ht olin
ga e(
Wa
so sp.
lin
te
e( gr=
r
sp 0.7
.gr 84)
0.4 =0
.68 Be
0) nz
en
Bu e
tan
e
D PPC 046 C
Temperature (°C)
0.3
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
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10
— Figure n°5 —
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VISCOSITY OF SOME GASES
— at atmospheric pressure —
-200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
0.04 0.04
Viscosity (mPa.s or cP)
ro ge n
0.03 Nit 0.03
Air
en
yg
Ox
ide
id ox
n
o
rb
Ca
0.02
a ter 0.02
w
m
ea
St
n
r og e
Hyd
0.01 0.01
Temperature (°C)
0 0
1003 C
D TH 1004
-200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
01669_A_A

CONTENT
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUIDS FLOWS

II. PARAMETERS INVOLVED IN FLOWS
III. TOTAL HEAD AND PRESSURE-VELOCITY-HEIGHT TRANSFORMATION
IV. FRICTION HEAD LOSSES
V. INDUSTRIAL USE
1
Refineries and petrochemical plants are made up with industrial installations in which the circulation of fluids
(liquids, gases, vapors), is an essential activity. Indeed, the processes used demand that the fluids are
permanently carried between the different vessels or devices found in the manufacturing units or storage
areas: drums, towers or columns, reactors, furnaces, exchangers, tanks, etc…
Such fluids flows demand the use of a specific material that includes in particular:
• piping and all the related accessories that are aimed at channeling and monitoring the flow of fluids and
gases they contain
• rotating machines that brings, if required, the necessary energy to the fluids to go from one vessel to
another. The liquids get the energy from the pumps, gases and vapors from compressors.
Flows are characterized by a certain number of orders of magnitudes, several of which are important to the
operation. Among them, we can notice those that are related to the energy the fluid has and those that, on
the contrary, are typical to the resistance to flow of the circuit of the fluid itself.
2
The flow-related energy a fluid has can be divided up into 3 words:
• the fluid pressure
• the altitude level or height is it at
• the average velocity in the piping
Such energy is often called the total head a fluid has. It is a major notion as a fluid can flow from a vessel to
another only if it has the necessary energy to do so.
The resistances to flow are due to the circuit characteristics: diameter, piping type and length, various
accessories, …, the operating conditions: flow rate, velocity, turbulences and to the fluid properties:
viscosity and physical state mainly. As a result there is friction when the fluid is in contact with the piping and
the accessories and in the product itself; friction lead to the deterioration of the energy or the head a fluid
has. Thus friction losses are created and in practice they mainly result in a continuous loss of pressure, all
along the flow, or a sudden one when flowing through a particular resistance, valve, orifice, filter, …
3
1 - PRESSURE
The first parameter is the most important and the easiest to comprehend in practice. The fluid pressure
energy is in direct relation with the pressure value read on a pressure gauge placed on the piping.
Diagram #1: The example of the pressure indications at the suction and the discharge ports of a centrifugal
pump shows the gain in pressure energy the liquid has received in the machine .
Diagram #2: Pressure gain in a compressor. The same way, the gain in pressure received by the compressed
gas is specified.
4
2 – LEVEL OF ALTITUDE
Pressure does not result only from machines, it can also result from a liquid height. Such a form of energy is
directed linked to the fluids heights that turn into pressure as per the hydrostatic law.
Considering the influence of gravity, it only matters for the liquids for which it makes gravity flows possible.
It is also used as well to produce electrical energy in hydroelectric power plant.
We can already see that the different types of energy in a fluid are related since, in this case, the loss in level
of altitude results in a pressure gain.
5
Qv
D2
3 - VELOCITY
Except for very specific cases, the velocity has no major influence in the energy of a fluid. But it is essential to
the conditions of deterioration of energy into friction losses. The average velocity of a fluid in a piping
depends on:
• the volume flow rate that is linked to the mass flow rate by the fluid density
• the pipe internal section
We understand that there is some kind of economical compromise between small diameter pipes (cheaper)
that give great velocities and therefore great friction losses and on the contrary bigger and more expensive
pipes giving smaller velocities and friction losses.
The dimensions of industrial piping are chosen so that the velocities are not too high in order to have limited
friction losses:
for liquids they are generally found in the range of 1 to 4 m/s (3.6 to 14.4 km/h)
for gases and vapors, the range is rather of 10 to 40 m/s (36 to 144 km/h)
6
The previous figures correspond to average velocities as, in practice, the velocity is not constant in the piping.
For very low average velocities and viscous fluids, we can observe a laminar flow of the fluid without any
vortex and a true velocity much greater in the pipe axis than in the periphery (where the liquid is almost
stationary). This is laminar flow. The above diagram shows how the velocities are distributed .
When the velocity is getting close to the here above mentioned values, the flow includes numerous vortexes
and a more homogeneous distribution of velocities. The flow is then called turbulent. However the fluid
particles are slowed down when they get close to the wall by friction when the metal gets in contact with the
asperities the internal surface of the pipe has.
7
1 – TOTAL HEAD
The three forms of energy: pressure, velocity, altitude, make up the total energy linked to flow. Of course it
does not include the fluid thermal energy that changes in the exchangers, coolers, furnaces,… depending on
the temperature and the physical state of the fluid.
Such total energy linked to flow is often called total head and we have :
Total head = Pressure energy + Velocity energy + Height energy
If there is no energy deterioration, the total head remains constant and therefore it is possible to observe
reciprocal transformations of these different forms of energy.
2 - TRANSFORMATION OF PRESSURE ENERGY INTO VELOCITY IN A PIPE REDUCTION (diagram #1)

The change in section leads to an increase in velocity and a decrease in pressure.
3 - TRANSFORMATION OF VELOCITY INTO PRESSURE IN A PIPE ENLARGEMENT (diagram #2)

In this situation, the slowing down of the fluid leads to a pressure increase. Since the velocity energy has a
small influence on the total head, the changes in velocity generate small changes in pressure except for some
particular cases: machine hydraulics, ejectors, …
8
4 - TRANSFORMATIONS OF HEIGHT INTO PRESSURE
These occur for instance when there are changes in level of a piping that carries a liquid .
5 - TRANSFORMATIONS OF HEIGHT INTO VELOCITY
When dropping an object, it falls: it losses height and gathers speed. The same happens with a fluid when
letting it flow.
All these transformations of energy are not 100% perfect. They most often generate whirlpools and friction
that cause friction losses.
9
Friction losses or energy losses in flows more or less represent, at the level of a plant, the energy quantity
necessary to pump the liquids or compress gases. They make up an essential factor of flow resistance that
depends on the fluid type, the characteristics of the devices found and the flowing conditions.
1 – TYPE OF FLUID
It is mainly involved because of the viscosity. The fluid internal friction increases with viscosity and the same
happens with friction losses.
2 - DEVICES CHARACTERISTICS
They include the following parameters in particular:
• flow sections or piping diameters
• surface roughness, fouling
• number of piping accidents: valves, filters, orifices, etc, …
• flowing lengths
In practice, except for accidental plugging, valve opening and choking are the only factors that are likely to be
changed in operation.
3 - FLOWING CONDITIONS
The main parameter to be taken into account here is the fluid average flow that is, as seen previously, directly
linked to the volume flow rate. Industrial flows are almost always of turbulent type. In such conditions, we
can notice that friction losses slightly increase as the square of the velocity, and therefore of the flow rate. It
means that if the flow rate is multiplied by 2 in an installation, the corresponding friction head loss is
multiplied by 4. In practice, friction losses are quite hard to measure accurately. However, is the possible
changes in altitude level and velocity into account, they can be estimated by the pressure drops all along a
flow or on both sides of a device.
10
1 - FLOW BY PRESSURE DIFFERENCE
Flow by pressure difference is possible because the pressure energy of the liquid at the bottom of C1 is
enough to carry the fluid to C2. We suppose that velocity and altitude have no influence here. Therefore the
difference in pressure P1-P2 is the flow driving force. Flow resistance results in friction losses in the line, the
exchanger and the automatic valve.
We have the maximum flow rate when the valve is opened at 100%.
Then the flow rate decreases as the valve is closed .
11
2 – GRAVITY FLOW
Here the gravity flow is made possible by the difference in altitude. The liquid height energy makes it possible
to transfer it. The resistance of the circuit – piping, valves- results in setting of a given flow rate. However the
latter decreases when the level of liquid in the tank on the left falls and that the flow rate in the tank on the
right increases.
12
3 – PUMP CIRCUIT
It is necessary to install a pump to compensate for:
• the difference in pressure between the two vessels P2-P1
• the possible difference in height h2-h1
• the friction losses in the lines, valves and devices
The automatic valve creates at the pump discharge port a resistance that varies depending on the valve
opening that makes it possible to control the liquid flow rate.
The energy supplied by the pump is linked to the differences in pressure between discharge and suction.
13
4 – COMPRESSION CIRCUIT
First example: air network

The air used in the instrument air networks is taken by a compressor to a pressure that, depending on the
cases, can be from 5 to 8 rel bar.
The conditions in which the air is moved are shown in the below diagram .
Second example : recirculation circuit

The gas is recirculated in combination with a liquid in the different devices of a unit.
GAS and LIQUID successively flow through the exchangers, the furnace, the reactor, the cooler, and they are
separated in a disengager.
The friction loss resulting from all these devices is about 10 bar .
The compressor then is aimed at providing the gas with the pressure energy lost. This makes it possible to
mix it to the liquid entering the installation.
14
I - EXTERNAL VIEW
II – ROLE OF THE MAIN COMPONENT PARTS

Hydraulic pumping function
Axial and rotational guidance function of the rotor
Lubrication device
Sealing
Cooling
III - FITTINGS AND PROCESS LINES
1
I - EXTERNAL VIEW
The above diagram gives an external view of a centrifugal pump. This pump is a single-stage (or single-
impeller) pump driven by an electric motor. The link between pump and motor is achieved by a coupling. The
installation comprises:
- a centrifugal pump
- a coupling
- an electric motor
- a base frame
2
External presentation
• Pump
The photo shown above is a “light service” pump with a horizontal suction nozzle. The discharge nozzle is
vertical and is on the same radial plane as the volute. The volute collects the pumped liquid at the impeller
outlet and guides it towards the discharge nozzle.
Behind the pump casing there is the bearing unit which guides the rotation of the rotor.
The pump has two feet which rest on two pedestals which are integrated into the base frame
3
II -ROLE OF MAJOR COMPONENTS
Drawing above shows the main parts of a pumping unit. It’s not usefull to remove the pump casing (volute)
from the base plate.
When removing the pump for maintenance and when there’s a spacer, the volute stays on the unit. The
mechanic just bring the bearing housing & the rotor to the workshop.
Advantage: We don’t need to move the electric motor. When the mechanic will reset the pump, they will
have only to check the alignment and not to redo it completly.
4
• Electric motor
"Asynchronous" motors are generally used to dictate the pump's rotation speed and provide the energy
required for the pumping action. When in service, the motor's rotation speed is always slightly lower than its
synchronous speed, which may be 3,000 rpm, 1,500 rpm or 750 rpm depending on the design of the motor.
A change in the frequency of the current will change the synchronous speeds.
Centrifugal pumps can also be driven by steam turbines. In this case, the rotation speed can be anywhere
between 1,000 and 5,000 rpm and can be varied in normal service by changing the turbine speed set-point.
• Base frame
The pump and its drive system, electric motor or steam turbine are installed on the same metal base frame
to ensure that the different items of equipment remain in relative positions which are compatible for correct
operation of the pumping set.
The pump is aligned with its drive when the set is assembled on the base frame. Good alignment is vital for
maintaining the mechanical properties of the pump and drive unit bearings.
The base frame also has a drain line for removing liquid which has dripped from leaks. It may be necessary to
heat the pump when it is handling heavy, viscous products
5
6
• The coupling
The coupling transmits the power delivered by the drive unit and has to have some degree of flexibility to
allow the pump to expand axially and become slightly out of alignment with the motor.
As the diagram above shows, the coupling design can include a spacer or mid-section to allow the bearing
housing to be removed easily
A number of different methods are used to couple pumps to motors. The slide shows three of the main types
which transmit power via flexible or elastic assemblies
7
1 – HYDRAULIC DEVICE
The fluid to be pumped enters the pump through the suction nozzle and goes on to the eye of the impeller.
It then enters the rotor or impeller which imparts energy in the form of velocity and pressure. The liquid is
guided through the inside of the impeller by the shrouds on either side of the impeller vanes.
When the liquid leaves the impeller, it is collected in the volute, which forms an integral part of the pump
casing. The volute directs the liquid towards the discharge nozzle. The volute has an increasing cross-section
and transforms a portion of the velocity acquired in the impeller into pressure.
The above illustration shows the liquid-handling parts of a simple centrifugal pump.
8
The pressure of the liquid increases as it passes through the pump. This differential (∆P) can be measured by
means of pressure gauges installed on the pump suction and discharge
Liquid inevitably re-circulates from the impeller outlet (high pressure) to the suction (low pressure). This
effect is limited by the clearance between the impeller and the pump housing. Easily-replaceable wear rings
are often fitted to control this clearance..
Obviously, the rings are most efficient when the clearance is smallest. However, if the clearance is too small
there is an increased risk of contact between the rings and hence potential damage. One way of limiting this
is to select materials with different hardness values.
The volute has to have a vent at the top for filling the pump and a drain at the bottom for emptying it.
9
Between bearings pump
2 – Axial and rotational guidance function of the rotor

The impeller is joined to the shaft by means of a key and is locked in position by a nut. These parts form the
rotor which has to be guided as it rotates and prevented from moving axially.
The rotational guidance function is performed by two bearing housing containing anti-friction bearings (ball
or roller bearings) or friction (sleeve) bearings for high power pumps.
The impeller can either be overhung from the bearings (for light service pumps) or mounted between two
bearing (for heavy-duty service pumps) as shown on the illustrations above
The axial position of the rotor needs to be controlled to avoid contact between static and moving parts when
the pump is in service. This function is generally performed by a thrust bearing. If anti-friction bearings are
used, the thrust bearing function is often performed by ball bearings held in position by the stator.
The bearings (including any thrust bearings) are installed inside the bearing housing.
10
3. LUBRICATION FUNCTION
All mechanical parts which are rotated need to be lubricated to work properly. This applies to anti-friction
bearings, friction bearings, thrust bearings and so on.
Lubrication can either be provided by grease or by oil. Oil is generally preferred.
• Oil lubrication
In pumps fitted with ball or roller bearings, oil is taken to the bearings by rotation of the rotor, with or
without the use of splash rings to create an oil mist inside the bearing housing. In some cases, as with sleeve-
type friction bearings for example, the oil is distributed by means of oil rings which are rotated by the rotor.
11
Lubrication is not effective unless the oil level is maintained correctly.
This can be achieved in several ways:
– the level can be established when the pump is started up and can be checked on a sight glass,
– a constant-level oiler can be used,
– the level can be established by an external centralized system common to all pumps on a unit
which incorporates all safety systems required,
– or a combination of these methods.
The diagram shows the operating principle for a constant-level oiler.
Whatever method is used, it is important to make sure that the oil used is the grade recommended by the
manufacturer for the service concerned and that it has not been contaminated by impurities like water or
dust when in storage.
12
• Grease lubrication
The diagram shows an example of an automatic grease lubricator.
Parts are lubricated as a metal piston with a seal ring moves forward automatically.
This piston is driven by a pressure generator consisting of a fully sealed plastic bag containing a special
propellant compound. When the lubricator is activated, the bag gradually expands at a steady rate until the
lubricating grease is exhausted.
13
4. SEALING DEVICE
Pumps generally contain liquid under pressure which can escape to atmosphere along the shaft. This leakage
not only impacts the performance of the pump, but can also pose a safety hazard if significant quantities are
released, particularly if the liquid being handled is inflammable, toxic or corrosive.
The leakage therefore needs to be reduced or eliminated by means of a seal which can either be in the form
of packing or a mechanical seal.
Only one seal is needed for overhung impellers, but two are needed if the impeller is between two bearings.
Seals have to be lubricated and cooled to operate properly. This may require regularly flushing the seal with
liquid (generally the liquid being pumped). The flushing liquid is taken from the pump discharge and sent on
to the seal either via external piping or by an internal channel inside the seal housing.
14
5. COOLING FUNCTION
If the material moved by the pump is hot, it may be necessary to:
– cool the seal housing to maintain the mechanical properties of the seal. The coolant may be
water or steam, as appropriate.
– cool the bearing housing to keep the viscosity of the oil at the right value and maintain the
mechanical properties of the bearings
– cool the pedestal to avoid thermal expansion which could put the pump out of alignment with
the motor.
– cool the flushing liquid
Slide 17 shows an example of the auxiliary cooling and seal flushing circuits used for pumps handling hot
liquids.
15
III - FITTINGS AND PROCESS LINES
The suction and discharge lines have a number of accessories for operating or protecting the pump. As the
diagram on slide 18 shows, the installation also includes:
• Two block valves
One valve on the suction and the other on the discharge for isolating the pump from the
process.
• A filter
The filter is fitted to the suction to protect the pump against the ingress of solid particles
which could cause irreversible damage to equipment or rapid wear.
• A non-return valve
The purpose of this check valve is to prevent any liquid from moving back through the pump
from the discharge towards the suction. Liquid can return through the pump when the unit is shut down. This
could make the unit run backwards and cause damage to mechanical parts (the bearings or the seal).
• Two pressure gauges
One on the suction and one on the discharge to monitor operation of the pump.
A reducer upstream from the pump suction flange. Eccentric reducers must be used, with the
flat side on top.
A divergent nozzle installed downstream from the discharge flange. The nozzle should be as
long as possible to ensure that the liquid is channeled correctly.
16
17
18
Contents
I - GENERAL POINTS 2
II - CHARACTERISTICS OF A PUMPING CIRCUIT 4
1 - Parameters characterizing the circuit 4
2 - Circuit resistance 6
III - CENTRIFUGAL PUMP 8
1 - Pressure and velocity variation inside a single-stage pump 8
2 - Influence of nature of pumped product 10
3 - Elevation head – flow-rate relationship 13
IV - OPERATION OF THE PUMP-PUMPING CIRCUIT ASSEMBLY 14
V - VAPORIZATION PHENOMENA IN A PUMPING INSTALLATION 15
1 - Liquid vaporization conditions 15
2 - Location of vaporization risks 16
3 - Unpriming - Cavitation – NPSH 17
4 - How to resolve cavitation in operation 19
VI - INPUT POWER – EFFICIENCY 20
1
I - GENERAL POINTS
The flow-rate of the product conveyed by an in-line centrifugal pump depends on the following factors:
• geometric characteristics of the installation

This means the various diameters of the pipe and its length, as well as the number and type of accessories
(valves, elbows, filters, check valves), or the height of the liquid suction and discharge tanks (upstream and
downstream tanks) above the ground.
We can vary the characteristics of a line via an automatic valve or a manual regulating cock.
• operating conditions
The physical characteristics of the pumped product (e.g. viscosity) and the prevailing pressures in the
upstream and downstream tanks largely determine the difficulty of circulating a product within a line.
• pump performance
With the same installations and operating conditions, the flow-rate will depend on the characteristics of the
pump used: shape and external diameter of wheels (impellers), number of wheels, rotation speed.
2
To study how a centrifugal pump operates in its circuit we proceed as follows:
• for the given operating conditions and a fixed installation, we look at the characteristics of a
pumping circuit
• we look at the performance of a centrifugal pump alone
• we determine the operating characteristics of the “pump + circuit” assembly
• we should then ensure that there is no risk of vaporization in the installation, or of cavitation
in the pump.
3
II - CHARACTERISTICS OF A PUMPING CIRCUIT
In the general scenario, a pumping circuit is set up as per the figure above.
The pump sucks in liquid from an “upstream” tank, and discharges it into a “downstream” tank.
These two vessels are characterized by:
- the liquid height (H1 and H2)
- and the prevailing pressure (P1 and P2)
The line connecting the two vessels, on which the pump is installed, has a series of pipe accessories (cocks,
automatic valve, orifice plate, filter, valve, etc.)
1 - PARAMETERS CHARACTERIZING THE CIRCUIT

In the case of this pumping installation, the flow from the upstream tank to the downstream tank depends
on the following:
a - Pressure difference between upstream and downstream tanks

∆P = P2 – P1
This difference can be expressed:
- in bar
- in meters of liquid pumped: P2 - P1 (P2 and P1 expressed in bar)
g10.2
sg4t
4
b - Difference between liquid heights established in the upstream and downstream tanks
∆H = H2 – H1
c - Head losses encountered in the suction and discharge lines

Any flow in a line is subject to friction, which causes an energy loss known as head loss, denoted ∆Pf (f for
friction).
As a reminder:
• the total head loss at a given flow-rate depends on the characteristics and dimensions of
the line, its accessories and its condition:
- diameters and lengths of the various pipe sections
- number and type of accessories
- clogging of the pipe or filter
• the head loss for a given line depends on the circulation flow-rate in the installation.
As a rough approximation the variation law is as follows:
Head loss varies with the square of flow-rate

Q x 2 ∆Pf x 4
Q x 3 ∆Pf x 9
• the head loss of an installation can be modified via an automatic valve or a
manual regulating cock.
5
2 - CIRCUIT RESISTANCE
The three previously defined parameters:
- pressure difference
- height difference
- head losses
may oppose the flow of liquid from the upstream tank to the downstream tank. They represent resistance to
fluid circulation. The overall resistance of the installation is the sum of the various forms of flow resistance.
So for a given flow-rate of liquid we can define the overall resistance of a circuit to liquid circulation as:
If this overall resistance is designated Hcircuit, expressed in meters of liquid pumped, it is equal to:
Hcircuit = ∆P + ∆H + ∆Pf
(m) (m) (m)
6
For the installation in question, the head loss associated with a flow-rate depends on the position of the
adjustment parts (automatic valve, etc.).
Closing an automatic valve means, for each flow-rate, increasing the head losses ∆Pf, and vice versa.
7
III - CENTRIFUGAL PUMP PERFORMANCE
1 - PRESSURE VARIATION INSIDE A SINGLE-STAGE PUMP
If we observe a single-stage pump running at constant speed, the liquid flowing through it encounters, in
succession:
– The pump suction nozzle which is connected to the suction pipe. The fluid is guided in this
nozzle from the pump inlet to the impeller suction eye.
– The impeller
In the impeller the liquid is accelerated and pressurized. However, note that at the impeller inlet, the
pressure starts to drop slightly before increasing. This pressure drop is known as NPSH (Net Positive Suction
Head); it is a pump characteristic at a given flow-rate. So the point of lowest pressure is in the impeller, near
the impeller inlet. So this min. pressure is equal to the suction pressure PS minus NPSH.
– The volute + discharge nozzle assembly slows down the liquid, causing another pressure
increase. At the impeller outlet the liquid velocity is of the same order of magnitude as the peripheral
velocity of the impeller. For example, for an impeller with diameter D = 0.25 m at N = 3,000 rpm, the
peripheral velocity is:
Which means that by slowing down the liquid in the volute we can "recover" a considerable pressure
increase (0.5 bar for 10 m/s if the liquid is water).
The figure above shows the evolution of pressure as the liquid travels through the pump.
8
9
We can observe that the higher the specific gravity of the liquid, the greater the pump ΔP.
10
We can observe that the higher the specific gravity of the liquid, the greater the pump DP.
11
We can observe that this pump lifts liquids of different natures by the same height. This property is
characteristic of centrifugal pumps, and this height is known as the total elevation head of the pump, and
designated H. It represents the height of liquid (regardless of its specific gravity) above the suction level that
can be reached in a pipe placed on the discharge.
12
3- ELEVATION HEAD – FLOW-RATE RELATIONSHIP
For every pump we can perform tests showing the relationship that exists between:
- its total elevation head
- the flow-rate it conveys
This relationship is expressed graphically in the form of a curve known as the pump’s characteristic curve.
The figure above shows the general shape of this curve. We can note that it is generally a falling curve, i.e.
head decreases as flow-rate increases.
13
IV - OPERATION OF THE PUMP-PUMPING CIRCUIT ASSEMBLY
The pumping installation studied above comprises:
-a circuit in which each flow-rate has a flow resistance Hcircuit, once the opening of the automatic valve has
been fixed
-a pump able to produce a total elevation head H for each flow-rate
The flow-rate qv0 established in the installation is that for which the resistance H0circuit is equal to the total
elevation head H that the pump can supply.
Qv0 and H0 circuit defining the working point
We have previously observed that by acting on a control valve, it is possible to modulate

a liquid’s resistance to flow. Therefore, the pump’s characteristics curve being unchanged,
any action on a control valve results on the movement of the operation point and of
the flow rate in the circuit.
A liquid head (i.e. resistance to flow) H1circuit > H0circuit leads to a flow rate qv1 < qv0
A liquid head H2circuit < H0circuit leads to a flow rate qv2 > qv0
14
V - VAPORIZATION PHENOMENA IN A PUMPING INSTALLATION
1 - LIQUID VAPORIZATION CONDITIONS
In many plant pumping installations, the pumped liquid is sucked from a vessel where it is in equilibrium with
a vapor phase. The prevailing pressure in this vessel is the vapor pressure of the liquid.
The vapor pressure of a liquid is a characteristic that depends on the temperature and nature of the liquid.
For a pure substance, it may be represented by a pressure - temperature curve, whose general shape is
represented above.
At temperature t, liquid state is obtained for all pressures above the liquid VP. If a product is at a pressure and
temperature such that its representative point on the diagram is on the left of the curve, it means that it is in
liquid state.
We can also see that a liquid represented by point 1 on the graph may vaporize if this point is moved to reach
the curve, which may happen for example if:
- the pressure falls
- the temperature increases
- the pressure falls and the temperature increases simultaneously
In conclusion:
if Pstatic > VPliquid → no vaporization
if Pstatic = VPliquid → partial vaporization of liquid
15
2 - LOCATION OF VAPORIZATION RISKS
The static pressure to which a fluid is subjected as it travels through a pumping installation is normally
greater than its vapor pressure. So in normal operation, there should be no vaporization in the installation.
But this static pressure can decrease for various reasons – head losses, high point, acceleration, etc. – and if it
becomes equal to the vapor pressure, the liquid starts to vaporize.
Vaporization of the liquid can occur:

- in the suction line,
- in the pump,
- in the discharge line.
We will look mainly at the effects of vaporization in the pump, since its consequences are the most
destructive.
16
3 - UNPRIMING - CAVITATION - NPSH
In operation, the liquid velocity increases at the impeller inlet. Since both total energy and liquid head are
constant, it is the pressure that falls. If the total energy at the pump inlet is insufficient, the pressure at this
point can reach a value below the vapor pressure VP of the liquid, so vaporization occurs, with the following
consequences:
- if the flow-rate is low the pump unprimes
- if the flow-rate is sufficient, the vapor pocket is driven to a higher pressure point and is
abruptly reabsorbed (condensation), the surrounding liquid fills the void and impacts on the impeller at high
speed. This is cavitation, which is accompanied by a characteristic noise of “rolling pebbles” or “sand” and
vibrations that are particularly harmful to the bearings and mechanical seals.
Upon vaporization, each gas bubble creates a micro-explosion. Upon recondensation the change to liquid
phase causes micro-implosions. These are the most harmful to the machine, since they occur near the
surfaces of the impeller vanes and tear out tiny pieces of the metal.
To prevent this phenomenon, the total energy at the pump inlet must exceed the vapor pressure of the
pumped liquid by a value sufficient to ensure the latter is not reached at any point inside the pump. This
excess head is known as the NPSH (net positive suction head).
17
NPSHrequired: value determined by the manufacturer, for given flow-rate and velocity conditions. It depends on
the pump combustion.
NPSHavailable: the actual value exhibited by the pump under the installation conditions; it depends on the
nature of the liquid, pressure, temperature, vapor pressure and on the pipe’s diameter and shape. It is
essential that: Available NPSH > requisite NPSH
The NPSHavailable (NPSHa) of an installation can be expressed by the formula:

NPSHa = P + HSUC – ∆Pf – VP
P = total pressure on liquid surface (Patmospheric when vessel is in open air)
HSUC = liquid head at suction (positive or negative)
∆Pf = head losses in the suction pipe
VP = vapor pressure of liquid at pumping temperature
These values are expressed in meters column of liquid (taking into account its specific gravity).
Given this formula, we can deduce that the factors that increase the available NPSH, i.e. that reduce the
cavitation risks, are:
• increase of the liquid surface pressure
• decrease of the static suction head in the case of a pump that is not under load
• increase of the static suction head in the case of a pump under load
Varying these parameters in the opposite way decreases the available NPSH, and so increases the risk of
cavitation.
In every case, increases in the head losses and vapor pressure result in a greater risk of cavitation.
18
4 - HOW CAN WE RESOLVE CAVITATION IN OPERATION?
First of all, we can point out that by decreasing the flow-rate by partially closing the discharge valve, the
cavitation phenomenon is generally halted; this is the first remedy to apply, but it remains just a temporary,
palliative solution.
If the pump is cavitating or unpriming, it is generally because the suction pressure has decreased. We
therefore need to restore this pressure to a suitable value. To do so, check:
• the opening of the shut-off valve between the upstream vessel and the pump
• the factors that can mean head losses in the suction line:
- partial blocking of the filter
- heavy clogging of the pipe.
• the level of the upstream vessel, which may be abnormally low
Other factors may contribute to cavitation:

- product quality: abnormally high temperature, presence of water, gas, etc.)
- excessive internal play on sealing rings (wear, incorrect repair)
- excessive flow-rate.
19
VI - INPUT POWER - EFFICIENCY
A pump’s efficiency is defined by the ratio of power supplied by the pump (hydraulic power represented by
the product Q . H) to the input power on the shaft (mechanical power).
Table giving the constant C depending on the units used
For P in = kW HP CV
Q = m3/h H in mC 367 274 270

Q = l/s H in mC 102 76 75
Q = gpm H in FtC 4425 3300 3250
Q = US gpm H in FtC 5310 3960 3901
m3/h = cubic meters per hour H = total manometric head

l/s = liters per second mC = meters column of liquid
gpm = gallons per minute Ft C = feet column of liquid
US gpm = US gallons per minute
The efficiency of a centrifugal pump depends on a number of parameters:

- range of flow-rate/head covered
- construction technology
- for a given pump, the efficiency varies with each working point
20
21

Summary
I – Axial suction process pumps (type A.A.) 3
II – Vertical suction processs pumps (TOP-TOP, nozzles on top) 5
III – In-line pumps 8
IV – Multistage pumps 12
V – Vertical pumps 15
VI – Side channel pumps 17
VII – Chemical pumps 20
VIII – Vortex hydraulics pumps 21
IX – Sealless pumps 22
X – Centrifugal pumps wheels 25
1
Thee centrifugal pumps found in processs plants have quite different technologies. Most correspond to the
following categories :
– Axial suction or vertical suction processs pumps

– Vertical axis or horizontal axis in line pumps
– Horizontal axis, radial or axial seal Multi-stage pumps
– Vertical bottom suction or external barrel pumps
– Side Channel pumps (“SIHI type”)
– Various chemical pumps
– Sealless Pumps
2
I – OVER HUNG process pumps (O-H TYPE)
These pumps generally have a single cantileved wheel and their suction nozzle axis is aligned with the pump
rotation axis. The discharge nozzle axis is vertical.
These pumps have a radial split body disassembly plan (plan perpendicular to the rotation axis) that makes it
possible to remove the impeller, the Mechanical Seal assembly and the bearing while leaving the pump body
in place, to which the suction and discharge lines are bolted.
3
O-H process pumps are well suited to medium flow rates and to medium or low heads (reflux pump, product
transfer, chemical product pump, etc.). Moreover, as their technology is simple, their price is moderate and
their level of maintenance generally low.
4
II – VERTICAL SUCTION process Pumps (TOP-TOP, nozzles on top)
These pumps have vertical suction and discharge nozzles, with suction and discharge flanges often on the
same horizontal level.
Top-Top processs pumps may :
– either be fitted with a single cantilevered wheel, which can be removed by disassembling the
split body as for the A.S. pumps
– or fitted with two cantilevered wheels and of two radial joint plans. Disassembly is done as
shown above, once the outer wheel removed.
– or fitted with a double wheel (or two wheels) placed between two bearings.
T.T. process pumps are frequently used in refineries for hot or cold products, in medium or high flow rates
and medium discharge pressures : reflux pumps, atmospheric distillation feed pump, residue pump, etc. It is
easy and practical to install them in units as their vertical nozzles are well suited for receiving pipes from pipe
racks.
5
In some cases, however, the horizontal nozzle arrangement is preferred as shown above. This arrangement is
found for some pumps fed by a buried pipe or a pipe way. The classic arrangement (“a”) would create a high
point, gas trap or space for a partial vaporization of the product in the suction line.
6
• Description of TT process pump with 2 impellers between 2 bearings
The drawing above shows a TT process pump with impellers located between two bearing housings.
The liquid first passes through the first impeller on the right, and is then guided to the second impeller on the
left. A wear ring reduces the liquid leakage along the shaft between the two impellers.
A two-stages pump makes it possible, at the same flow rate, to get twice the discharge pressure as a pump
fitted with a single wheel having the same diameter and the same rotation speed.
7
III - IN LINE Pumps
The suction and discharge nozzles of these in line pumps are on the same vertical level and approximately co-
axial.
It is possible to disassemble them to have access to the rotating parts without deconnecting the suction and
discharge lines.
The drawing above shows two types of in line pumps :

– in line pumps with radially split body, and a vertical axis in the general case
– in line pumps with axially split body, and a horizontal axis
8
a – Radial split body in-line pumps
• General characteristics
These pumps are fitted with one overhung impeller and they have the same uses as process pumps.
• Description of a radial split body in-line pump

Specific characteristics :
– the impeller is directly mounted on the motor shaft, which eliminates both the coupling and
the bearings on the pump side.
– on the drawing above, the seal installed is a fabric packing type. Note that the seal, as in any
vertical pump, is located at a high point when compared to the liquid inside the pump body. If there is a gas
pocket in the line or in the pump, it will be trapped into the high point, leading to a quick destruction of the
seal. In case of a mechanical seal, it is critical to check that the seal housing is vented, permanently in some
cases.
– there is a chamber between the motor and the seal to evacuate leaks from the seal and
prevent thems from entering the motor.
– various types of cooling are possible, particularly of the seal housing and of the motor base
plate.
9
b – Axially split (horizontal) in-line pumps
These pumps are fitted with a double wheel between two bearings. The pump body split plan is axial and
disassembly is performed by removing the top half body without interfering with the suction and discharge
lines bolted to the lower half body.
• Description of a horizontal split body in-line pump
The drawing above shows :
– the horizontal split plan and both pump half bodies.
– the suction nozzle coupled to the lower half body. The discharge nozzle is on the same level
on the other side of the pump, hidden in this sketch.
– the double wheel and the discharge volute.
– the lines tapped to the volute enabling lubrication of the mechanical seal
– the ball bearings located on each side of the pump (balls lubricated with grease).
10
c – High speed “Sundyne” pumps
To get high discharge pressure, one solution consists in using monocellular high speed pumps (up to about
24 000 rpm).
The pumps manufactured by Sundyne achieve such high rotation speed. The layout of the pump suction and
discharge nozzles means that these pumps are classified as in-line pumps with a radial split body.
The outside view shows that the pump high speed driver requires a multiplier between the motor and the
pump.
The following specific characteristics should also be noted :
– the wheel is of “open” type, fitted with an inducer screw to reduce the pump NPSH
– a mechanical seal is provided in the lower part of the multiplier to retain the lube oil of the
gear trains and multiplier bearings.
– A cyclone centrifugal separator may be installed to filter the flushing liquid of the pump
mechanical seal
– A seal (possibly double) is provided to prevent the pumped liquid to leak through the shaft.
11
IV – Multicellular or multistage pumps
These pumps are fitted with several wheels and used when there is a need for high differential pressure: feed
pumps for high pressure units, boiler feed pumps, etc. They often have a horizontal axis, but some have a
vertical axis.
There are two types :
– multicellular pumps with axial split body
– multicellular pumps with radial split body
12
a - Multicellular pumps with axial split body
These pumps are fitted with several wheels, the suction of some of them being oriented to the coupling side
and the rest oriented to the opposite side of the coupling. Such a layout reduces the axial hydraulic thrust on
the rotor. The circulation of the liquid between the different wheels is done through connecting channels
within the cast pump body.
• Description of an axial split body in-line pump

The cross-section above shows :
– the circulation of the liquid inside the pump from the first to the last wheel
– the wheels layout to reduce the general hydraulic axial thrust on the rotor
– the connection between the pump suction and a chamber located between the last wheel’s
discharge and the seal on the opposite side of the coupling, to have the same pressure to seal at each shaft
end. This pressure is close to the pump’s suction pressure. The external line establishing the connection is
called the « balancing line »
13
b - Multicellular pumps with radial split body
There are two main types:
– pumps composed of an assembly of identical cells
– outside barrel pumps where a cartridge containing the assembly of cells is placed within a cylinder
called barrel.
These pumps create high pressures and are particularly suited to volatile and hot products. They are used as
boiler feed pumps (40 to 120 bar) or as process pumps (H.P. unit feed).
• Description of a radial split body multicellular pump

Most radial split body multicellular pumps include an assembly of cells, each one including :
– a wheel
– a diffuser and return channel
– a stage casing enclosing the whole assembly.
The drawing above shows a cross-section of a pump build according to this principle.
Note:
– the different cells and the circulation of the liquid from the pump’s suction to its discharge
– the assembly of cells on bearing casings using tie backs
– the presence of a balancing wheel to cancel the hydraulic axial pressure applied to each
wheel
– the lack of any thrust bearing. In fact, the operation of the balancing wheel requires the rotor to move
freely along its axis , ensuring the positioning of the rotor when the pump is in operation.
14
V – VERTICAL Pumps
Vertical axis pumps can be divided in two types :
– vertical column pumps
– Vertical pumps with outside barrel
a – Vertical column pumps

These pumps are generally monocellular and suck up in liquid through a strainer fixed to the suction nozzle of
the pump and submerged into the liquid.
This type of pump is adapted to pumping from a well or a pit. It is often found in cooling water or pit
pumping applications.
Note that one of the technological difficulties met with this type of pump is to ensure a correct guiding of the
pump shaft, with length reaching several meters.
15
b – Vertical pumps with outside barrel casing
In this type of pump, the suction and discharge nozzles are horizontal and co-axial. They are located above
the ground, while the pump casing, called “barrel” is buried.
Such pumps may be mono or multicellular, suction occuring through the wheel located at the lower end of
the shaft.
With such a layout, the liquid in the first wheel is at a higher pressure than the pressure at the pump’s
suction flange, as the static head due to the liquid height is added to it.
It is worth using such pumps when the liquid head available at suction needs to be increased in order to
avoid any risk of vaporization in the pump, without having to raise up the suction drum.
16
IV – Side Channel pumps
Pumps with a Side Channel, often called "Sihi" pumps, from the name of the main manufacturer, can be
considered as between centrifugal pumps and rotating positive displacement pumps. They are however
usually associated with centrifugal pumps. Vortex vacuum pumps (also called BERTIN wheel or peripheral
wheel pumps) have the same behavior.
Side Channel pumps are able to suck up gas and liquid mixtures without operating disturbances. The sucked
up gas may be :
– vapors from a partial vaporization of the pumped liquid, which may condensate when
pressure increases in the pump ;
– "uncondensable" gases that cannot completely dissolve into the pumped liquid and that will
be evacuated with the liquid through the discharge nozzle.
Such pumps are able to suck up the gas present during start up in the suction nozzle. They are called “self
priming”. They are used when suction conditions are very difficult : condensors’ extraction pumps, tank
bottom draining, pumping of high gas content liquids, etc.
17
• Operating principle
The cross-section above is an example of Side Channel pump. This pump is made of a cell assembly, each cell
including :
– a wheel with radial blades
– a housing for stage suction
– a housing forming a Side Channel ensuring the discharge of the liquid distribution stage (and
of potential gases) to the next cell.
18
• Description of a Side Channel pump
The drawing above shows :
– the 3 cells with Side Channel assembled by tie rods ;
– casing forming suction and discharge nozzles ;
– c. Note that a cooling chamber is provided around each packing. These pumps may be fitted
with mechanical seals.
– Rotor guiding ensured by ball bearings located in the bearing casings fixed to the packing
boxes by two bridges, in order to maintain a moderate temperature around bearings in case of hot product.
– drain plugs for the different cells.
Some Side Channel pumps are fitted with a centrifugal stage at suction, upstream of the Side Channel cells.
19
VII – CHEMICAL Pumps
Centrifugal pumps installed in chemical plants provide various technological solutions.
There exists a wide choice of material and design : special types of steel, plastic coating and material,
machines fixed on their baseplate by the bearing of the machines, their impeller having specific shapes or
being placed at the end of the motor shaft.
Pump material is chosen depending on the liquid and the design conditions.
20
VIII – VORTEX HYDRAULICS Pumps
Such hydraulic systems (wheels and pump housing) may fit in conventional process pumping services. They
are used to pump liquids containing fragile crystals or solids. Their efficiency remains low compared to
conventional pumps. On the drawing above, the « loaded » liquid’s route is indicated by the large blue
arrows. The impeller essentially receives clear centrifuged liquid (without heavy particles) whose movement
is indicated by the thin black arrows.
21
IX –Seal-less Pumps
There are in the industry two types of pumps which have no sealing system, as the pump and driving
mechanism are inside a tight enclosure. The risk of leaks through the mechanical seal no longer exists.
Environmental and safety contraints, and also in some cases the need for reliability, ensure a promising
future to this type of equipment.
a – Canned motor pump

The rotor includes the impeller and the rotating part of the motor. The whole is immersed into the pumped
fluid which is isolated from atmosphere by a tubular casing extending between motor stator and rotor. This
tube is made of a material that does not alter the transmission of the magnetic field from stator to rotor
(stainless steel, Hastelloy).
22
b – Magnetic driven pump
The principle of this pump is the same as for the submerged rotor pump, but the motor is replaced by a
magnetic coupling, using permanent magnets.
23
c – Submerged pumps
The pump – motor set is submerged in the liquid. This well-known solution for pumping water from drilled
wells was developped to pump liquefied gases stored in spheres or bullets. In order for the tank to be
emptied to the maximum, the pump must have a low NPSH obtained with appropriate shapes and a low
rotation speed (1000 or 1500 rpm). The low energy thus provided by each wheel requires the use of
multistage pumps.
24
X – CENTRIFUGAL PUMP WHEELS
a - Different types of wheels

The types used in the « dynamic » type pumps can be classified depending on the change in direction of the
liquid stream.
– closed or centrifugal wheels where the outlet direction of the liquid is perpendicular to the inlet
direction.
– semi-open or helicocentrifugal, intermediate wheels
– pen wheels : outlet parallel to inlet
In centrifugal pumps, closed wheels are the most frequent, with sometimes a few types of semi-open wheels
(cooling water circulation pumps, vertical pumps with outside barrel, …).
25
Another classification is based on the shape of ducts : open wheel, semi-open wheel or closed wheel.
In open wheels, the blades are fixed to the wheel hub only. They are connected to a disk in semi-open wheels
or to two disks in closed wheels.
26
As is shown in the drawing above, wheels can be classified depending on the number of entrance.
The wheel shapes are in direct relation with some of the pumping characteristics :
– From the radial type to the axial type, there is an increase of the flow rate, but a decrease of
the discharge head.
– Open wheels or semi-open wheels allow the circulation of loaded products, but they have a
lower efficiency than closed wheels pumps.
– Double wheels can achieve large flow rates and benefit from a natural axial balance.
27
b – Forces acting on wheels
The differences in pressure in the pump body, the volute and the suction eye lead to the apparition of forces
that apply on the impeller and whose axial and radial resultants can be distinguished.
• Axial Force
The drawing above shows the different pressures acting on the wheel :
– discharge pressure dP applies on the wheel’s back and on its front, outside the eye
– suction pressure sP applies on the wheel’s eye
– finally, the atmospheric pressure applies on the wheel’s back on the part corresponding to the
shaft.
28
• Radial Force
At the rated flowrate corresponding to the best energy efficiency, pumps are normally designed so that the
pressure forces acting radially on the wheel produce a null resultant.
When moving away from the rated flowrate, the profile of pressures applied on the wheel changes. Pressure
in C increases when the flow is reduced or decreases when the flow is increased.
The resultants of the radial forces are then respectively oriented in directions 1 and 2 shown in the first
drawing above.
The resulting displacements of the wheel may lead to wear ring friction and rapid wearing.
A solution to reduce the wide range of variations of the radial resultants is to use a double volute or a
diffuser with blades as shown in the second drawing.
The radial forces are then distributed and their resultant is approximately null.
Wheels may also be unbalanced by the existence of an unbalanced mass. This produces a radial force turning
with the wheel and generating vibrations.
29

Contents
I - SHAFT SEAL SYSTEMS AND MAIN TYPES 2
1 - What shaft seal systems do 2
2 - Seal chamber pressure 6
3 - Main shaft seal types - Selection criteria 10
II - GLAND PACKING 11
1 - Typical packing system 11
2 - Operating principle 12
3 - Advantages and disadvantages of gland packing seal 14
4 - Example of stuffing box 15
III - MECHANICAL SEALS 16

1 - Operating principle 16
2 - Leakage on seal 17
3 - Auxiliary circuits 21
4 - Different types of mechanical seals 22
5 - "Cartridge" seals” 28
6 - Two-part seals 29
7 - Double stand-by seals 30
8 - Identification of auxiliaries on seal glands31
1
I - SHAFT SEAL SYSTEMS AND MAIN TYPES
The seals we are looking at in this section can be installed on both centrifugal pumps and positive
displacement rotary pumps. However, the examples given as illustrations chiefly relate to centrifugal pumps.
1 - WHAT SHAFT SEAL SYSTEMS DO

When you run a centrifugal pump, you are making an impeller rotate at a specific speed inside the casing of
the pump through which the pumped liquid is traveling. The impeller is rotated by means of a shaft which
passes through the pump casing and is mechanically linked to the prime mover.
The liquid being pumped is generally at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure when it is inside the
casing and can therefore run along the shaft and escape to atmosphere or the bearing housing.
This leakage obviously needs to be reduced to zero - or close to zero - for safety and environmental reasons.
Even if the pump is moving a cold, low-value, non-hazardous liquid such as water, leakage means a loss of
efficiency as the pump has transferred energy to the liquid being leaked.
The reverse can apply with negative suction pressure, where the problem is ingress of air into the pump
casing and the process fluid. Air ingestion reduces the efficiency of the pump and can lead to loss of prime.
Additionally, ingress of air into piping or vessels can be a major hazard as it brings an oxidizer in contact with
hot combustible material.
2
It is therefore essential to incorporate a system which enables the pump to operate in complete safety.
The device which prevents leakage around the shaft is known as a shaft seal or stuffing box.
3
Overhung pumps with one or two impellers only have one shaft seal. If the pump has an outer bearing on
each side of the pump housing, it will need two shaft seals.
4
This illustration shows the position of a shaft seal in a overhung pump with one impeller.
5
2 - SEAL HOUSING PRESSURE
It is not easy to determine the exact value for the seal housing pressure as it depends on the design of the
pump and on the service conditions. However, in a great majority of cases, this pressure is close to the
suction pressure. The following diagrams gives a rough order of magnitude for the seal chamber pressure for
a few examples of pump configurations.
• Single-stage pump (no balancing system)
In this case, the seal housing pressure is close to the prevailing pressure inside the volute. We can estimate
that the value is slightly lower than the discharge pressure. This pressure is relatively unaffected by internal
clearances or the geometry of the pump:
Seal chamber pressure ≈ Pdischarge
This technology is rarely used on "process" pumps although it can be found on pumps with low discharge
head.
6
• Single-stage pump with impeller balanced by means of balance holes and wear rings
The seal housing pressure is equal to the prevailing pressure at the impeller inlet plus pressure losses in the
balance holes.
This value is generally estimated as being slightly higher than the suction pressure.
Seal housing pressure ≈ Psuction + 0.1 x ∆Ppump
The seal housing pressure or back pressure value is influenced by the clearance on the wear rings.
This arrangement is recommended by API standard 610.
7
• Single-stage pump with impeller balanced by means of pump-out vanes (or blades)
In this arrangement, the seal housing pressure largely depends on the condition and size of the vanes,
together with the clearance between the vanes and the housing.
The value is lower than the prevailing pressure inside the volute and may even be lower than the suction
pressure. However, it is generally close to the suction pressure
Seal housing pressure ≈ Psuction
8
• Multi-stage pumps
Manufacturers design their pumps so that the two seals are kept at the same pressure by means of a
balancing system. In a great majority of cases, this pressure is equal to the suction pressure. The seal
chamber pressure on the discharge side depends on pressure losses in the balance line and therefore on the
flow in the line, which in turn depends on the clearance between the piston and the sleeve.
Seal chamber pressure ≈ Psuction
9
3 - MAIN PUMP SHAFT SEAL TYPES - SELECTION CRITERIA
Shaft seals belong to one of two categories:
-Gland packing. Rings of packing material are compressed along the shaft to reduce leakage. The leakage
must never be zero
-Mechanical seals. In this case the seal is achieved by contact between a stationary part and a moving part
which forms an integral part of the shaft. Provided that the surfaces of the two contact faces must be in
excellent condition, the leakage rate is very low. These seals account for over 90% of pump seals.
There have been a number of major technological improvements resulting from the use of new materials
(silicone carbide in particular) and from a better understanding of how the seals work. There is now a
suitable mechanical seal available for almost all pumping requirements, no matter how demanding in terms
of pressure, temperature and the type of fluid moved.
10
II - GLAND PACKING
1 - TYPICAL PACKING SYSTEM

The diagram provides a cutaway view of a gland packing seal.
It identifies the main parts of the seal, i.e.:
- the stationary parts comprising:

• the packing rings made from deformable materials
• the gland packing which compresses the packing rings
• the lantern ring which distributes liquid to cool and lubricate the packing
• the seal housing or stuffing box.
- the rotating moving parts:

• the shaft
• the shaft sleeve which forms an integral part of the shaft. The packing rings rub
against the sleeve.
• the impeller and its shaft key
11
2 - OPERATING PRINCIPLE
The gland packing exerts a compressive force on the packing rings. The rings are expanded radially as the
shape of the stuffing box prevents them from moving sideways. The rings are applied on both the shaft (or
shaft sleeve) and the seal housing.
When flattened, the rings act against possible leakage of liquid between the shaft and the rings or between
the rings and the seal housing.
The friction between the shaft and the rings generates a considerable amount of heat which has to be
removed to maintain the packing in good condition. Some liquid therefore has to continue to circulate
between the shaft and the rings.
On small non-industrial pumps, the answer is to allow a small quantity of the pumped liquid to escape and
avoid over-tightening the gland.
Cooling is generally achieved by circulating a flushing liquid which the lantern ring distributes inside the seal.
The flushing liquid is often the liquid being moved by the pump.
12
Cooling is generally achieved by circulating a flushing liquid which the lantern ring distributes inside the seal.
The flushing liquid is often the liquid being moved by the pump. It can be cooled if the temperature of the
pumped liquid is not compatible with optimal packing performance.
In some applications, it may be necessary to flush the seal with a different liquid. Some plants call this
"flushing liquid", others call it "seal oil". For example, in systems used to seal heavy viscous products it may
be necessary to flush the seal with a more fluid product.
The liquid which enters the lantern ring escapes in two different directions:
- from the lantern ring to the inside of the pump, and
- from the lantern to the outside of the pump. This leakage must be reduced but it must not be
stopped completely as this would rapidly cause permanent damage to the outer rings
The illustration shows leakage in both directions:
1: Leakage to the inside of the pump: cools and "lubricates" the inner rings
2: Leakage to the outside of the pump: cools and "lubricates" the outer rings. The amount leaked
should be small but not zero: drop by drop or thin trickle
Liquid is injected into special lantern rings to dilute and cool inflammable products. This "quench" liquid is
generally water. The quench flow has to be shut off for a short time if operation of the gland has to be
checked to make sure that product leakage is not too great but is flowing drop by drop.
The permissible leakage rate depends on the pump, but in principle, the larger the shaft the greater the
leakage. The flow rate can vary from a few drops per minute up to two or three hundred drops a minute (a
thin trickle).
13
3 - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GLAND PACKING SEALS
The following factors are generally recognized as being characteristic of gland packing seals.
Advantages:
- low purchase and repair costs
- rings easy to replace
- seal deteriorates slowly
Disadvantages:
- full seal not provided as slight leakage is vital (using both product and energy)
- relatively frequent maintenance
- rings can be difficult to fit and prepare
- significant power losses through friction (1 to 10 kW depending on pump size)
Despite these disadvantages, glands are still used for low-cost non-polluting liquids like cold water, in
temporary applications where a mechanical seal would be difficult to set up or for specific services such as in
fire water pumps because the system is not likely to fail suddenly.
It is estimated that 5% of shaft seals on dynamic applications use gland packing.
14
4 – EXAMPLE OF STUFFING BOX
15
III - MECHANICAL SEALS
Mechanical seals account for around 95% of dynamic seal applications.
1 - OPERATING PRINCIPLE
A mechanical seal contains a pressurized liquid by means of radial contact between two parts in relative
rotation. These parts are pressed against each other by the action of one or more springs combined with the
force produced by the pressure of the liquid to be contained.
The part which is subjected to the force of the spring must be able to move axially and slide along the shaft.
In many cases this part rotates, hence the name rotary seal ring. This axial movement requires a clearance
between the ring and the shaft. The liquid is usually prevented from moving through the gap by a further seal
ring, generally in the form of an O-ring. The O-ring seal can only tolerate small axial movements.
The non-moving part pressed against the rotary seal ring is called the stationary seal ring.
There are a number of static seals to ensure tightness between other parts of the shaft seal, i.e. between the
stationary ring and the gland, between the gland and the seal housing and between the sleeve and the shaft
(if sleeve mounted).
16
2 – LEAKAGE ON SEAL
The stationary and rotary faces are in contact at a number of points when the pump is shut down. Spaces
between these points of contact allow liquid to flow to the area of lowest pressure. The greater the surface
roughness and the worse the surface flatness, the greater the leakage.
The average distance between the faces defines the average thickness of the film.
When the pump is brought into service, a film is established between the two faces, with an average
thickness of between 1 to 5 microns.
The contact between the stationary ring and the rotary ring has to be lubricated by a film of liquid. This film
is replaced very slowly as the leakage flow rate is very small (e.g. a few cubic centimeters or so per day).
17
The system also has to remove the heat generated by friction to avoid problems such as allowing the film to
vaporize which would destroy the seal immediately.
18
In practice, the basic method for cooling the mechanical seal is to circulate liquid through it. This is either
done by:
-self-flushing using liquid drawn from the pump discharge (the pumped liquid), or
-external flushing using liquid from outside the unit which is compatible with the product moved by the
pump.
This liquid then goes back into the pump housing and mixes with the process fluid
19
The service life of the mechanical seal depends on maintaining the liquid film. The main factors in achieving
this are:
-perfect flatness on faces and geometry of pump component parts which keep faces parallel and
concentric
-balance of forces exerted on the moving seal ring to produce a closing force or a closing pressure on the
contact surface which is:
• great enough to avoid leakage
• low enough to avoid removing the film or cause overheating
-thermal balance to remove the heat generated at the friction faces without causing the film to vaporize
- no particles present between the friction faces
- low levels of vibration.
For the seal to work properly, the liquid must be:
- clean, i.e. without suspended solids which could rapidly damage to the contact surfaces. This
may require having a cyclone-type separator on the liquid circuit (this method is becoming less common) or
a filter
- sufficiently cold to ensure that the seal is at the correct operating temperature. If the liquid
temperature is too high, an exchanger needs to be installed close to the pump to cool the liquid.
In the most severe applications, as with very hot pumps, the seal cooling process also includes cooling the seal
housing chamber with an auxiliary fluid or steam. With some heavy hot products, this external steam cooling is the
only method used and there is no liquid flushing. These special "dead-end" seals can only be used if there is no
possibility of vaporization.
20
3 – AUXILIARY CIRCUITS
• Circulation (or flushing)
In cases where the pressure and temperature values of the pumped liquid are very far from vaporization
conditions, there is no need to remove heat. Many of the cooling circuits installed serve no useful purpose in
modern seals which have narrow faces and silicone carbide/carbon friction faces and where the temperature
is only raised by a few degrees.
If the temperature must be limited and/or if the pressure needs to be increased, circulation is established:
- from the discharge towards the seal housing, or
-from the seal housing to the suction when pressure levels allow (this avoids sending suspended particles
between the faces, or
-using a clean, cold external liquid (this is now standard practice for products with very high levels of
suspended solids).
• Quench
Liquid escapes from a seal at a few cubic centimeters per hour. Depending on the kind of product concerned
and its temperature, this small leak will deposit material (particles, coke, polymers, gums or crystals) or cause
freezing on contact with air.
The purpose of quenching is to isolate the pumped liquid from the atmosphere and to cool and clean the
leak. Demineralized water is used at a very low flow rate. Steam let down to 0.2 to 0.5 barg is used for heavy
petroleum products which produce coke deposits. Nitrogen can be used if the aim is just to isolate the
product from the atmosphere, as with LPG.
As well as limiting the flow rate, limiting the quench pressure at 0.5 bar prevents the stationary ring from
becoming detached and hence protects the seal from irreparable damage.
21
4 - MECHANICAL SEAL TYPES
a - Single seals
• Spring and O-ring
The illustration shows a single-spring seal with O-ring.
22
• Bellows
The illustration shows a rotary bellows seal.

Since the rotary seal ring is one of the main causes of leakage, the springs can be replaced by a bellows
system which acts like a sealed spring. In this case, there is no need of rotating ring O-ring.
23
b - Double mechanical seals
Manufacturers have developed double mechanical seals for safety and environmental reasons. The principle
involves placing a liquid or gas barrier between the liquid to be contained and the atmosphere.
• Tandem seal with non-pressurized "buffer" liquid

The first seal acts as a single seal. The second prevents a barrier to leakage from the first.
In practical terms, the buffer liquid is just used to remove the heat produced by the outer seal and to provide
the interface film for the second seal.
The pumped liquid tends to escape towards the buffer liquid.
24
• Double mechanical seal with pressurized barrier liquid.
The barrier liquid is pressurized by means of gas (N2 or process gas) at a pressure greater than the pressure
of the pumped fluid. The tank (seal pot) makes up for leakage of barrier fluid (oil, methanol, etc.). Safety
systems report operating problems. The barrier liquid tends to flow into the pumped liquid and provides the
liquid film between the rings on the two seals.
25
• Tandem gas barrier seal (barrier pressure < pumped liquid pressure)
Gas is used instead of the barrier liquid. This is achieved using "dry" mechanical seals which operate without
liquid and can run with liquid pressure in exceptional cases. Since the pumped liquid escapes to the barrier
gas, the leakage has to be removed. This is very easy to do with liquids like LPG which vaporize at
atmospheric pressure.
26
• Double gas barrier seal (barrier pressure > pumped liquid pressure)
In this arrangement, both seals operate with a gas film. This means that there is a slight leakage of barrier gas
to the process fluid.
27
5 - "CARTRIDGE" SEALS
Single or double cartridge seals are available
Manufacturers have developed "cartridge" seals to make mechanical seals easier to install and adjust. The
assembly includes the gland, the sleeve plus all springs, rotating rings, stationary rings and O-rings.
It is estimated that between 45 and 50% of mechanical seals on rotary pumps are "cartridge" type seals. The
percentage is growing constantly.
28
6 - TWO-PART SPLIT MECHANICAL SEALS
The design of these seals allows some leakage and so they are found in industries other than refining and
petrochemicals. They are mainly used on non-polluting, non-hazardous products.
Their main advantage is that they can be replaced without having to strip the pump.
They offer a practical solution on equipment which heavy lifting gear.
However they are not in widespread use.
29
7 - DOUBLE STAND-BY SEALS
The main seal is a standard mechanical seal.
The seal on the atmosphere side is a "gas" seal on which the rotating seal ring has a special profile which
separates it from the stationary seal ring as soon as the shaft starts to rotate. It works with air at atmospheric
pressure.
This "stand-by" seal can also occasionally operate with liquid if there is leakage on the main seal.
This photo shows an LPG (butane) pump with a double seal on "stand-by".
The pressure gauge on the vent is used as a leakage indicator. The gauge has a value of zero in normal
service.
The valve has a "Staubli" coupling for cleaning out the stand-by seal with nitrogen, as it tends to become
clogged up with time.
30
8 - IDENTIFICATION OF AUXILIARIES ON SEAL GLANDS
Inlet and outlet orifices for auxiliaries are generally identified by letters on the seal glands.
The codes used vary according to the manufacturer and the type of seal concerned.
This list shows some of the letters you may find next to the orifices.
31

Contents
I – DRAIN AND VENT CIRUITS 2
II - COOLING CIRCUITS 3
III - PACKING SEALING CIRCUITS 4
IV - EXAMPLES OF AUXILIARY CIRCUITS 6
1
Centrifugal pumps may be equipped with a number of auxiliary circuits.
I - DRAIN AND VENT CIRUITS

To fill up the pump with product upon start-up, it is fitted with vent lines leading to the drain for most liquids,
or to the flare for LPGs. Vacuum tower pumps or LPG pumps are equipped with a balancing line. To empty
the pump, especially for the purpose of service work, drains are fitted at the low point, and are generally
connected to the drain or flare.
2
II - COOLING CIRCUITS
The temperature of the pumped product determines the temperature of the packing body, the bearing
body and the base of the pump.
Maintaining excessively high temperatures may cause damage:
– to the packing, by vaporizing the product on the friction surfaces, or by damaging the O-rings;
– to the bearings by maintaining the oil at an excessively high temperature;

– to the packing and bearings, via vibrations due to misalignment of the coupling caused by
excessive expansion of the base.
For the above reasons, these parts of the pump are cooled with water in the vast majority of cases.
3
III – PACKING SEALING CIRCUITS
• Flushing
Whenever the pumped liquid is under temperature-pressure conditions a long way from vaporization, there
is no need to evacuate heat, and many flushes installed are useless in modern packings (narrow faces, silicon
carbide-carbon friction couple), which can only raise the temperature by a few degrees.
To limit the rise in temperature and/or increase the pressure, a flush is set up:
- either from the discharge to the packing box
-or from the packing box to the suction if the pressure levels permit, thereby preventing suspended particles
from penetrating between the faces
- or by means of a clean, cold external liquid, a common solution for products with a very high
suspended-solid content.
• Quench
A packing is leaking a few cubic centimeters per hour. Depending on the nature of the product and its
temperature, this small leak will cause deposits of particles, coke, polymers, rubber, crystals, or frosting of
atmospheric moisture in contact with the air.
The quench isolates the pumped product from the atmosphere, while also cooling and cleaning the leak.
Very low flow demineralized water is used. For heavy petroleum products causing coke deposits, steam
reduced to 0.2-0.5 bar relative is used. For simple isolation from the atmosphere (as with LPGs), nitrogen can
be injected.
Limiting the quench pressure to 0.5 bar, besides limiting the flow-rate, prevents detachment of the fixed seal
face, which would destroy the packing.
4
• Buffer liquid
For dual packings in tandem, the auxiliary fluid is contained in a tank generally at atmospheric pressure,
placed approx. 2.5 m above the pump and fitted with a vent. A thermosiphon flush is most often set up, but a
pumping device is sometimes added to one of the cups.
Back-to-back dual packing requires a fluid at a pressure 2 to 5 bars higher than that of the pumped liquid. The
tank, generally raised, may be pressurized by nitrogen or by discharging the pump via a membrane bottle. For
large installations, an auxiliary liquid circuit with pumps may also be used.
The buffer liquid used may be glycol water (or water + antifreeze), transmission fluid or any kind of oil. In cold
conditions methanol or iso-octane is used.
5
IV - EXAMPLES OF AUXILIARY CIRCUITS
• A.A-type centrifugal pump: Flow-rate limiter and cyclone on flushing.
6
• A.A-type centrifugal pump: Cooling and flow-rate limiter on flushing.
7
• A.A-type centrifugal pump: Quench.
The quench vapor pressure between the seal face and throttle ring:
- dilutes any leak from the packing
- cleans deposits under fixed and mobile seal faces
- evacuates heat from the friction of fixed and mobile seal faces, thereby reducing the risks of
ignition and explosion
8
• Example of auxiliaries on a hot pump
9
• Example of auxiliaries on an ‘in line’ vertical pump
10
• Example of auxiliaries on a ‘Sundyne’ pump
11

Sommaire
I – LINE-UP AFTER MAITENANCE WITH DISASSEMBLY 2
- 1 Checking 2
- 2 Operations prior to lining up 3
II – FILLING 4
- 1 Priming problems 4
- 2 Filling Standard service 8
- 3 Filling liquefied gases – Cold Service 9
- 4 Filling Hot Service 10
- 5 Filling vacuum pump 11
III – START-UP 12
IV – MONITORING WHILE WORKING 14
V – SHUT-DOWN 16
VI – PREPARING FOR MAINTENANCE 17
VII – INCIDENTS – ANOMALIES 18
1
I – INSTALLATION AFTER MAINTENANCE WITH DISASSEMBLY
The pump has been reassembled and coupled to the driving machine. The engine rotation direction has been
checked before the reassembly if the motor has been disassembled or deenergized.
Back from the maintenance, it can remain some water in the pump (either because water from the hydraulic
test hasn’t been properly removed, or because rainwater has flown through the discharge and even the
suction pipes). Remove water before refitting the pump.
1 – CHECKING
Gaskets: Check if all the blinds have been removed
Covers/protections: Check if all of them (coupling, seals) are in place
Valves: All of them are closed.
Filter: Be sure it has been cleaned
Auxiliary circuits: Be sure that all of them are available (cooling, lubricant, steam, seal flush,
nitrogen, etc)
2
2 – OPERATION PRIOR TO THE INSTALLATION
Auxiliary: Arrange the auxiliary, including cooling water and eventually steam circuits (tracing)
Lubrication: Check the color and the oil level. In case of lubrication circuit, start the auxiliary pump,
have a look to the oil pressure after filter, temperature and oil flow gages.
Sealing: Set up the buffer liquid when two mechanical seals.

Set up external flushing (if existing)
The quench will be fed after starting the pump to be sure there’s no leak from the
mechanical seal.
3 – SPECIAL PROCEDURES
If the pump must be hot aligned, the maintenance department asks the operating company to have the
pump available for reheating. This operation is done once the pump has been filled in and reheated.
3
II - FILLING
1 – THE PRIMING PROBLEMS

a – Priming principle
The total head of a pump does not depend on the liquid density. On the contrary, the pressure increase
supplied by the pump has a direct link with the density.
If the pump is filled with air at atmospheric pressure (sp gr air/water = 0.0013), it will supply 760 times less
pressure than if it had been filled with water. Then it will give a pressure of a few millibars only.
In the here above diagram, the pressure is not high enough to lift the valve behind which there is pressurized
liquid.
In this situation, the pump is said to be not primed.
He gsp gr He = Pump manometric head

∆Pp = ΔPp = Pressure increase in the pump (Pd – Ps)
10,2 Sp gr = Specific gravity of the fluid
4
b – priming technique
To prime a pump, the air (or the gas) shall be "bled off" so that the pump carries a liquid as dense as
possible.
To flush the air or the gas to the atmosphere, it is possible to use the liquid pressure at suction provided if it
is greater than atmospheric pressure.
If the gas bled off must be sent to a pressurized tank, then the liquid pressure must be greater than that of
the tank. This often poses technical problems. If possible, the gas is then sent to the flare that has a very low
pressure.
5
In the situation where the suction pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure, the pump can be filled:
– either by a balancing line
– or by an external liquid that fills the pump: filling by the other pump of the process function, filling
by a network of compatible external liquid
6
In the case of a pump sucking up from a well, priming is only possible when the suction pipe is filled with
liquid. Filling is done by a filling line with water.
Filling is possible provided there is a tight check valve.
7
2 - FILLING: STANDARD SERVICE
0 °C < Product temperature < 150 °C, Psuction > Patmospheric
Product in liquid form at room temperature and pumping temperature, at atmospheric pressure.
Initial situation: pump full of air, clean filter.
Discharge valves closed: slightly open the suction valve.

Open the vent(s). There should be at least one on the body of the pump at the highest point and
several on some multicellular pumps (otherwise use the discharge pressure gauge drain).
Moreover, the vertical pumps must have a vent on the discharge line and on the seal cover plate.
(If the suction line includes high point with vents, it will be necessary to previously drain the air
that may have accumulated and put plugs on).
When the liquid appears at the vents, close them.
(Drain the water that has possibly been carried).
Put the plugs back on the drain and the vents.
Completely open the suction valve.
Bleed off the pressure gauge at discharge.
8
3 – FILLING LIQUEFIED GASES: COLD SERVICE (T < 0°C)
Product in liquid form at pumping temperature and pressure but gaseous one at atmospheric pressure and
room temperature.
Two main problems:

– the possible drying in order to avoid ice formation inside the pump and the mechanical parts
• either by blowing nitrogen
• or by filling with methanol or an equivalent product (iso-octane)
– cooling: the pump must be cooled down to the product temperature

Once the vents are opened, generally towards the flare, the product is expanded through the suction valve
half open or a small by-pass. The resulting vaporization with a major decrease in temperature (–30°C for
propane) makes it possible to have a cooling of the pump casing. When getting close to the working
temperature, the suction valve can be fully opened. When the liquid and the pump are at the same
temperature, the vaporization stops and filling starts.
When condensation appears on the isolation valve of the vent to the flare, the liquid has reached the valve
and expands in it. The pump is then full of liquid.
The temperature decrease and stabilization are spread over several hours to avoid too important thermal
stresses
9
4 - FILLING: HOT SERVICE
Temperature between 150 °C and 380°C, and Psuction > Patmospheric
The problems resulting from the presence of a hot product are:
– the risk of vaporization of water contained in the pump and the mechanical adjustments of the different
elements
– the sudden change in temperature of metal parts may lead to stresses in the material as well as cracks
(thermal shock)
– risks of burning or ignition of the product gets out of the pump (drain - vent)
– line clogging if the flowing product is at a too low temperature.
These stresses determine the filling operations of the pump for this service. They are all the greater as the product
temperature is high. The pump casing must be drained before any filling to avoid water vaporization. The pump casing
reheating is done all the more slowly as the product temperature is high.
The most complete procedure corresponding to a product of more than 300°C, and which can last for several hours,
includes:
a filling with a compatible liquid at ambient temperature to degas the pump casing from auxiliary lines (2 valves
to be opened and then closed)
the slow replacement of the liquid by a hotter liquid (for example 180-200°C) from auxiliary lines taken from
close circuits (2 valves to be opened and closed when the pump is hot enough)
last, filling with the process liquid.
This last step is done by partially opening the suction valve, then by opening the discharge valve and the valve by-pass.
When the temperature has been reached, the suction valve can be completely opened.
There are faster solutions by directly filling the pump with the process liquid. In this case, the suction valve shall be
opened to let very little product flow, in order to slowly reheat the pump. The vent must be designed to avoid burning
or ignition.
During the reheating phase, the pump temperature is not uniform, and the pump gets distorted. Multi-stage pumps
are often blocked during this phase, as starting them this way damages them. In this case, it is particularly important to
be sure of the free rotation before the start-up. The electric motor mustn’t be energized before manual rotation of the
pump.
Some pumps are hot and under vacuum. In this case, the balancing line is always opened and vacuum stability (no air
10
inlet) is checked before opening the suction or the discharge valves.
10
5 – FILLING VACUUM PUMP
0°C < Product temperature <380°C, and Psuction < Patmospheric
On these pumps, the vents are connected to a balancing line that connects them to the gas phase of the
suction vessel. The mechanical seal sometimes includes a vent connected to this line.
The vapor quench must be arranged and used as a seal.
Before opening the suction valve, open the valves on the balancing line.
It allows the air inside the pump to expand by passing through the balancing line to the vacuum vessel.
If the suction valve has been opened before the balancing line, the decrease in air pressure and the resulting
huge increase in volume will fill the suction line with the risk that part of the air is carried towards the
operating pump, and unpriming this pump.
When the pump must carry a very hot liquid, before it is filled with the hot liquid, it is previously filled with a
liquid at room temperature (G.O.) by an appropriate line. A procedure can thus be described:
– fill the pump with G.O. (then close the line)
– open the balancing line
– make the hot product flow until reaching the correct temperature by opening the by pass of the
check valve (discharge valve opened)
– open the suction valve.
11
III – START-UP
Step process adapted to each job and for a given pump technology. The following phases can generally be
found:
Foremost
– Energize the electric motor (“Tag-out” if no already done)
– Check if the position of the disposition button is on "manu" (or "local")
– Completely open the suction valve
– Let the discharge valve closed or slightly opened
– Advise the control room (possibly the power house or the dispatching managing power distribution
in case of high-power pump start-up)
NOTE: Never start a pump if one is not sure it is full of liquid, especially when equipped with a mechanical
seal.
Start the pump

– If there is a local ammeter, check if the intensity stands below the normal operating value. An over-
intensity means there is an anomaly: you should stop immediately
– Control the discharge pressure gauge; it must immediately show a pressure almost equal to the
maximum pressure with the discharge closed and it must remain stable. If pressure does not
immediately increase to the planned value, stop the pump and look for the reason for it: priming
failed, bad assembly, reverse rotation, etc.
12
Follow up
– If there is no abnormal noise or major vibration, open the discharge valve immediately
– Check the intensity increases up to the normal operating value
– Start up the sealing quench (if any): adjust the pressure to 0.2/0.5 bar, as per the instruction
– For gland packings, make sure the leak is sufficient: important drip flow or thin trickle depending on
the pump size
When the operation seems normal, shut off the lines of temporary use such as the balancing lines,
temporary cooling or reheating, by-pass of check valve, etc. If there is an automatic recirculation, make sure
it works
IMPORTANT: If the pressure doesn’t reach the expected value from the start, if it has any changes, if it falls to
zero, the pump isn’t PRIMED. Stop immediately, (risk of deterioration of the mechanical seal). Find the reason
on the suction line: clogging of the filter, low level in the suction tank, valve not completely open etc. Start
again the filling operation.
13
IV – MONITORING WHILE WORKING
1 - TEMPERATURES
Temperature of cooling water too high:
– Check and adjust the water flow
– The cooling circuit may be partially clogged
– The pump may abnormally warm up. Check the flow gage. The temperature of the bearing oil must not exceed 50 to
60 °C. The pump housing must be at the same temperature than the cooling product.
2 -LEVELS
The oil levels of the bearings must be controlled.
Drain the water trapped at the bottom of the casing (if possible).
Monitor the levels of the buffer liquid containers for double mechanical seals.
Control the level of the suction tank of the pump.
3 - PRESSURES
Monitor discharge pressure. Some changes can be normal depending on the process:
– changes in process conditions (pressures, flow rates, temperatures)
– change in suction or discharge tanks levels
– change in specific gravity of the pumped liquid
The change in pressure can also result from a change in the flow rate, this information is available in the control room. If there is no
process reason, an immediate and complete investigation shall be carried out with the machine specialist and can lead to stop the
pump.
If there are pressure gauge ports, it is recommended to monitor as well:
– the filter ∆P
– the suction pressure
– the quench pressure
Check the pressure of the buffer liquid container in case of double mechanical seals.
14
4 – OTHER CONTROLS
– Oil: level - color - water – deposits
– Good working of ancillary equipment
– Leaks of product: flanges – sealing housing - seals – drains and vents
– Abnormal noises (cavitation for example)
– Process flow rate: Must remain between the mini and the maxi of the pump
– When double mechanical seals equipped with dry seal, check the pressure towards the flare (by closing the valve towards the flare
one can realize the importance of the leak with the pressure increase speed).
5 – ELECTRIC ENGINE
The intensity must not exceed the nominal intensity, shown in the nameplate.
Temperature
An electric engine quickly gets to a certain temperature after the start-up, the engine casing as much as the bearings. But the ventilation is such
that there shall not be any temperature increase afterwards. In case of a continuous temperature increase of the casing, the intensity and the
ventilation shall be checked. In case of a continuous temperature increase of the bearings, there may be either a mechanical failure (alignment or
bearing), or a lubrication failure.
Ventilation
In some cases, a temperature increase may result from a lack of ventilation due to the clogging of the suction grid or to a not driven fan.
Therefore the grid cleanliness shall be regularly checked, as well as the fan correct working.
6 - VIBRATIONS
Vibrations result from a certain number of causes:
• Hydraulic causes:
– cavitation
– bad distribution of the liquid in the impeller
– blades worn or clogged
– too low or too high flow rate
• Mechanical causes related to:
– the pump installation
– material wear with time
– temperature of the cooling liquid
– the driving machine
The operator who is used to the machines of his unit will realize, sometimes by touching it, that the vibration rate of a machine
(pump and driving machine) is getting worse.
15
V – SHUT-DOWN
The discharge valve must be slowly closed before the pump is shut down to prevent hammer shock resulting
from the sudden reverse direction of the liquid.
In the case of a pump to be used as a backup:
– if there is a lubrication valve, make sure the auxiliary pump has automatically started-up
– if it must start up remotely or if it has to be used as an immediate backup, open the discharge valve
and make sure the valve is sealed (pressure before the valve = suction pressure, no reverse rotation)
– in case of hot or a cold liquid, open the valve by-pass (as well as the discharge valve one) to keep it
at temperature
– slightly open the balancing or degassing lines if any
– keep ancillary equipment operating
16
VI – PREPARING FOR MAINTENANCE
The pump being shut down, discharge valve closed:
– close the suction valve
– for viscous products, rinse the pump; be careful with too high temperatures that may vaporize the
rinsing liquid
– let temperature get closer to room temperature (depending on the cases)
– shut down and isolate the whole ancillary equipment
– electrically lock out the engine (check it has been correctly done by pushing the Start/Stop button)
– decompress (open a valve or a recovery line of the rinsing product)
– check with the pressure gauges (in good condition) that the valves are sealed
– drain the pump, making sure the operation has been completely done
– drain water circuit if it may freeze
– put (or ask someone to put) the blinds and make someone clean the pump if required
17
VII – INCIDENTS - ANOMALIES
As centrifugal pumps are being operated, the operator can face a certain number of incidents and anomalies
on them, among which we can find:
– insufficient working flow rate
– insufficient discharge pressure
– excessive bearing warming
– unsuccessful priming
– excessive power consumption
Any anomaly noticed shall be reported to the superintendent.
1 – INSUFFICIENT FLOW RATE
It may result:
– from an increase in the circuit resistance (change in pressure and vessel levels, valve not fully
opened, filter clogged, regulation valve blocked)
– from a technical anomaly on the pump (wear, reverse rotation, rotation speed)
– from the cavitation or the unsuccessful priming of the pump
2 – INSUFFICIENT DISCHARGE PRESSURE
As the pump vanes gets worn, the elevation head decreases, and so does the discharge pressure (for one
same flow rate and for the same product)
The decrease in discharge pressure often results from a decrease in suction pressure or in a decrease of the
specific gravity of the process liquid.
Gas (or air) found in the liquid can explain the decrease in specific gravity.
18
3 –EXCESSIVE BEARING WARMING
It can be detected by reading the thermometers (if any), or by touching the bearing housing. The pump bearing temperature can
vary a lot (between 30 and 70°C). The operator will have to pay attention to an increase in temperature, which reveals a change in
the way the bearing works. It can be due:
– to the lubricant (lack, excess, non adapted quality)
– to a lack of cooling (insufficient water flow rate or air depending on the cooling system)
– to a damaged bearing (or journal bearing ) due to normal wear, a mechanical problem on the pump, or major vibrations
It is strongly recommended to closely follow the evolution of the warming and not to wait the complete damage of the bearings
before to stop the pump.
4 – UNSUCCESSFUL PRIMING
The main causes have been seen in the previous chapters and are listed here below:
– too low level in the suction vessel
– air or gas carried by the liquid
– too important pressure losses at suction (line clogged, filter clogged, valve partially closed)
– cavitation
– air inlets (seals, flanges, volute gasket) in the case of a vacuum pump
– liquid vaporization resulting from a warming generated by some insufficient flow rate
5 – EXCESSIVE POWER CONSUMPTION

It can be noticed on the local ammeter if any. If there is no ammeter, the operator is alerted as the over-intensity is triggered off.
The main causes are:
– a too important process flow rate
– too important flow rate in the impeller compared with the pump real flow rate, resulting from an internal recycling
following a major wear of the wear rings
– a not conformant impeller (too big)
– potentially for small pumps:
• Abnormal friction at the wear rings
• Damaged bearings
• Packing gland too much tight
19
DIFFERENT TYPES AND PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
•Rotary positive displacement pumps
•Reciprocating positive displacement pumps
ROTARY POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

•General characters of rotary positive displacement pumps
•Main types and uses
RECIPROCATING POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

•Principles used
•General characters of reciprocating positive displacement pumps
•Study of some types of reciprocating positive displacement pumps
1
Positive displacement pumps transfer volumes of fluids from the suction zone to the discharge zone.
At first the volumes to be transferred are isolated from these two zones and then pumped.
The transfer is conducted linearly in reciprocating positive displacement pumps and in a rotary movement in
rotary positive displacement pumps.
2
3
The two gears turn in opposite directions because of the way they interlock.
The interlocking at the centre forms a barrier preventing the liquid from passing from the high
pressure zone to the low pressure zone:
– The volumes 1 are in communication with the low pressure zone. They are filled with liquid. This is the
suction stage.
– The volumes 2 are in the transfer stage toward the high pressure zone between positions 1 and 3. They
are isolated from the low pressure and high pressure zones.
– The volumes 3 communicate with the high pressure zone. This is the discharge stage.
4
The principle of a single acting reciprocating pump is shown above
•During the suction stage, the piston withdraws, the low pressure valve is open, the liquid fills in the cylinder and the high pressure
valve is held shut.
•During the discharge stage, the piston is pushed to the end of the cylinder, the liquid is expelled to the high pressure zone and the
low pressure valve is held shut.
•Between these two stages, the volume of liquid filling the cylinder is isolated from the two pressure zones: the valves
are closed and the cylinder is in transfer.
Different types
Although the use of reciprocating pumps has almost completely disappeared for large capacities, triplex type pumps are
widely used for high pressures.
To adjust the capacity, a large number of mechanical systems have been invented to tune the piston stroke.
These pumps can use a plunger or a diaphragm depending on the products to be pumped and the required discharge pressure.
These pumps require almost constant maintenance because of the way they are designed:
– the valves tend to wear out
– the packing of the plunger requires to be tight up frequently in order to compensate its worn out
– as in all reciprocating machines, the crankshaft-push-rod system has a life that depends on the forces it encounters and the
quality of the lubrication. It does still require regular maintenance.
The discharge of these positive displacement pumps is very pulsated and poses specific installation problems.
5
6
Whatever their working principle and their technological design, rotary positive displacement pumps all share common
characteristics related to their use.
a - The flow is regular

More often the discharge of a rotary positive displacement pump is almost as regular as the one given by a centrifugal
pump.
This is the major advantage of these pumps compared to reciprocating pumps that give a pulsed discharge that
in many types of uses has to be made more regular by special devices.
It should however be notified that some pumps (considered as rotary pumps), give an irregular discharge (e.g.
eccentric disc pump).
b - The capacity varies slightly with the pressure produced by the pump
The capacity of a rotary pump turning at a constant speed, varies a little bit when the ∆P produced by the pump
increases.
This variation in flow is caused entirely by internal leaks inside the pump, which are related to the ∆P generated by
the machine. When this ∆P increases, the capacity provided by the pump tends to decrease slightly.
The figure above shows the form of the graph relating the pressure increase ∆P to the capacity of a rotary
positive displacement pump, for 2 different speeds.
A safety device has to be provided to protect the pump against inside pressure surges.
If the outside pressure rises up too high (e.g. accidental closure of the discharge valve), the discharge pressure P2
will increase considerably because the pump continues to rotate and so, to produce an output. In these conditions
there is a risk of exceeding the limits of the pump's mechanical strength and destroying the pump itself.
In order to avoid this, many pump manufacturers and designers include a protection system consisting of an internal
by-pass circuit whose opening is controlled by a safety valve set to open at a little above the normal discharge
pressure.
7
These pumps must be started with the discharge valve open. The discharge volume of a rotary
positive displacement pump can be varied by altering its speed of rotation.
Conclusion
Consequently, the discharge control of a rotary positive displacement pump can only be done:
- By by-passing a part of the flow. This by-pass circuit is outside the pump and must not be confused with
the pump protection system. The by-pass can be controlled by an automatic valve under control of the
discharge used.
-Or by altering the speed of rotation. This method requires a speed variator.
8
• A reversed flow causes the pump to turn into the reverse direction
Most rotary pumps can be used as an hydraulic motor by releasing a flow of liquid inside the machine.
As for centrifugal pumps, it is therefore essential to install a non-return valve on the discharge
In order to prevent a reverse rotation of the pump and of the drive mechanism.
• The discharge varies slightly with the viscosity of the product being pumped
The discharge volume of a rotary pump only depends on one physical property of the product
pumped: its viscosity.
Internal leaks are lower with a more viscous product than with a very fluid product. The discharge
volume therefore increases slightly with the viscosity of the product pumped.
The figure above shows the influence of the viscosity on the discharge.
9
• These pumps are efficient
For the same discharge, rotary positive displacement pumps have a greater efficiency than centrifugal
pumps. This advantage is particularly great when the product has a high viscosity (greater than 30 to 40 cSt).
Rotary positive displacement pumps are often preferred to centrifugal pumps for heavy products at
high temperatures and therefore having a high viscosity are being pumped (storage, movements of
products).
• These pumps have very good suction powers
Rotary positive displacement pumps have a very low NPSH (usually equal to or less than 1 m). Some of them
are so-called self-priming because they can suck up air initially contained in the suction pipe.
• Usually the product being pumped must be a lubricant
Most rotary positive displacement pumps require the product to be sufficiently lubricant to overcome
internal mechanical friction. The pumping of "dry" liquids (petrol, water, etc.) is therefore forbidden. For
such products, reciprocating positive displacement pumps, or centrifugal pumps are preferred.
It should be noted that the rinsing of a system pumping viscous products with a light liquid must
be done with precaution because there is a major risk of seizing up the pump.
10
Progressive cavity pump, « Moineau » type
• Operation
A steel shaft having the shape of a very elongated screw ("pig's tail" shape) rotates inside an elastomer stator
comprising two female screws of double the thread of that of the rotor. This difference in thread creates
cavities that fill with liquid and that move longitudinally because of the rotation causing the product to
circulate.
The rotor has an oscillating movement and is driven by means of a swivel link and cardan joint situated in the
product.
When the rotor and the stator are new, the internal sealing is good enough to give self-priming properties.
11
On the drawing above, stator and rotor are showed in cross-section.
The rotation of the rotor is separated into 4 steps in order to understand what happens inside the pump.
• The liquid moves to the right direction, according to the motion direction of the sockets of liquid.
• Discharge and suction lines are isolated from each other by a sealing line which length is proportional to
the number of stages.
• Uses
Used at pressures up to 35 bar, sometimes higher and discharges up to 25 m3/h. They are widely used for
pumping muds and products with a high suspended solids concentration.
In petroleum production, their small diameter and self-priming properties explain their use as shaft
bottom pumps driven by a submersible rotor motor.
13
• Maintenance
The pump mustn’t be run dry otherwise the rotor and the stator become hot very quickly , and so are
destroyed very quickly.
However, the product does not need to be a lubricant, regarding the pair of materials which has been chosen
to have a low coefficient of friction when it runs with the liquid. Nevertheless, the elastomer stator and to a
lesser extent the rotor are subject to a certain amount of wear and must be replaced at intervals.
In spite of a slow rotation speed, the radial rotary stress does not favor the holding of the sealness; on the
other hand the cardan joints (articulation) cannot be greased from outside.
As a result, it is necessary to keep in mind that, except with low charged and viscous liquids, these pumps
require a frequent maintenance and are hardly adapted to a continuous service.
• Operation
Two square-toothed or helical gears intermesh in an oblong body. One is driven by the shaft, and the other
by the drive gear.
The product is carried in the cavities formed between the non-engaged teeth and the pump body, the
absence of leakage between suction and discharge being provided by the intermeshing of two teeth.
A considerable flow recirculates by the gear mechanism, imprisoned at the base of the teeth, but this is often
less than half of the discharge driven around the margins.
For large discharges, helical teeth having a more regular output are used.
15
• Uses
These pumps can only operate in a lubricating environment and in the absence of suspended solids.
They produce moderate pressures and low discharges. They are encountered especially as lubrication
pumps.
• Operation
In these, the ring gear attached to the shaft provides the drive for the idler gear.
As the quantity of fluid trapped at the bottom of the teeth is very low, the efficiency is greater.
A crescent shape separates the suction from the discharge. Their architecture, closer to that of the
centrifugal pump, can provide larger discharges than the previous and can rotate at higher speeds.
As with the previous, they can only operate with a lubricating liquid.
17
• Use
They are used for oils and viscous products (fuel oil, diesel) at moderate pressures.
• Operation
Two screws with different threads intermesh. The liquid fills the cavities that occur between the screw and the body.
As the screw rotates, the cavities move, therefore transferring the liquid from the suction zone toward the discharge zone. Le
liquide remplit les cavités qui existent entre vis et corps.
There are two types:

– direct gear: the threads are inclined and one screw is driven by the other. The bearings are situated in the product being
pumped
Advantages: there is good internal leak-proofing, which enables pressures of up to 80 bar to be reached. There is
only one shaft exit, which reduces the risks of leakage to a single seal.
Disadvantages: the product being pumped must always be a lubricant and free from particles, to avoid
wear on the screw and the destruction of the bearings. If the pump runs dry it is destroyed immediately.
– Synchronization gears
In this case the two screws are not in contact, a slight gap between them increases internal leakage, but enables
non-lubricating and slightly dirty liquids to be pumped.
The synchronization gears are placed in a lubricated housing, on the opposite side from the drive. The bearings
are not immersed in the product.
Advantages: they can be used for pumping a wider variety of products; but in fact, only products with a
minimum of viscosity provide a correct efficiency by reducing internal leakage.
Disadvantages: the possible ∆P and efficiency are decreased by the presence of internal leaks. There are also four
sealing units.
• Uses
Pumping of clean viscous products such as lubricating oil of turbomachinery and fuel oils. Can also be used for some viscous
chemicals.
19
There are two types:
– direct gear: the threads are inclined and one screw is driven by the other. The bearings are
situated in the product being pumped
Advantages: there is good internal leak-proofing, which enables pressures of up to 80 bar to
be reached. There is only one shaft exit, which reduces the risks of leakage to a single seal.
Disadvantages: the product being pumped must always be a lubricant and free from
particles, to avoid wear on the screw and the destruction of the bearings.
If the pump runs dry it is destroyed immediately.
– twin screw
In this case the two screws are not in contact, a slight gap between them increases internal
leakage, but enables non-lubricant and slightly dirty liquids to be pumped.
The synchronization gears are placed in a lubricated housing, on the opposite side from the
drive. The bearings are not immersed in the product.
Advantages: they can be used for pumping a wider variety of products; but in fact,
only products with a minimum of viscosity provide a correct efficiency by reducing internal leakage.
Disadvantages: the possible ∆P and efficiency are decreased by the presence of internal leaks.
There are also four sealing units.
20
A center screw (power rotor) drives the two other screws (idler rotors). The relative axial position of the
three screws, compared to one another, is produced by flanges forming a thrust bearing.
The screws have a single thread and the axial thrust has to be compensated to reduce the stress on the
thrust bearing: a balancing piston at the end of the screw is fed by a perforation in the drive screw (there is a
risk of this becoming blocked by products that lodge (clogge) here!).
The advantages and disadvantages are the same as those of two screw pumps without
synchronization gears, but have a more compact construction for a given discharge.
• Uses
The product must be clean and lubricant. These pumps can produce high pressures (up to 25 to 30 bar).
They are used for transferring viscous products (heavy fuel oils, bitumen). They are also used for
lubrication.
21
A “Mouvex” pump consists of a body and an eccentric oscillating piston fitted to the drive shaft.
The body of pump is formed of two concentric cylinders with a partition separating the space between the
two cylinders.
The oscillating piston is in the form of a split hollow cylinder. The partition mentioned above fits in this split.
The shape of the components is such that the piston, guided by the partition, always remains in contact on
its inner circumference with the inner cylinder of the body and in contact on its outer circumference with the
outside cylinder of the body.
The body and piston therefore enclose four spaces, whose volume changes as the motor shaft rotates.
These spaces are labeled A, B, C and D on the figure above.
Holes made in the body allow suction and discharge from the different spaces.
22
Advantages:
– variable discharge by varying the rotation speed
– self-priming
– automatic take-up
Disadvantages:
– when fitted to an electric motor “Mouvex” pumps require the installation of a reducer
– the product being pumped must be free from suspended solids
Uses: emptying storage tanks, unloading tanker trucks.
23
24
1 - PRINCIPLES USED
Normal reciprocating positive displacement pumps are based on two principles:
- the movement of a piston. Depending on the configuration, the piston can be in contact with the
cylinder (see figure 1 below), or may not be in contact with the walls of the chamber containing the
liquid (see figure 2 below: plunger piston pump)
- the deformation of a membrane (see figure 3 below). The movement of the membrane is usually the
result of the pressure obtained on the rear face by a plunger piston pump
The operating principle is simple:

- when the piston or the membrane moves backwards (to the right on the figure above), the suction
valves rise and the liquid is sucked up. The discharge valves are closed.
- when the piston or the membrane moves forwards (to the left on the figure above), the suction
valves close whereas the discharge valves open, allowing the liquid to be discharged from the
pump.
In terms of use, the following are distinguished:

- “process” pumps that carry large discharges of products or unit effluents
- metering pumps that are used for the addition of small quantities of fluids that are needed for various
processes.
25
Reciprocating positive displacement pumps all share the following characteristics.
a - The discharge is pulsed

The working principle described above shows that a single reciprocating pump only sucks or produces output for half the cycle.
The discharge of such a pump is therefore pulsed, which can be a disadvantage:

-for processing and its control (variation in flow or pressure)
-for the pipes and the pump environment (vibrations of pipes and buildings)
-for pressure losses
It is possible of regularize the flow of a positive displacement pump:

-by equipping the pump with several pistons or membranes whose movements are out of phase with one another.
-by introducing anti-surge devices in the circuit (vessels partially filled with gas that act as dampeners). In this case a check must be made
that the pressure of the membrane in the vessels is adapted to the discharge to be dampened.
b - The discharge is independent of the pressure difference produced by the pump

As internal leakage is even less than for a rotary positive displacement pump, the flow of a reciprocating pump is unaffected by an
increase (or decrease) in the pressure difference produced by the pump between suction and discharge.
Therefore:
-as for rotary pumps, reciprocating pumps must protected by a by-pass circuit allowing liquid to be returned to the suction side if there is excess
discharge pressure
-it is impossible to vary the flow of a reciprocating pump by using the pressure drop in a valve placed at the discharge, as in the case of
centrifugal pumps
-for a given speed and travel (number of backwards and forward movements of the piston, or membrane per minute), the discharge is fixed
whatever the variations in suction or discharge pressure. This property is particularly interesting when the pump is used for the injection of
precise quantities of process fluids (metering pumps).
c - Reciprocating pumps have a suction power that depends on the installation

Reciprocating pumps with a membrane or piston in contact with the walls of the cylinder can suck up the gas contained in the suction pipe when
the ratio between the discharge pressure and the suction pressure is not too high. The pump then behaves as a compressor. In these conditions
they can be self-priming.
In other cases they can only operate when full of liquid. Furthermore, it must not be forgotten that the irregularity of the flow described above
leads to pressure oscillations around the average pressure that can be considerable. In these conditions, the instantaneous pressure can be lower
than the steam pressure of the product being pumped leading to vaporization that can cause problems or cause the pump to run dry.
26
d - The flow of a reciprocating pump can be regulated:
- by varying the speed. This is possible when there is a variable speed drive
mechanism:
• steam turbine
• steam pump
• hydraulic actuator (metering pump)
-by varying the travel of the piston or membrane, by acting on the mechanical system
that transforms the rotary movement of the drive mechanisms into a reciprocating
movement.
-by by-passing
-in the case of metering pumps, a change in injection flow can be obtained by varying
the dilution of the injected product in the solution being pumped.
e - Uses
Reciprocating pumps are very suitable for pumping very small volumes (metering pumps) or
for small or moderate discharges at high pressure.
However, because of their large size and higher maintenance cost than centrifugal pumps,
the latter are preferred whenever possible.
27
In this case, the piston is no longer in contact with the cylinder. It consists of a rod or plunger whose diameter
is smaller than that of the chamber. This is a single-acting type of pump.
• Working principle
The liquid to be pumped is sucked up when the piston withdraws from the chamber. The valves are then
raised from their seating to let the product pass through. When the piston advances into the
chamber, the incompressible liquid raises the discharge valves and escapes toward the discharge pipe.
28
Advantages:
no contact between the piston and cylinder, it is therefore possible to pump liquids with suspended solids,
non-lubricants and even corrosive products.
Disadvantages:
-single-acting pump per cylinder therefore bulky compared to its output
-piston only guided by the packing gland, so there is a risk of wear
-leaks of liquid through the packing gland (danger if product volatile or corrosive)
• Uses
In the petrochemical industry, this type of pump can be used as a pump for pressurizing high pressure, low
capacity units.
To regularize the flow, these pumps are equipped with several cylinders that are connected to a shared
crankshaft. The arrangement of the cylinders is such that there are several discharges per revolution.
29
The design of this type of pump is illustrated in the figure below, where the drive mechanism that varies
from one constructor to another is not shown.
Note on this figure:

-the double suction and discharge valve housing
-the leak proofing system along the plunger
• Uses
Micro-discharge with high pressure for injection of various products in small quantity. e.g. caustic soda,
corrosion inhibitor, etc.
Disadvantages: leakage from piston hence danger of pollution or fire and loss of product.
30
• Working principle
The piston is no longer in contact with the liquid being pumped, but with a compressed and
decompressed buffer liquid, that makes a membrane in contact with the liquid being pumped move
backwards and forward.
At each compression of the buffer liquid, the membrane is pushed out thus discharging the liquid to be
pumped.
At each decompression of the buffer liquid, the membrane is pulled in, thus sucking up the liquid to be
pumped.
The membrane is made of rubber PTFE or stainless steel, which enables corrosive products to be
pumped.
31
Advantages:
-completely liquid tight for the product being pumped
-pumping of corrosive or dangerous products possible
Disadvantages
The volume displaced by the piston is greater than that displaced by the membrane, so it is
necessary to limit the pressure of the buffer liquid to prevent the membrane from bursting. A safety
valve evacuates excess buffer liquid tampon at the end of the suction stroke. A compensation device then
has to be installed to release a quantity of buffer liquid tampon equal to that evacuated back behind the
membrane at the end of discharge.
A diaphragm pump must therefore be equipped with an additional compensation system that increases the
cost.
• Uses
Same as those of plunger piston metering pumps with in addition the possibility of pumping all types of
liquid.
32
I - PRESENTATION
II - DESCRIPTION OF THE MAIN CONSTITUTIVE PARTS
1 – Compression function
2 – Movement function
3 – Auxiliary functions
III – AUXILIARY AND PROCESS CIRCUITS
IV - OPERATION
1 – Adjustment of the flow capacity
2 – Start-up
3 - Monitoring
4 – Hazards related to reciprocating compressors
1
I - PRESENTATION
• External presentation
A piston reciprocating compressor always consists of cylinders laid out of various ways according to the
applications (size, nature of gas, manufacturer,…). The number of cylinders of a process compressor can be 6
even 8. Certain industrial refrigerating compressors comprise 16 cylinders. The service air or instrument air
compressors have 2 cylinders in general.
2
A 2-cylinder reciprocating compressor is shown above.
We can distinguish:
- 2 cylinders laid out horizontally
- the casing which receives the rotative parts
- the flywheel which is used to regularize the effort of the motor
3
Without being systematic, we can say that:
-the horizontal arrangement is the most common arrangement for the process compressors in refining and
petrochemicals units
-vertical and « V-shaped » arrangements are rather characteristic of cooling compressors
-air compressor arrangements (excepted for the small machines) have evolved during the 20 last years from
vertical, « T-shaped » or « V-shaped » arrangement to a horizontal arrangement.
4
The number of cylinders required, is depending on:
- the need of flow which results in a cylinder operation in parallel (on the compressor above, the 2
cylinders, of the same size, operate in parallel)
- or an increase of pressure by a succession of compressions in serial put cylinders, also called staged
compression (in this case the diameter of the cylinders decreases while the pressure increases)
5
• Drive and rotation speed
The rotation speed of the industrial reciprocating compressors is between 300 revolutions per minute for the
largest oldest machines and 750 revolutions per minute for the most recent and of a smaller size. Some small
compressors or cooling compressors can rotate at 1500 revolutions per minute .
Most of the time the drive is done by an asynchronous electrical motor rotating at 1500 rpm and equipped
with a reducer. In the small machines, the transmission and the speed reduction are ensured by belts.
Variable speed is not used in these cases.
There are some cases of drive with steam turbine or thermal engine coupled to the compressor allowing a
light rotation speed variation (< 15%), or, on some old machines, the rotation speed variation is allowed by
steam cylinders.
6
II - DESCRIPTION OF THE MAIN CONSTITUTIVE PARTS
The principal constitutive parts can be gathered through different functions.
1 – THE COMPRESSION FUNCTION

• Description of compression
The piston gets an alternative straight movement. It moves in the cylinder between a Bottom Dead Center
(BDC) and a Top Dead Center (TDC). The chamber where the gas is trapped (generally called effect or acting-
effect) is equipped with especially designed non-return valves. These valves allow the gas to flow in only one
direction.
The suction valve allows the flow from the suction flange towards the cylinder and opens when the pressure
in the cylinder is lower than that of suction line.
The discharge valve allows the flow from the cylinder towards the discharge flange and opens when the
pressure in the cylinder is higher than that of the discharge line.
7
The gas compression proceeds in 4 phases per rotation:
(see table above)
8
Each valve opens 1 time per rotation. It lets a very few time to suck or discharge the gas (< 0.05 sec for a
machine rotationing at 600 tr/min). The speed of the gas through the valve is relatively high, that’s why in
many cases, several valves are needed at the compressor inlet and outlet. Thus, on the compressor
presented previously, there are 2 suction valves and 2 discharge valves by effect. Modern technologies use
specific materials (technical thermoplastic, high strength steels,…). An example of these valves is given
above.
9
• Gas temperature increase
Any gas compression is done with heating. This heating is primarily function of the compression ratio
(Pref/Pasp), of the nature of the gas and of the type of compressor.
For questions of construction and reliability, the temperature of the discharge gas is limited to approximately
140/150°C (on certain gases, we limits the temperature at 90/100°C). This maximum temperature limits
the compression ratio consequently. For this reason, certain machines must be multistaged.
10
• Flow
The flow in suction and discharge lines is not steady. The pulsations of pressure which result from this are
eliminated in anti-pulsatory balloons placed at the suction and discharge of each cylinder.
11
• Arrangement of cylinders
The small compressors and the cooling compressors are generally for single-acting compressors (only one
chamber of compression), i.e. the piston compresses on only one face.
In most industrial compressors, the cylinder is designed so that the piston compresses on its 2 faces. It is said
that the cylinder is double-acting. This disposal allows a greater regularity of flow and effort on the
crankshaft and a more important flow for a given size of compressor.
12
During compression the gas warms up, which often limits the allowable pressure increase done by the
compressor. Almost all the compressors are cooled in order to limit the temperature increase. Cooling is
carried out with water which passes through cooling chambers located in the cylinder casings and in the
ends.
13
2 – MOTION FUNCTION
The motion function includes all the elements which make it possible the piston to move according to a
reciprocating motion. From the compressor coupling to the piston, we find for a cylinder in the order:
a – The crankshaft
Animated of a continuous rotation movement (300 to 750 rpm), it rotates on two or several plain bearings
when the power is higher than 60 or 100 kW. For lower powers, the guidance of the crankshaft can be done
by ball or roller bearings.
b - The connecting rod

The big end is positioned around the crank pin of the crankshaft, the small end is positioned around the pin
of the crosshead.
14
c – The crosshead
It moves with a rectilinear motion imposed by the crosshead guide. It is fastened with the small end of the
connecting rod and the piston rod end. The unit “connecting rod + crosshead” transforms the continuous
rotation movement of the crankshaft into an alternative rectilinear motion transmitted to the piston rod.
d – The piston rod

Interdependent of the piston (one end of the piston rod), the piston rod is fixed at the other end on the
crosshead. Along the piston rod, through the rear end of the cylinder, we find the piston rod packing.
15
3 – AUXILIARY FUNCTIONS
To function in a satisfactory way a reciprocating compressor requires that the following functions are
correctly fulfilled.
a – Sealing functions
Internal sealing: to prevent a gas leak along the piston of an effect towards the other, some ring seals are laid
out with the periphery of the piston (between 2 and 6 segments depending on the pressure to be
withstood). These segments can made of cast iron, carbon, Teflon charged with glass or ceramics,…
16
External sealing: for safety reasons it is necessary to seal leakages that pass along the piston rod. The
packing used for that consists of a stacking of rings in several parts which come to rub on the rod and to
obstruct gas. These rings can be made of cast iron, carbon, bronze or Teflon charged.
Generally the packer is equipped with a line of degasification (to the flare) as well as the first distance piece
(the closer one to the cylinder). To avoid any passage of gas towards the environment, the 2nd distance piece
is often slightly pressurized with nitrogen.
17
b – Greasing function
• Lubrication of the motion part

This lubrication requires an important flow of oil under low pressure (1.5 to 4 bar, relative pressure ). To do
so, we use a gear pump harnessed with the crankshaft, as illustrated above. Oil is then cooled (water cooler),
then filtered, before being distributed to the various points to lubricate. A manual device or an electric pump
is used for the setting under pressure of oil in the circuit of greasing in order to allow the starting of the
machine.
A particular packing, the wiper packing (oil scraper) prevents oil from progressing along the piston rod and
reaching the distance pieces.
18
• Lubrication of cylinders
According to the nature of the gas and the operating conditions we can choose between the two following
solutions:
Lubricated cylinder:
The cylinder, generally protected by a jacket made of cast iron, is directly in contact with the piston, which
requires a lubrication. This one is characterized by a low necessary flow (some drops per minute) but with a
pressure which must be equal to that of gas inside the cylinder and which can thus be high.
For this purpose we use mechanical greasing devices gathered in one casing. Each device is pulled separately
by the rotation of the crankshaft. There is a greasing device per point of greasing (possibly, the packing of the
piston rod by the rear end of the cylinder).
In this case, the cylinder can have valves also requiring lubrication. The compressor is then equipped with
one injection to the suction valves. The discharge valves then are naturally lubricated by the presence of oil
inside the cylinder.
The diagrams above and hereafter present a mechanical greasing device
19
20
- Non-lubricated cylinder
The piston is supported by rider bands made of self-lubricating material (PTFE in general) which ensure the
piston-cylinder guidance. In principle, no lubrication is necessary, in this case.
21
c - Cooling
A reciprocating compressor is generally a cooled machine.

This refrigeration is done in general case by water circulation in the cooling jacket of the cylinder, at the rear
end and front end of the cylinder.
It is also necessary to cool the lubricating oil.
22
III – AUXILIARY AND PROCESS CIRCUITS
The auxiliary circuits of a compressor gather the whole of the additional systems allowing the good
performance of the compressor:
-lubrication
-refrigeration
-degasification, draining, sweeping out the packings
hereafter …
Drawing 1: represents a typical example of equipment and instruments used in the process circuit of a
hydrogen make-up reciprocating compressor on a unit of gas-oil hydrodesulfurization.
Drawing 2: shows the standard diagram of greasing of a reciprocating compressor with lubricated cylinders.
Drawing 3: represents the diagram of refrigeration of this same compressor as well as the auxiliary diagrams
of drain and vent of the packings of the piston rod and of the distance pieces.
23
24
25
26
IV - OPERATION
1 – FLOW ADJUSTMENT
A reciprocating compressor is a machine whose the flow is practically constant and independent of the
suction and discharge pressures (at least on normal ranges of operation). Its flow is thus always higher than
the flow of the process. This requires a regulation system to adapt the 2 flows.
Different solutions are available:

-start-up/shut-off the machine: solution used on small compressors
-the bypass by which the difference between the 2 flows will flow back to the suction line
27
- Flow reduction by suction valve unloaders
Generally a pneumatic system (pneumatic valve unloader actuators) maintains the suction valve in a fully
opened position. By this way, during the phase of compression the gas previously swallowed is push back to
the suction line through the suction valves.
We can thus set off each effect independently (if this is envisaged), this solution allows to have a machine
with several flows available and, if all the valves are unloaded, not flow at all.
28
29
- Use of clearance pocket:
Some machines are equipped with additional dead volume. These additional pockets or volumes make it
possible to reduce the flow of the effect on which they are assembled. With fixed volume they are generally
automated and allow only one another flow of the effect (see diagram of the reciprocating compressor with
2 cylinders). With adjustable volume they are manual and are regulated by the operator according to
instructions he receives (see diagram hereafter).
30
- Continuous regulation of flow by cycling closing delay
By a specific system of regulator, the suction valves remain open one moment during the phase “of
compression”, which reduces actually the compressed volume by the piston and thus the flow capacity. We
thus ensure a variable flow from almost 30 to 100% of the former cylinder capacity. The mechanical system
ensuring this closing delay is replaced more and more by a powerful hydraulics-electronics system.
31
2 – START-UP
a - Principle
The starting of a compressor requires a very strong demand of energy as it is necessary to put into rotation
some important masses (flywheel, reducer, crankshaft, connecting rods, crossheads, piston rods, pistons).
Except some very rare exceptions, the engine would have difficulty to do, the rotation increase and the gas
compression at the same time.
In general, we always starts the compressor “unloaded” i.e. without anything to compress.
The machine is then laid out as follows:
-suction valve opened
-volume between compressor and check valve decompressed
-recycling valve fully open
-additional clearance pocket in function
32
b – Application
Preparation before starting-up:

-oil levels in oil pan and lubricator
-cooling water, in function, at the correct temperature
-oil temperature in the crankshaft casing (heated if necessary)
-recycle line fully opened, unloaders in function
-cylinder lubricator pump discharge lines, full of oil
-main suction valve fully opened
-compressor: deaereted and full of N2 if necessary
-valves to the flare: opened
-buffer nitrogen (if present) in function with the distance piece or packings
Start-up:
- lubrication of the motion part: set on pressure with manual or electric pump
- start-up the compressor
- verify: oil pressure and ansence of strange noises
Reach the flow desired:

- according to use: close the bypass (with possibly a discharge compressor valve opening
synchronization if no check-valve or if this one leaks)
- shut off the unloaders
33
b – Application
Preparation before starting-up:

-oil levels in oil pan and lubricator
-cooling water, in function, at the correct temperature
-oil temperature in the crankshaft casing (heated if necessary)
-recycle line fully opened, unloaders in function
-cylinder lubricator pump discharge lines, full of oil
-main suction valve fully opened
-compressor: deaereted and full of N2 if necessary
-valves to the flare: opened
-buffer nitrogen (if present) in function with the distance piece or packings
Start-up:
- lubrication of the motion part: set on pressure with manual or electric pump
- start-up the compressor
- verify: oil pressure and ansence of strange noises
Reach the flow desired:

- according to use: close the bypass (with possibly a discharge compressor valve opening
synchronization if no check-valve or if this one leaks)
- shut off the unloaders
34
3 – CHECK-OUT IN OPERATION
It consists of verifying the smooth functioning of the different parts of the machine:
Auxiliaries:
• lubrication of the motion part: oil pan level, oil pressure, clogging of the filter, temperature
• cylinder lubrication oil: level and make-up, number of drops per mn, leak
• cooling water: circulation, temperatures
Valves:
The differentiated heating of all the suction valves highlights a gas circulation from the cylinder towards the
suction lines consecutive to a valve leakage or the unloading of a suction valve (normal heating in this case).
On the other hand, it is not easy to determine an anomaly on the discharge valves by the temperature
Noises:
The most current abnormal noises in these machines are slapping which come back at each cycle and whose
origin can be very diverse.
We can notice:
• a clearance in the crankshaft bearings, big or small ends, in the fixing of the piston rod or the
crosshead
• a part deteriorated in a valve
• some liquid in a cylinder
35
4 – Hazards related to piston reciprocating compressor
Even if they are very safe in operation, piston reciprocating compressors can generate risks primarily related
to conveyed gas, to centrifugal forces due to rotation and to certain aspects of mechanics.
• Gas leaks
The packing leakages can reach the 2nd distance piece and enter into the crankshaft casing: accidents
(escape H2S by the breather valve of the casing), fires and explosions (H2 in the casing) occurred in different
factories. Some leaks may occur by the valve cover seals, on flare lines or on degasification lines (run-off exit
of the unloader actuators).
The operator must take care of the absence of leaks but the visualization of these leaks is often difficult.
36
• Drain of the distance pieces
The operator must drain the oil accumulated in the distance pieces. During this operation, there is then
always the risk of an exit of gas contained in the distance pieces.
• Mechanical breakage
During a sudden breakage of the machine, fortunately excessively rare, in particular if some liquid
remained in an effect or if the adjustment of the mechanical clearances were not carried out properly,
there is always the risk to see mechanic pieces being violently projected.
• Start-up operations
When the operator turns the flywheel (not recommended operation) with a bar, even if the electric motor is locked,
there is the risk of an uncontrolled rotation due to a residual pressure in an effect or a sudden piston descent
(especially for vertical compressors)
If some not drained liquid has condensated inside an effect slugging
37

I- OVERVIEW
1 – Centrifugal compressor
2 – Driving system
II - COMPONENTS INVOLVED IN COMPRESSION PROCESS
1 – Compression process
2 – Rotor’s locating and supporting
3 – Sealing systems
4 – Monitoring and safety devices
III - AUXILIARY CIRCUITS DIAGRAM
IV - PROCESS CIRCUIT
1 – Operating caracteristics
2 – Anti surge device
3 – Alarms and security
V - OPERATIONS
1 – Start up
2 – Regular Operations
VI - HAZARDS
1
I - OVERVIEW
Centrifugal compressor is usualy a high power rotating machine. Its running is absolutely essential in the
workshop or in the complex.
In situation, a centrifugat compressor and its auxiliaries compose an intricated machine, called compressor
unit, formed by:
– the compressor itself
– the driving machine: electrical motor or turbine (gas or steam)
– auxiliaries devices
2
1 - CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
Machines are designed and have different shapes according to various caracteristics and restrictions :
– Suction capacity (volume flow) gives the machine’s size

– Compression ratio gives the impellers’ number and therefore the lengh of the machine
– Mass Flow is one the most important operating’s caracteristic and gives the power needed to run the
machine
– Building a single machine or a series of the same machine determines technology choices
– The nominal pressure gives the thickness of the machine and its shape
3
The simplest construction of a compressor consists to arrange the elements which assure the pressure and
the capacity (flow) in a casing “cut in a horizontal plan” : This compressor is called Horizontally Split
Compressor.
The plan above is a characteristic example.
We can see the split, the bolts, the suction and discharge flanges of each of this two stages compressor. This
arrangement is typically in use for example for FCC ( and steamcracker) cracked gas compressors, or FCC air
compressor.
4
The necessity of assuring a perfect sealing of the split between the two half-bodies of the machine limits the
use of this arrangement, either for a reason of pressure (< 30-40 bars), or because of the nature of the gas,
specially in case of hydrogen.
We use then compressors called barrel type ( outside shape). A plan of this machine is given above.
This cylindrical (usually) barrel supports perfectly high pressures. The sealing system between the bottom
flange (end plate) and casing (inside barrel) using O’ rings avoids more efficiently any gas leak than a
horizontally split compressor, specially with hydrogen gas.
The centrifugal compressors of reforming, HDS or synthesis of ammonia are common examples of this
arrangement.
These machines have however two important inconveniences with regard to the horizontally split
compressor : their high price and the difficulties to dismount them.
5
When the number of wheels to assure the compression is too important (< 8/10 wheels), it is indispensable
to build the machine in several bodies. So, we can find machines in 3 bodies with horizontal splitting, used in
compression of gases for steamcracker (see photo above) and machines in 3 bodies in barrel as compressor
of synthesis of ammonia.
Some machines are specially designed, for example single-wheel compressors (blowing machine), or have a
specific construction for a common usage such as the air compressors (Centac air service instrument model)
or such single or multiwheels refrigerating compressors.
6
2 – DRIVING SYSTEM
Centrifugal compressors are machines whose rotation speed must be relatively high to assure the
compression ratio: from 5.000 rpm for the biggest machines to more than 40.000 rpm for the smallest
machines. For example a reforming compressor often rotates between 9 500 and 12 000 rpm.
The energy consumption of these machines is generally important, so the best efficiency is needed. This
imposes in operation always a variable speed to adapt the capacity of the machine to the correct process
flow expected.
7
Gas (or steam) turbines are an interesting solution both for the high speed and the variation of speed.
Electric motors are used in fixed speed to drive small machines and at variable speed (electronic frequency
converter device) for the biggest compressor (with or without multiplier of speed).
8
II - COMPONENTS INVOLVED IN COMPRESSION PROCESS
The gas penetrates inside the compressor by the suction flange and arrives by a distribution channel at the
first wheel. There, It crosses then a set of rotating wheels, and a set of fixed parts, called diffusers and return
channels. The gas is evacuated at the exit of the last diffuser by the volute and the discharge flange.
When it is necessary, the manufacturer plans a compression in 2 stages or more. In that case, the gas goes
out of the machine after having been compressed in a stage, then passes in a cooler before returning into
the next stage of the compressor to continue its rise in pressure.
9
1 – COMPRESSION PROCESS
Figure above discribes the compression process:
As already said, the gas penetrates inside the compressor by the suction flange and arrives by a distribution
channel at the first wheel (or impeller). There, it comes through a set of rotating wheels, and a set of fixed
parts, called diffusers and return channels. The gas is evacuated at the exit of the last diffuser by the volute
and the discharge flange.
10
a – Impellers
The gas is inhaled in the center of the wheel (eye), passes in channels formed by vanes to go out of the wheel
by its suburb.
During its travel inside the wheel, the gas receives some energy due to centrifugal forces in form of increase
of pressure, speed and heat. The supplied energy increases very fast with the rotation speed, what explains
the high speeds of the centrifugal compressors (until 30 000 rpm) in the case of small diameter impellers and
machines.
These high speeds generate huge stress on the wheels, which are already (due to their forms), delicate parts
to be realized. According to the rotation speed, the employed material and the size of the wheel, the
manufacturer chooses between molded, riveted, braze, welded or completely tooled wheels.
At the exit, The gas has a rotating movement due to the rotation of the wheel.
11
b – Diffusers
At the exit of the wheel, the gas penetrates into a fixed diffuser where it is slowed down, what creates a new
increase of gas pressure but at the same time takes away the gas from the axis of the machine, far from the
entrance of the next impeller.
c – Return channels
The gas is guided up to the entrance of the following wheel by return channels at steady speed which gradual
slow down of the rotating movement of the gas around the axis of the compressor.
We can consider that in a cell (wheel + diffuser + return channel), the increase of pressure is done for 70% or
80 % inside the wheel, the rest being done inside the diffuser.
12
2 – ROTOR’S LOCATION AND SUPPORTING
Wheels are shrunk on with the shaft, this group constitutes the rotor which must be axially and radially (in
rotation) guided.
a – Radial direction
It is assured by two radial bearings situated at the ends of the shaft.
Different solutions can be found :
– Journal bearings with smoother small cushions (babit cover) for the former and slow
machines. These small cushions have to be such as they allow the settle of one or several oil film assuring the
supporting of the rotor.
– Journal bearings with oscillating pads which allow a better guide of rotors at high speeds. We
find multi pads journal bearing in 3, 4 or 5 oscillating pads.
13
b – Axial direction
The rotor is positioned axially by the thrust bearing. It supports all the axial efforts which are applied on
diverse elements of the rotor (and specially the impellers).
Usually, thrust bearings contain several pads on which leans, through a oil film, a collar fixed on the shaft.
When all the wheels of a compressor are directed in the same direction, it is necessary to compensate the
huge axial thrust applied to the rotor in the opposite direction of the general circulation of the gas. (it can be
reduced by the impellers disposal)
This axial thrust is directed toward the suction.
14
To do that, we can use a balancing piston (also called balancing drum) fixed on the rotor and situated at the
discharge side. This piston supports on one side the pressure of discharge and on the other side a nearby
pressure of suction pressure. This other side being connected with the suction by a line, set outside the
machine and called balancing line. The balancing piston thus develops a thrust in opposition to the one who
acts on all the wheels. On the nominal conditions, those two opposite thrusts are practically equal in value
but in opposite direction. They balance, so the result force is low , therefore the load on the thrust is low also
.
If the pressures in the machine change brutally, the balancing piston does not succeed in balancing
immediately these variations. Then there is an increase or even an reverse direction of the thrust. If the effort
is too important with regard to the capacity of the thrust, this one can get damaged and even destroyed . A
emergency shut down of the machine for repair is then imperative, causing the halt of the production of the
unit.
15
c – Lubrication of the journal and thrust bearings
Journal and thrust bearings require the supply of a sufficient quality of oil to allow their smooth running,
(generation of a steady oil film)
In particular, the flow of oil has to be such as it allows to evacuate the quantity of heat lost by friction within
the oil film, as well as the heat of the gas passed on by conduction in the shaft in journal and thrust bearings.
The acceptable rise of temperature of the oil in its way through the bearings is between 10 and 20°C. A
superior temperature (over 70°C) of the oil has for consequence a fast degradation of the oil quality and a
decline of the oil viscosity which loses its mechanical characteristics and does not allow any more the
establishment of the oil film.
The normal temperature at the exit of the thrust and journal bearings is about 60-65°C.
16
3 – SEALING SYSTEMS
Here are two troubles of sealing systems to be solved:

– Seal at best the internal leaks to keep the best efficiency
– Prevent any gas leak towards the atmosphere
Internal leaks occur in any zones subjected to a difference of pressure, that is:
– In the suction eye of the impeller
– On the back face of the wheel
– In the balancing piston
We limit the leaks by interposing on the way of the gas some labyrinths which can be constituted by:
– Dummies generally fixed and arranged with a low clearance around the rotor. The number of
needed dummies depends on the difference of pressure to be sealed.
– Rings labyrinth fixed in front of a ring print or a rotor shoulder.
Dummies or rings labyrinth must be made in material soft enough, so that their possible contact with
the rotor does not drive to the destruction of this last one. Aluminum or the Nickel are often used.
17
18
Different kinds of mechanical seals are used. All use a buffer fluid (liquid -oil- or gas) under pressure superior to the pressure to be
sealed, to prevent the leak from the inside of the machine towards the outside. Two principles of sealing system are used: the
packing sealing system with floating rings (to the left on the above figure) and the system with radial mechanical contact (to the
right).
•Floating rings:
This packing consists of 2 cylindrical floating rings (cartridges) settle up around the shaft with a tiny clearance. The injection of oil in
the system is made in a pressure slightly superior to the pressure to seal and produces an oil leak on each side of the packing.
Side atmosphere: an important leak of clean oil (no contact with the process gas), due to the high pressure difference between
pressure inside the packing and the atmosphere, goes back to the oil tank and can be used again in the oil circuit.
Side compressor: a small leak the manufacturer minimizes by assuring a very low pressure difference between the packing and the
pressure Process gas (0,3 in 0,5 bar) and a very low clearance. This oil which is in touch with the process gas and under pressure of
this gas must have gone out of the compressor by means of traps. It is however difficult to have this way a inside leak lower than
20 liters / day by packing. The oil of this leak in contact with the gas is polluted by the gas and is very often lost.
Mechanical contact seal:
This packing consists of a fixed ring and a rotating ring. Between both forms a light clearance due to the rotation creating a gaseous
or liquid film.
The injection of the fluid in the system is made in a pressure slightly superior to the pressure to seal and is going to produce leaks
on each side of the packing.
Side atmosphere: an important leak of clean fluid (no contact with the proces gas), due to the high pressure difference between
pressure inside the packing and the atmosphere, goes back to the tank (if liquid ) and can be used again in the oil circuit.
Side compressor: a small leak the manufacturer minimizes by assuring a very low pressure difference between the packing and the
pressure Process gas (0,5 in 2 bars this time) and a very low clearance. This fluid which is in touch with the process gas and under
pressure of this gas must have gone out of the compressor by means of traps in case of liquid (oil) or vent if gaseous (Nitrogen). It
is however difficult to have this way a inside leak lower than 20 liters / day by packing. The liquid of this leak in contact with the gas
is polluted by the gas and is very often lost ( flare in case of Nitrogen).
19
20
III – AUXILIARY CIRCUITS DIAGRAM
The plan above represents auxiliary system of a centrifugal compressor.

It includes the following elements:
· one or two oil tanks for lubrication and sealing, possibly a oil tank for polluted oil.
· A pumping unit which usually includes :
– pumps of lubrication oil, two centrifugal or volumetric pumps, one driven by electric motor, the other by steam turbine. These pumps are in help one of each
other.
– pumps of sealing oil to feed the packing sealing system. Settled by couple, as the pumps of lubrication, they are often positive displacement type.
– coolers which allow to cool the oil and thus to evacuate the heat generated mainly by the frictions inside journal bearings, thrust and packing sealing system.
During the start up of the machine, the oil being cold, it is necessary to preheat it before starting up. This preheating can be done in oil tank (electric resistor as
preheater, or steam preheater), or inside an exchanger disposed on the oil circuit (with a bypass)
– filters placed after pumps on lubrication and sealing circuits. These filters must be permutable during running for cleaning.
• Security and alarms
The auxiliaries often represent the least reliable part of a compression unit. Each equipment susceptible to break down is thus doubled even tripled (sealing oil pumps for example)
Equipments are commutated automatically or manually by the operators: filters, exchangers, pumps.
- Oil lubrication pressure
The pressure of lubrication oil range is around 2,5 to 4 bars.
Oil pumps oil are automatically started in case of insufficient pressure: Oil PSL (1 to 1,5 bar) either at the pump discharge or after filter and cooler. Dispite the starting up of the back up
pump the pressure does not rise, the stopbreakdown of the compressor occurs by a PSLL (0,5 bar generally).
- Sealing Oil pressure

The sealing oil pressure is linked to the technology of the sealing packing. In the case of the floating rings, this one is about equal to a pressure called the reference pressure + 0,3 bar.
The reference pressure is the pressure to seal, close to the suction pressure.
The securities of the sealing circuit depend on the type of packing but an important security is settle on the pressure difference between the oil pressure in the oil entrance in the packing
and the process gas pressure to seal (by ex: mini in 0,1 bar, maxi in 0,6 bar). Too high, this pressure difference value causes an important oil leak side gas with risk of blocking; too low,
this value drives contacts between the fixed parts and the rotating parts of the packing and thus fast wear; in case of negative value, the gas would return in the oil circuit, leaving packing
dry…and finally destroyed.
- Oil temperature
In regular running, the lubrication oil value is approximately 50-60 °C in journal and thrust bearings.
The heating (warm-up) of the oil inside the journal and thrust bearings is the consequence either of a bad cooling (insufficient flow of oil) or of an abnormal friction. In every case, the
situation can not continue. This heating evolves relatively slowly, what allows a time of reflection to decide on a corrective action. An alarm of high temperature TASH is planned on the
°
oil (Tmax = 70-80 C) in journal and thrust bearings.
- Other alarms
The low level of the oil in the tank (LAL), the clogging of filters are also alarmed (Pressure difference 1 bar max).
21
IV - PROCESS CIRCUIT
1 - CONDITIONS OPERATING
A centrifugal compressor by its principle of running gives to the gas some energy according to the rotation
speed and to the mass of the gas, this one depending on the nature of the gas, on the pressure and the
temperature. All the parameters can change at the same time but, to simplify, some parameters are fixed. For
example:
a - Modify the capacity, the conditions of suction remaining fixed :

– at fixed speed: to modify the suction flow, a solution is to modify the compression ratio of the
machine by changing the pressure of discharge (the throttling of an automatic valve on the discharge circuit,
or the pressure process). Increasing the ratio, the capacity decreases. The solution of the valve placed in the
expulsion presents no interest (loosing some energy after spending some to compress), it is not thus used.
Some machines (single-wheel generally) are equipped with directional fins placed at the suction.
– at variable speed: It is the most interesting solution and most usually used, but, according to
the installations, she can quickly drive to surge (For example, FCC cracked gas).
b - The suction conditions change at constant speed

In that case, we can say that the lighter the gas is (high temperature, low molar mass, low pressure), the less
the compressor is able to make pressure, what drives to a reduction of the suction capacity, and even to an
impossibility to flow the gas, there the opening of the anti-surge valve.
23
2 – ANTI-SURGE
The surge occurs when the capacity of gas crossing the compressor is too low, then there is an instability of
pressure and flow very harmful for the reliability of the machine which can drive to breakdown or severe
damages.
The device used to avoid the surge is a recycling line of the discharge towards the suction, what allows to
make " walk round in circles” the missing quantity of gas. As far as this recycling is made through a automatic
valve, the recycling gas returns to the suction more warmly than the proceeded gas. It is thus necessary to
cool it. The opening of the recycling valve is ordered by a specific regulation said anti-surge.
24
3 – ALARMS and SECURITY
We can find securities on the process parameters of the compressor. These are relatively less numerous than
those connected to the auxiliaries. We can quote:
– An alarm often settle on discharge temperature because its rise characterizes either internal
leaks resulting from wears, or a modification of the conditions process: increase of the compression ratio,
modification of the nature of the gas, increase of the temperature of suction
– An alarm / safety of high level (LASH) of condensate in the suction drum and if there is in inter-
stages drums.
25
V – OPERATION
1 START UP
a - Situation at starting up
The starting up are practically made always with a pressure identical to the suction and to the discharge because:
either the upstream and downstream process pressures are the same due to the starting process conditions for
example, if not the discharge valve is closed.
At this time before starting the recycling valve (anti-surge) if exists must be opened to avoid surge, the discharge
pressure is thus equal to the suction pressure.
b - Problems met at start up

Problems posed by the starting up are either link to the machine (passage of critical speed, surge), or linked to the
conditions of use of the machine (presence of air in a compressor of hydrocarbon gas, level of liquid in the suction or
inter stages drums ).
Surge: the capacity of the compressor is linked at the rotation speed. In low speed, the capacity is low and thus the
machine may pump. To avoid it, a compressor starts practically always anti-surge valve opened, thus in recycling mode.
Critical speed: by increasing the rotation speed, we notice that the vibration level passes through 3 characteristic
phases:
– 1st phase: in low speed, the vibrations increase weakly
– 2nd phase: rather roughly, the vibration level increases to reach important values (sometimes driving
to the emergency stop of the compressor by high Global Vibration Level GLV security) then decline so quickly as it had
risen.
– 3rd phase: the vibration level returns to low values which change only slightly with the speed. It is in
this range of speed that the machine has to run.
The phase where the vibration level is important does not allow a correct running. It is a restricted zone on regular
running. We say that this zone corresponds to the critical speed of the machine. It is impossible to avoid this zone in
the starting up and in the stop of the machine. The solution is to pass through as quick as possible.
26
Elimination of the air in flammable gas compressors: it happens that it is necessary before starting to
eliminate the air (oxygen) which could generate explosions if it were in mixture with H.C. gas. An operation of
vent usually with nitrogen can be indispensable. This one can be followed by filling with gas (fuel oil gas for
example).
Level of liquid in the suction drums: the presence of liquid in the compressor is often catastrophic. Mesh
drums are placed at each suction stages. The high level of these drums prevents the start up of the machine,
so it is necessary to trap the liquid and of making sure that there is no more liquid.
27
2 – Regular operations
a - Driving operations
It consists, from the point of view of the driving:

– to adapt the speed of the machine so that the capacity drives steady an operating parameter. For
example for a compressor of FCC cracked gas: a regulation of the suction pressure acts on the speed,
thus on the suction capacity, that allows to adapt the suction capacity to the capacity produced by the
upstream cracking unit.
– to stay in a range of speed limited by the critical speed and by the most possible high speed without
danger for the machine
– not to make surge the machine, that is to give it enough gases to avoid the surge zone.
28
b – External operations
From the point of view of the outside operator, the operations concerns:
– In the starting up of the auxiliaries
· settle the auxiliaries (filters / pumps / exchangers / water cooler/ vent)
· check the levels, in particular suction mesh drums
· start the pumps
· check the filters
– In the starting up of the compression unit
· rpm rise
· noises and vibrations
29
– At supervising and current operations
· oil levels with possible filling
· noises, vibrations, oil temperature rise, …
· gas leak
· level trap
· levels of suction mesh drums
– At the stop point
· closure of the process gas valves (suction / discharge)
· vent and nitrogen swept of the compressor
· stop of the auxiliaries
30
VI – HAZARDS
The reliability of these machines and their auxiliaries system make that the risks are reduced. We cannot
however forget that:
– The machine conveys some gas under pressure and thus any leak due to a failure of the
mechanical (packing) sealing system or to a corrosion of the casing can drive an important risk. It is the case
of the mechanical sealing packing whose sealing is realized with oil : In case of breakdown of the circuit of
oil, the gas is going to go out towards the atmosphere, there are needed the closure of safety valves at
suction, possibly at the discharge (presence of check valve) and opening of the blow down (empty - fast)
towards flare of the gas trapped into the machine.
– The machine rotates at high speed and a mechanical defection can create: either under the
influence of the centrifugal force a break of part (generally remaining confined in the casing), or important
internal frictions with heating until 500 or 600°C (thrust, bearings, labyrinths). The risk in these cases is
especially a problem of breakdown driving several weeks of loss of production.
31

Contents
I – DESCRIPTION
II - OPERATION
1 – Non-lubricated screw compressors
2 – Lubricated screw compressors
3 - Auxiliary circuits
III – APPLICATIONS - OPERATION
1
I –DESCRIPTION
These machines comprise two helical rotors (screws) housed in a body, with at one end the suction port and
at the other the discharge port.
The male rotor generally has 4 lobes, whereas the female rotor has 6 splines. So the rotation of the male
screw is greater than that of the female screw.
The simultaneous rotation of the 2 screws is in the vast majority of cases ensured by synchronization gears
situated on the outside of the zone in contact with the gas. These synchronization gears are no longer
essential if the screws are lubricated (refrigerating compressors, lubricated air compressors).
2
II – OPERATION
The gas is sucked in at one end of the rotors, and then compressed in the spaces between the male and
female lobes, whose volume gradually decreases as the rotors turn. It is discharged at the opposite end of
the rotors.
The suction and discharge ports are automatically uncovered and covered by the profiled ends of the rotors
as they rotate.
The compression cycle, for a single rotation of a rotor pair, proceeds as follows:
• Position 1: The gas is sucked into an inter-lobe space when the lobes pass in front of the center suction
port.
• Position 2: As the rotation continues, the inter-lobe space contracts in front of the suction port, and
compression begins.
• Position 3: With the volume of the inter-lobe space decreasing as the lobes gradually mesh, compression
increases until the threshold of the discharge port is reached .
• Position 4: The compressed gas is gradually driven via the discharge port, which is then covered again,
ready for another compression cycle.
To ensure a continuous flowrate, 2 inter-lobe spaces are always in contact with the suction and discharge
ports. So one space is in communication with the discharge port before the previous one has been
completely emptied and passed beyond it.
3
There are two types of screw compressors:
• Either geared rotors, which therefore need to be lubricated. These are known as lubricated screw
compressors.
• Or contactless rotors, where the drive is generated by a synchronization train. There is no need for oil to
lubricate the screws. These are known as dry or non-lubricated compressors.
1- Non-lubricated screw compressors
The two rotors are meshed by means of a pair of synchronization gears mounted on the outside of the
machine, which enable it to run with no contact between the screws.
In very general terms, the male rotor is linked to the driving machine.
4
2- Lubricated screw compressors
5
Oil is injected at the compressor inlet:
– To lubricate the screw and bearings
– To absorb most of the heat generated by compression
– To reduce the internal leaks between lobes and stator
At the discharge, the oil is separated from the gas, refrigerated under the effect of pressure.
6
3- Auxiliary circuits
Whatever the type of screw compressor (lubricated or non-lubricated), we can find two auxiliary circuits,
which are:
- Cooling water circuit
- Bearing lubricating oil circuit
7
8
III – Applications - Operation
These compressors are used in a host of operations:

– Dry air for instruments
– Service air
– Refrigeration unit
– Processes
– Flare gas
9
a - Flowrate regulation
The conventional flowrate regulation systems used are:

• Speed variation
• Start or stop machine
• Gas recirculation with refrigeration, suction valve and discharge valve closed (dry air)
• Displacement modification by altering the suction zone (refrigeration)
10
b - Operation - Incidents
The main incidents arise from:

• An excessive operating temperature
• The presence of solid impurities in the gas
• A lubrication fault on the lubricated compressors
• Liquid intake
As for other displacement compressors, the discharge temperature increases if the compression rate rises (if
discharge valve closed, or suction pressure reduced).
Liquid intake is very often caused by incorrectly bleeding the vessels at the suction or the inter-stage
separators.
11

TURBO-EXPANDERS
20199_a_A_ppt_04 – TURBO-EXPANDERS
COURSE OUTLINE
1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION
2. THERMODYNAMICS
3. APPLICATIONS
4. PERFORMANCE CURVES
5. TECHNOLOGY
© 2011- IFP Training
20199_a_A_ppt_04 – TURBO-EXPANDERS 2
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
INTEREST OF AN EXPANDER
A lot of processes use values for expansion. This expansion mechanism is

isenthalpic with no recovery of energy. The result of this is generally a poor
or nil decrease in temperature along expansion. With expander, expansion
is quite more close to isentropic expansion with two benefits:
• large decrease in temperature
• mechanical energy recovery on shaft

GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Two main vendors: Mafi-Trench, Rotoflow and Cryostar
Power range for petroleum industry: 50 to 8000kW.
High rotation speed:

• 10 to 50,000 RPM for medium and high power
• 45 to 70,00 RPM for small power < 50 kw
Good isentropic efficiency 80% to 86% decreasing as pressure ratio increases
Efficiency can be good at partial load because the adjustable nozzles
Expander is able to withstand some condensate generated by expansion and some

particles below 3 μm (filter have to be installed)
On field applications expander should be located downstream removal of

contaminants as H2S, CO2, H2O, Hg
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Turbine
Admission
Turbine Exhaust

TURBINE Driven equipment
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
COURSE OUTLINE
2. THERMODYNAMICS
3. APPLICATIONS
5. TECHNOLOGY

THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS
EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION
On hereunder methane thermodynamic diagram are plotted two

expansions:
• first one, from 20 bara and 81°C to 10 bara. With an ideal expander (isentropic)
energy recovery is 110 kJ/kg (i.e. 110 kW for 1 kg/s mass flow) and outlet
temperature is 30°C. With a control valve, no energy recovery and outlet
temperature is 79°C (isenthalpic)
• second one, from 50 bara and 30°C to 15 bara. Through an expander, the target
can be 150 kJ/kg and - 50°C the outlet temperature

THERMODYNAMICS
Comparison between Joule Thompson (valve) and isentropique expansion
ΔH
COURSE OUTLINE
2. THERMODYNAMICS
3. APPLICATIONS
5. TECHNOLOGY

APPLICATIONS – TYPICAL USE
Typical ways of energy recovery:

• compressor direct drive. Applications are possible with cryogenic applications
when light gas have to be compressed.
ADMISSI
ON
ADJUSTABLE
NOZZLES
Bearings
EXHAUS
T
MECHANICA
L SEAL
DRIVEN
LUBE OIL
PUMP
• mechanical energy use through a gear box to drive lower rotation speed
machines as generators or pumps
APPLICATIONS – TYPICAL USE Turbo compressor
TURBINE
COMPRESSOR

APPLICATIONS – NGL EXTRACTION
TREATED
EXPANDER GAS
COMPRESSOR
COLD BOX
FEED
GAS
RECOVERY
YIELD:
NGL
APPLICATIONS – NGL EXTRACTION – (N‘KOSSA – CONGO)
C1 C2
Turbo-Expander 58°C
35
-37°C
36°C 29°C -7°C -52°C

-30°C
LTS
Feed
27
83
DEETHANIZER
Gas-Gas & Gas-Liq

Heat exchangers

C3+
102°C
COURSE OUTLINE
2. THERMODYNAMICS
3. APPLICATIONS
5. TECHNOLOGY
PERFORMANCE CURVES

PERFORMANCE CURVES – ACTUAL CURVES (N’KOSSA)
Comp Efficiency
Exp Efficiency
Exp Outlet T
Comp Outlet P
Power
Speed
Flowrate (% Nominal)
COURSE OUTLINE
2. THERMODYNAMICS
3. APPLICATIONS
5. TECHNOLOGY

TECHNOLOGY – CONSTITUTING PARTS
COMPRESSOR
VIBRATION DISCHARGE
TUBINE PROBES
ADMISSION AXIAL
THRUST
BALANCING
SPEED LINE
SEAL GAS
ADJUSTABLE INJECTION PROBE
NOZZLES
COMPRESSOR
TUBINE SUCTION
EXHAUST
TUBINE
EXHAUST COMPRESSOR
B EARINGS
SUCTION
PRESSURE PICK-UP
(SEAL GAS
MONITORNG) SEAL GAS
INJECTION
COMPRESSOR
TUBINE
ADMISSION COMPRESSOR
DISCHARGE
TURBINE COMPRESSOR
TECHNOLOGY – HYDRODYNAMIC BEARING DESIGN
The 3 leaders manufacturers on

the market (Rotoflow, Mafi-
Trench and Cryostar) offer the 2
technologies with hydrodynamic
or magnetic bearings.
EXAMPLE OF SKID ASSEMBLY

LUBE OIL & SEAL GAS AUXILIARIES
TECHNOLOGY – MAGNETIC BEARING DESIGN
Magnetic thrust
Radial and axial
bearing
position probe
(double acting)
Landing
anti-friction
Radial position bearing
probe
Journal bearings
Landing anti-friction
bearing
EXAMPLE OF SKID ASSEMBLY
BEARINGS ARRANGMENT (Control cabinet: 1.2 m3)
TECHNOLOGY – MAGNETIC BEARING – OPERATION
POSITION
SENSOR
ELECTROMAGNETS
AUXILIARY BEARING
LAMINATIONS
POWER
AMPLIFYERS
ELECTROMAGNETS
SIGNAL POSITION
CONDITIONING SENSOR
REFERENCE ERROR
SIGNAL

SIGNAL SENSOR
TECHNOLOGY – MAGNETIC BEARING – AUXILIARY GAS
1 – SEAL GAS: bearing cavity protection
2 – COOLING GAS: evacuate magnetic bearing heat
3 – LEAK GAS: axial thrust balancing device

1
2
I - DEFINITION – ROUGH DESCRIPTION
The combustion turbine is an engine, which is first aimed at providing energy:
- Various engines (aircraft, sea, rail industries)
- Rotating machines drive: pumps, compressors, alternators
The principle is to expand high pressure hot exhaust fumes through a turbine, called power turbine. The
exhaust fumes expansion makes the power turbine rotate
To create the high pressure hot exhaust fumes, fuel is burnt (solid, liquid or gaseous), it is mixed with
pressurized air carried by a turbine-integrated compressor.
The set of equipment that creates the exhaust fumes is called a gas generator.
It basically consists of:

- an air compressor, which is generally axial
- a combustion chamber equipped with burners, fed with air coming from the previous
compressor and with fuel
- an expansion turbine supplying the compressor driving mechanical energy
3
1 – Classification by technology.
A ‟heavy duty” or industrial machine is generally a highly powerful turbine, with a technology close to the
rotating machines one, such as compressors, pumps, etc..
Thanks to the design it has, the operator can carry out the maintenance/reassembly on site. Maintenance is
quite easy.
An ‟aeroderivative” machine is generally a lighter machine, which often rotates faster than a Heavy duty one,
with a technology directly deriving from the aeronautics, thus requiring specific and careful maintenance.
Usually during the inspections, the operator just disassembles the gas generator part and sends it to the
supplier for maintenance, as the power turbine part can be maintained on site.
2- Classification by design:
When the compressor expansion turbine and the power turbine are on the same shaft, the machine is said
single shaft. Such a design is usually for fixed velocity applications (alternators)
When the expansion turbine is not on the same shaft as the power turbine, the turbine is called two-shafts.
Such a design is adapted to the change in velocity, therefore it is usually adopted to drive compressors or
pumps.
4
In this case, the refractory materials are essential to hold the exhaust fumes high temperatures at the
burners outlet (more than 1,300°C)
HP Turbine: part of the turbine that drives the axial air compressor. This is the turbine area where pressures
are the highest (start of the expansion) hence its name.
LP Turbine: part of the turbine that drives the coupled machine (alternator here). This is the end of the
expansion, therefore pressures are the lowest
These 2 appellations are alternatives to the names previously defined (power turbine, etc..)
5
The turbines and the air compressor are on the same shaft.
6
Compactness is often necessary, all the auxiliaries are gathered around the machine to save space on the
ground:
- Oil tank below the machine, exchanger around the tank, pumps next to the machine
- Starter (here a diesel engine) with a hydraulic speed drive aligned with the machine
7
The 2 shafts of the machine are not connected with each other: the driven machine can rotate at a speed
different from the axial compressor speed (useful to drive the export compressors for example)
(Two-shaft design of a gas turbine Ruston TB 5000)
8
The idea is to remove the fan of the plane engine, which creates the external air flow, and to couple the
remaining pieces of equipment to a normal power turbine.
9
10
Feed burners with high temperature, pressurized air burners: the air compression by the axial compressor
makes it possible to have pressurized hot air, what enables the later creation of hot exhaust fumes that will
be expanded in the turbine part. This only implies 20 to 30% of the flow rate, the compression air has lots of
other functions.
Cool down the combustion chambers: the exhaust fumes are of very high temperature (frequently more
than 1,300°C nowadays), no material can withstand them without protections for this type of environment.
Therefore one of the protections consists in removing heat by using an air flow (film cooling)
Cool down the turbine part: this is subject to thermal stresses slightly smaller than those in the combustion
chamber, but sometimes with more serious mechanical stresses (rotation). Therefore the same solution is
used, thus consuming about 10% of the air flow rate.
Confine oil out of the hot parts: The air pressure injected before and after the bearings (barrier air) makes it
possible to confine oil in the bearings, without any contact with the hot parts of the machine, thus avoiding
fire. The drawback is that the air ‟pushes” towards the oil tank, thus contributing to the creation of heavier
oil vapors in the machine unit.
11
In the combustion chamber, the flame temperature is over 2,000°C
Nowadays, at the turbine inlet, the exhaust fumes frequently exceed 1,200°C
Moreover, the turbine rotating parts are subject to huge centrifugal forces.
Therefore it is very difficult to ensure materials resistance. (Risk of creep)
As previously indicated, a major part of the discharge air of the axial compressor (which is even so at about
300°C !) is deviated to cool down the combustion chamber, the turbine (rotor and stator), and the machine
bearings (thermal resistance of lube oil).
12
The picture shows a set of HP (on the left) and LP (the two stages on the right) turbine. Therefore the
expansion of the hot exhaust fumes takes place from the left to the right.
For aerodynamic reasons, the big buckets are twisted: they have a 3D bow, whereas the smaller buckets have
a 2D one.
The interest of the dovetail design is explained on the next slide.
13
The buckets dovetails squeeze in the basic disc and they are then locked with locking keys.
14
Bearing N°2 (ball bearing of aeronautics quality) is the bearing on the discharge side of the axial compressor.
The machine bearings are numbered from air suction to exhaust.
Bearing sealing is essential to avoid that oil gets into contact with the hot parts
On one hand, it would be destroyed
On the other hand, it would probably catch fire and spread fire to the oil tank.
Example of assembly type
Plain bearing too on the alternator side as it is a very heavy and slow machine (3000 rpm max).
Technology similar to that used for centrifugal compressors.
They make it possible to monitor the machine vibrations on each bearing. They set off the machine if the
vibrations level is too high.
The sensor X measures the shaft movement in direction X
The sensor Y measures the shaft movement in direction Y , perpendicular to X
The simultaneous measurement of X and Y, combined on a graph, makes it possible to show the shaft
trajectory in the bearing, which looks like a more or less perfect ellipse depending on the existing vibratory
defects (it is called an orbit)
If the ellipse becomes too big, it means the shaft has reached its maximum movement or that it rubs in the
bearing, and the machine sets off.
The regular inspection of the probes is essential to the machine vibratory monitoring when there are journal
or pad type bearings. Here there is a pad type bearing.
23
The sensors are assembled on the pad place where oil is the hottest. They set off the machine if the level is
too high.
24
There is currently a competition, particularly for high power plants, between natural gas and gasificated coal.
NG being easier to use, it will remain predominant in the coming years.
More generally, in industrial applications depending on the environment, other fuels can be or are used:
- crude oil, convenient when available locally, and a simple treatment such as decantation is
necessary enough to get a suitable specification
- LPG, in a production environment, sometimes there is no disposal structure for marketing
- gas oil, often used as starting and/or contingency fuel
- heavy distillates, they generate maintenance because of the incidents on combustion and
their high corrosive nature
- other distillation products such as naphta, kerosene, LCO as long as the process they result
from can only produce them as fuel
- blast furnace or coke oven gas
- synthesis gas, from coal or lignites or shale
- petrochemical products, hydrogen rich gas also containing methane as long as it exceeds the
process furnaces needs
- fermentation gas (biogas), synthesis gas from residues, in particular distillation heavy residues,
removing the drawbacks of the direct combustion of these residues
- renewable gas, from farm-grown crops
25
Combustion chamber(s): constitution
A burner system fed with primary and secondary air as well as fuel.
The system shown is a ‟dual fuel” burner, ie it can be fed with liquid or gas fuel.
A ‟flame tube” (liner) in which 2 major functions take place:

- combustion,
- dilution (fumes temperature control) - dilution holes not shown.
The interconnector makes it possible for the flame to spread from one tube to another,
thus igniting the successive burners, and avoiding to install a plug on each tube.
A ‟torch-ignition” system, which is protected from the combustion flame in standard working conditions, by
retractation in general.
A flame detector safety device that validates the end of the ignition sequence and turns the turbine to
‟flame-out” position.(not shown)
26
FSR Meeting 2008
27
Burners are distributed around the chamber to have homogeneous temperature and mixture.
Just a few ignitors are set: the remaining burners are directly ignited by the flame that propagate from one
chamber to another via the interconnector tubes (see previous slide)
27
FSR Meeting 2008
28
28
FSR Meeting 2008
29
29
FSR Meeting 2008
30
For each fuel and combustion method, it is necessary to adapt a specific burner and an adjusted control.
To decrease the Nox rate ejected to the atmosphere, there are 2 main possibilities:
- Treating the fumes with a catalyst, just like on vehicles exhaust pipes. It is currently impossible
to apply this method on big machines such as gas turbines.
- Using Low Nox burners.
Low nox burners keep the air/fuel mixture content to a very low level, in order to minimize Nox creation
during combustion. There are 2 major problems:
- To date the Low Nox control can only work at full load at stabilized mode: when starting up,
when accelerating, or when decelerating, most of the time the system is not Low Nox.
- The Low Now burners construction generated turbulences in the combustion chamber that
may create back fires and/or serious burns.
Moreover, whatever the burner, the fuel cleanliness is decisive for the burners service life, performances and
safety. Therefore the correct maintenance of the filters is essential.
30
FSR Meeting 2008
31
To control the power of the turbine, it is necessary to control the temperature of the fumes that reach the
first stage of the compressor driving turbine, after the combustion chamber.
At this place the temperature (T3) is still very high (1,200°C typically), and most of the temperature
measuring instruments cannot measure correctly such levels with a reasonable service life and an acceptable
cost.
Therefore it is calculated again from the fumes outlet temperature (T4 or T5 depending on the
manufacturer), which is measured with a battery of thermocouples located in the turbine exhaust. Here the
temperature is about 600 to 700°C, which can be measured quite easily.
31
32
Almost more than 95% in number of the industrial gas turbines currently in service are simple cycle turbines.
These machines are the most simple one, quite cheap, easy to install and operate, but the performances are
usually lower than diesel engines or power houses equipped with steam turbines.
35 to 40% is a maximum that can hardly be exceeded for physical law-related reasons.
(Losses due to combustion, as in a gas or diesel engine)
33
The combined cycles use the heat available on the gas turbine exhaust (important gas flow rate at
temperatures greater than 400°C) to generate steam for a steam cycle.
Thanks to the recovery the heat available in the gas turbine stack and the expansion of the steam thus
produced, the improvement of the global thermal performance can turn from 30 to 55% even more for the
combined cycle.
34
A more simple arrangement is used in the process industry when the cycle steam is not used to produce
power, but when it is used as such. This kind of plant is known as ‟cogeneration” and it produces power and
steam.
With a gas turbine type GE « Frame 5 » (MS 5000)

- power generation: 15/18 MW electrical (depending on the fuel)
- steam generation: 40 t/h at40 bar; 70 t/h at 40 bar with post combustion
35
We can see that because of its design, the machine can generate numerous risks:
Fire: the major risk is that oil catches fire when getting into contact with very hot parts, either because the
bearings no longer seal, or because there is not enough ventilation in the machine unit, the oil vapors being
in too high quantity in the unit. Therefore it is essential to check the barrier air of the bearings, the turbine
unit ventilation and of course the fire-fighting system.
Burns: on the expansion turbine or power turbine side, the temperature sometimes reaches more than
700°C outside the machine casing…..moreover in a turbine unit, air temperature frequently exceeds 60°C in
spite of the ventilations…
Chemical risks: the batteries contain acids, the cleansers (water wash and workshop detergents) must be
checked with the SDS.
Mechanical risks: the monitoring system makes it possible to manage these problems. It is essential to test
the turbine overspeed (normally done in the start-up loop), and it is important to regularly check the bearing
and vibrations temperature sensors. The axial compressor surge can be avoided by maintaining the filter on
the suction side the IGV/VSV control one if any.
Electrical risks: general risks of electrocution/electrification. Usual precautions in such cases, nothing specific
to turbines.
Asphyxia/anoxia : using CO2 removes O2 in the unit.
Environment : a turbine is also a combustion engine, with almost the same efficiency and the same problems
related to pollutant emissions. The treatments such as Low Nox are currently the only viable solutions.
Integrating the gas turbine in a closed cycle such as cogeneration makes it possible to improve the energy
recovery.
36
1
Starter: all types of machines possible; used for starting up the axial air compressor prior to burner ignition. It
is generally disengageable after ignition, but it remains under load to supplement the necessary power
(Helper)
Turning gear: provides slow-speed rotation after machine stoppage, to allow the machine to cool down
during the post-lubrication phase. It is disengageable.
Oil: several circuits, generally trebled (back-up + emergency):
– Bearing lubrication/post-lubrication
– IGVs control oil
– Safety oil (trip)
– Possibly jack oil (lifting), and a power circuit.
Water:
– Cooling the oil in the appropriate exchangers.
– Injection into the fuel (NOx control)
– Air axial compressor washing circuit
– Possibly fire and starting motor cooling circuit.
2
3
4
The air compressor does not run on-line, it is driven by the HP turbine, which only starts after ignition, which
needs compressed air supplied by the compressor… so the compressor is started with a top-up motor, and
then the burners are ignited; when the machine is on-line, the starter can be disengaged.
After stoppage, the machine takes a long time to cool down, with the heat unevenly distributed around the
machine body (hotter at the top), and so:
– the stagnant oil in the bearings could burn
– the rotor has a non-uniform temperature, and will deform (go “banana” shaped) if it has a small
diameter.
To prevent this, we circulate oil after the machine has been stopped for a certain time, and we run the rotor
at very slow speed (a few rpm), to facilitate oil circulation and maintain a uniform temperature around the
part.
5
Heat
engine
startin
g. The
turning
gear is
actuate
d by a
cylinde
r with
the
lubrica
tion oil
7
8
9
The detergent is used to separate impurities from the oil as it flows into the circuits
The anti-oxidant prevents the oil from reacting with oxygen in the air and from losing its properties too
quickly.
The anti-foaming agent ensures that the foam created during separation of air dissolved in the oil is broken
down quite quickly after its creation; otherwise it is sucked in towards the bearings
The anti-emulsifier facilitates separation of the water contained in the oil.
All these separations take place in the oil box, within a very short time (a few minutes); the oil additives
enable it to maintain this performance, which is what we check when we carry out sample analyses.
10
11
Circuit equipment:
1 – Tank
2 – Emergency pump
3 – Auxiliary pump (pre and post-lubrication)
4 – Lubricating PCV
5 – Coupled main lubricating pump
6 – Starting motor
7 – Gearbox
8 – PASL
9 – PI
10 – Refrigerants
11 – Oil inlet temperature TCV
12 – DPI
13 – Filters
14 – TI
15 – Reducer (turbo alternator application)
16 – Driven machine
17 – Oil tank LI, LAL
18 – Oil heater
19 – Heating circulation pump
12
The back-up pump may be duplicated or trebled; in this case the post-lubrication pump is also the emergency
pump. Its motor is direct current (battery powered), so it is independent from the network electricity in case
of a major failure.
13
14
15
16
The separator is used to condense the oil vapors from the oil box before the air is extracted by the room
ventilation. So it is connected to the oil box vent.
17
Liquid fuel injection: by pump for light liquids, heated (viscosity) and atomized by air pressurized by an
auxiliary compressor for dist. units
Gaseous fuel injection: heated (risk of condensates), at sufficient pressure (sometimes by a compressor),
filtered (separation of liquids and solids).
Pollutants: must be identified. The manufacturer provides constraints.
“Dual fuel” systems: are beneficial when operation is optimized by starting with one fuel (generally a liquid),
and then in normal operation with gas, or because the
site conditions mean that we may have to work with one or the other alternately.
18
19
20
Most failures on gas turbines (60 to 70%) are due to insufficient air quality entering the compressor. So it is a
circuit to monitor with care, especially the air filter.
One of the precautions taken with the design is to place this filter as high as possible, so that the particles fall
to the ground before entering the filter suction.
21
During stoppages, since the water is not absolutely pure, the condensation on the cold parts can cause the
creation of acidic agents such as HCL.
Wet air suction before the compressor inlet generates negative pressure (acceleration), which, if the site
temperature is low enough, can cause the creation of corrosive liquid for the same reasons as above, or even
ice if it is very cold.
Anti-icing is generally provided by sampling some of the hot air flow at the axial compressor discharge, which
is sent to scrub the filter.
22
23
The air in desert zones very quickly clogs the filters, so we opt for simple grilles which are cleaned by regular
air pulses, generally produced by means of an auxiliary compressor which supplies a buffer tank, with the
solenoid valve opening with a programmed time lag. The air pulse impact knocks down the sand obstructing
the grilles.
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Part A of the diagram represents the distribution of the washing nozzles around the compressor suction. The
washing water is pre-filtered and then distributed over nozzles. The on-crank (without burner ignition) and
on-line configurations are specific to SOLAR.
37
38
39
40
41
For safety reasons, the machine is not permitted to run if the room doors are open. If nonetheless we need
to access it, we must follow the site safety instructions, putting on the appropriate PPE if necessary, and
shunt the “door open” detector during the operation. We must then naturally return everything to its place.
The fire system automatic activation decision generally works by majority vote, according to the information
supplied by the sensors.
42
The machine must start up with its cylinders full. The weighing system is used to check the filling level, and
triggers the machine trip or prevents it from starting if the cylinders are not filled.
43
This is in contact with the hot parts, which are the most sensitive area of the turbine.
44

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ROTATING MACHINERY

II - MECHANICAL WORK – UNIT

III - POWER – UNIT

IV - SPECIAL UNITS FOR THERMAL ENERGY

VI - EQUIVALENCES BETWEEN THE VARIOUS FORMS OF PRIMARY ENERGY

VII - CONVERTING UNITS OF ENERGY

Mechanical work of course depends on:

w=m. g g = 9.81 ms-2

The corresponding work is obtained by the relation:

Lifting force work: W= × = J

Power = Work / Time = =kW

Energy = Power • Time

The correspondence with SI units is as follows:

The equivalence with SI units is as follows:

Energy supplied (Ws) = useful energy (Wu) + wasted energy (Ww)

The useful energy is that obtained in the desired form.

For Lacq natural gas, we have: 1000 Nm3 = 0.879 toe

I- DEFINITIONS - UNITS ........................................................................................... 1

II - MEASURING KINEMATIC VISCOSITY ................................................................. 3

III - VARIATION OF VISCOSITY WITH TEMPERATURE............................................ 5

IV - CONVERTING KINEMATIC VISCOSITY UNITS ................................................... 5

BA PHY - 01669_A_A - Rev. 5 26/08/2011

1 cP = 1 mPa.s = 0,001 Pa.s

Dynamic viscosity at 20°C

Liquids : ether 0,24

Gases : steam 0,010

The correspondence with the common units is as follows:

1 cSt = 0,01 St = 10–6 m2/s = 1 mm2/s

Give the kinematic viscosity value of the substances below:

Dynamic viscosity at Density at 20°C Kinematic viscosity at

Water 1,00 998

Give the kinematic viscosity value of the substances below.

II - MEASURING KINEMATIC VISCOSITY

Measurement of the time it takes a

gravity through a calibrated glass

ENGLER Mark SSU

Flow time Receiver Bottom of the

– for the Engler viscosimeter, in degrees Engler (abbreviation °E)

Determine the viscosity of a No. 2 fuel at the following temperatures:

Temperature (°C) 40 60 80 100 140

IV - CONVERTING KINEMATIC VISCOSITY UNITS

CONVERSION INTO CENTISTOKES

CONVERSION INTO CENTISTOKES

10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1000

Kinematic viscosity (cSt )

VISCOSITY OF FUEL OILS

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

VISCOSITY OF SOME LIQUIDS

-200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

-200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

I. CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUIDS FLOWS

Total head = Pressure energy + Velocity energy + Height energy

2 - TRANSFORMATION OF PRESSURE ENERGY INTO VELOCITY IN A PIPE REDUCTION (diagram #1)

3 - TRANSFORMATION OF VELOCITY INTO PRESSURE IN A PIPE ENLARGEMENT (diagram #2)

5 - TRANSFORMATIONS OF HEIGHT INTO VELOCITY

First example: air network

Second example : recirculation circuit

II – ROLE OF THE MAIN COMPONENT PARTS

III - FITTINGS AND PROCESS LINES

2 – Axial and rotational guidance function of the rotor

The diagram shows the operating principle for a constant-level oiler.

• geometric characteristics of the installation

1 - PARAMETERS CHARACTERIZING THE CIRCUIT