8 INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING AND WELL COMPLETIONS

perfectly horizontal or slightly dipping to reflect reservoir

dipping, the departure from the well trajectory can be
controlled and minimized.
Once a well is drilled, it must be completed. Section 1-4
provides an overview of well completions.

1-4 WELL COMPLETIONS

The purpose of drilling oil and gas wells is to produce
hydrocarbons from, or to inject fluids into, hydrocarbon-
bearing formations beneath the earth’s surface. The
borehole, described previously, provides a conduit for
the flow of fluids either to or from the surface. Certain Production Casing
equipment must be placed in the wellbore, and various
other items and procedures must also be used to sustain
or control the fluid flow. This equipment, and any pro-
cedures or items necessary to install it, are collectively
referred to as a well completion.
In the early twentieth century, oil and gas wells were
commonly completed with only a single string of casing.
The casing was a large diameter (e.g. 7-in.) string of steel
pipe, consisting of threaded sections. Initially, casing was
set with drilling fluid only.
A casing string in a well extends from the surface to
some setting depth. If the top of a casing string is set at a
depth below the surface, it is referred to as a liner. Liners
are commonly found in wells completed during the early
part of the twentieth century.
Cementing technology evolved in the 1920s, and by the
1930s most casing strings were set with some cement.
Cementing a well is an essential step in almost all well
completions, irrespective of whether a perfect bond is
achieved between the reservoir and the casing.
Currently, most wells are cemented at least some distance
above the target reservoir.
In early completions, casing was either set at the top of
the producing zone as an openhole completion (Figure Figure 1-5 Openhole completions
1-5) or set through the producing reservoir.
Openhole completions minimize expenses and allow
for flexible treatment options if the well is deepened and opening the reservoir to the wellbore (Figure 1-6).
later, but such completions limit the control of well Wells that are cased through the producing reservoir
fluids. Phillips and Whitt (1986) show that openhole provide greater control of reservoir fluids because some
completions can also reduce sand and water production. or all of the perforations can be cemented off, or down-
Although many wells completed in this manner are still hole devices can be used to shut off bottom perforations.
operating today, this method of completion has been However, openhole wireline logs must be run before the
superseded by cased completions (Figure 1-6). casing is set so that the exact perforation interval is
In a cased completion, casing is set through the produ- known.
cing reservoir and cemented in place. Fluid flow is estab- Cased-hole completions are more susceptible to forma-
lished by the creation of holes or perforations that extend tion damage than openhole completions. Formation
beyond the casing and cement sheath, thereby connecting damage refers to a loss in reservoir productivity, nor-