Finite Element Method

Lecture 8-13
REVIEW ON MECHANICS OF SOLIDS

1
This lecture will provide the basic concepts
and classical theories of mechanics of solids
which help you to formulate the FEM problem

2
 INTRODUCTION

• The concepts and classical theories of the mechanics of

solids and structures are readily available in textbooks:
1. Timoshenko, S., Theory of Plates and Shells, McGraw, London,
1940.
2. Fung, Y. C., Foundations of Solid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, 1965.
3. Timoshenko, S. P. and Goodier, J. N., Theory of Elasticity, 3rd
edition, McGraw-Hall, New York, 1970.

3
 Solids and structures are stressed when ?
they are subjected to loads or forces

The stresses are, in general, not uniform,

and lead to ? strains , which can be
observed as either ?
deformation or displacement

4
• Solid mechanics and structural mechanics deal with the
relationships between stresses and strains, displacements
and forces, for given boundary conditions of solids and
structures.
• These relationships are vitally important in modelling,
simulating and designing engineered structural systems.

5
 Modelling

Simulation Designing

6
• Forces can be static and/or dynamic.
• Statics deals with the mechanics of solids and structures
subjected to static loads such as the deadweight on the floor
of buildings.

7
• Solids and structures will
experience vibration under
the action of dynamic forces
varying with time, such as
excitation forces generated
by a running machine on the
floor.
• In this case, the stress, strain
and displacement will be
functions of time, and the
principles and theories of
dynamics must apply.

8
9
• Depending on the property of the material, solids can be
elastic, meaning that the deformation in the solids disappears
fully if it is unloaded.

• There are also solids that are considered plastic, meaning

that the deformation in the solids cannot be fully recovered
when it is unloaded.

10
• Elasticity deals with solids and structures of elastic materials,
and plasticity deals with those of plastic materials.

11
12
13
STRESS

14
 STRESS
• Stress
– Fundamental concept related to the safety of a structure
– Often used as criteria for mechanical design
– Internal force created by deforming the shape against external loads.

F
F = KL

L L

– Linear elasticity: the relation between internal force and deformation is

linear.

15
 SURFACE TRACTION f F
1

• Surface traction (Stress) n

P
– The entire body is in equilibrium with external A
f2
forces (f1 ~ f6)
f3
– The imaginary cut body is in equilibrium due to
external forces (f1, f2, f3) and internal forces
– Internal force acting at a point P
f6
on a plane whose unit normal is n: f1
f5
F
T (n ) = lim
A →0 A

– The surface traction depends on the unit f2 f4

normal direction n. z f3
– Surface traction will change when n changes. y
x
– unit = force per unit area (pressure)
T(n) = Txi + Ty j + Tzk T(n) = T = Tx2 + Ty2 + Tz2
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 NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES
• Normal and shear stresses
– Decompose T(n) into normal and tangential components
sn normal stress stress component parallel to n
tn shear stress stress component perpendicular to n

sn = T (n )
n T(n)
sn
(n ) 2 n
T =s +t 2
n
2
n

tn P
(n ) 2
tn = T − sn2 What if T(n) and n are in
the same direction?

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 CARTESIAN STRESS COMPONENTS
– Surface traction changes according to the direction of the surface.
– Impossible to store stress information for all directions.
– Let’s store surface traction parallel to the three coordinate directions.
– Surface traction in other directions can be calculated from them.
– Consider the x-face of an infinitesimal cube
T( x ) = Tx( x )i + Ty( x ) j + Tz( x )k
x
F = Fxi + Fy j + Fzk
z
T ( x ) = s xxi + t xy j + t xzk txz
z F
 Fx
s = lim
 xx A x →0 A sxx txy
 x
y
 Fy x y
 t xy = lim
A x →0 A
 x
 Fz
 t xz = lim
A x →0 A
 x
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 CARTESIAN COMPONENTS cont.
– First index is the face and the second index is its direction
– When two indices are the same, normal stress, otherwise shear stress.
– Continuation for other surfaces.
– Total nine components
– Same stress components are defined for the negative planes.
Comp. Description
sxx Normal stress on the x face in the x dir.

syy Normal stress on the y face in the y dir.

szz
szz Normal stress on the z face in the z dir. x
txy Shear stress on the x face in the y dir.
tzy
tzx
tyx Shear stress on the y face in the x dir. z
txz tyz
tyz Shear stress on the y face in the z dir. z F

tzy Shear stress on the z face in the y dir. sxx txy tyx syy
txz Shear stress on the x face in the z dir. y
x y
tzx Shear stress on the z face in the x dir.
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 CARTESIAN COMPONENTS cont.
• Sign convention
– Positive when tension and negative when compression.
– Shear stress acting on the positive face is positive when it is acting in
the positive coordinate direction.

sgn( s xx ) = sgn(n)  sgn( Fx )

sgn( t xy ) = sgn(n)  sgn( Fy )

20
 STRESS TRANSFORMATION
– If stress components in xyz-planes are known, it is possible to
determine the surface traction acting on any plane.
– Consider a plane whose normal is n.
nx 
  y
n = nxi + ny j + nzk = ny 
  B
nz 
– Surface area (ABC = A) n
tzx szz T(n)
PAB = Anz ; PBC = An x ; PAC = An y txz
sxx tzy
– The surface traction txy P tyz A x
tyx
T = Tx i + Ty j + Tz k
(n ) (n ) (n ) (n )

syy
z C
– Force balance (h → 0)

 x x A − sxx Anx − tyx Any − tzx Anz = 0

F = T (n )

Tx(n ) = s xxnx + t yxny + tzxnz

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 STRESS TRANSFORMATION cont.
• All three-directions
Tx(n ) = s xxnx + t yxny + tzxnz
Ty(n ) = t xynx + s yyny + tzynz
Tz(n ) = t xznx + t yzny + s zznz

• Matrix notation
s xx t yx tzx 
 
T (n ) = [s ]  n [s ] =  t xy s yy tzy 
t t yz s zz 
 xz

– [s]: stress matrix; completely characterize the state of stress at a point

• Normal and shear components
sn = T ( n )  n = n  [ s ]  n {n} T [s ]{n}
2
tn = T (n ) − sn2

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 SYMMETRY OF STRESS TENSOR
– Stress tensor should be symmetric
9 components 6 components tyx
– Equilibrium of the angular moment A B
y
 M = l(t xy − t yx ) = 0
txy l O x txy
 t xy = t yx

– Similarly for all three directions: l

t xy = t yx C D
tyx
t yz = tzy s xx 
s 
t xz = tzx  yy  s xx t yx tzx 
s zz   
– Let’s use vector notation: {s } =   [s ] =  t xy s yy tzy 
 t yz  t t yz s zz 
t   xz
 zx 
 t xy 

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 Example 1
1. Direction nx:ny:nz = 3:4:12. Determine T(n), magnitude of T(n),
normal stress sn, shear stress tn, angle between T(n) and n.

13 13 0 
[s] = 13 26 −13 
 
 0 −13 −39 

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Example Cont…

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Example Cont…

26
Example Cont…

27
Example 2

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Example 2 cont…

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 Example 3
If sxx = 90, syy = −45, txy = 30, and szz = txz = tyz = 0, find T(n), sn,
and tn.

syy
txy
txy
n
sxx sxx
txy
txy
syy

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Example 3 Cont…

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 PRINCIPAL STRESSES
– Can it be possible to find planes that have zero shear stresses?
– Normal stress = principal stress
– Normal direction = principal direction
– Extreme values (max or min) of stress at the point
– Three principal stresses and directions.
– Stress vector (T(n)) // normal vector (n)
n and sn are unknown
T (n ) = snn
sn : principal stress
n: principal direction
[s ]  n = snn
Eigenvalue problem
([s] − sn [I] )  n = 0
s xx − sn t yx tzx  nx  0 
     What would
 t xy s yy − sn tzy  ny  = 0  be the
 t    
s zz − sn  nz  0 
solution?
 xz t yz
32
 PRINCIPAL STRESSES cont.
– n = 0 satisfies the equation: trivial solution
– Non-trivial solution when the determinant is zero.

s xx − sn t yx tzx
t xy s yy − sn tzy =0
t xz t yz s zz − sn

– Expanding the determinant equation:

I1 = s xx + s yy + s zz
sn3 − I1sn2 + I2sn − I3 = 0 I2 = s xx s yy + s yy s zz + s zz s xx − t2xy − t2yz − t2zx
I3 = s xx s yy s zz + 2t xy t yz tzx − s xx t2yz − s yy t2zx − s zz t2xy
– I1, I2, I3: invariants of the stress matrix [σ], which are independent of
coordinate systems.
– Three roots: principal stresses, s1  s2  s3

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 PRINCIPAL DIRECTION
– Calculate principal direction using principal stress.
– Substitute each principal stress at a time.

s xx − s1 t yx tzx  n1x  0 
  1  
 t xy s yy − s1 t zy  ny  = 0 
 t t s − s  n1  0 
 xz yz zz 1  z   

– Since the determinant is zero (i.e., the matrix is singular), three

equations are not independent.
– An infinite number of solutions exist.
– Need one more relation to uniquely determine n.
2
ni = (nix )2 + (niy )2 + (niz )2 = 1, i = 1,2,3

– Infinite solutions mean the same direction with different magnitude.

We select the one that has unit magnitude

34
 PRINCIPAL DIRECTION cont.
– Planes on which the principal stresses act are mutually perpendicular
– Let’s consider two principal directions ni and nj, with i ≠ j.
[s]  ni = sini
[s]  n j = s jn j

– Scalar products using nj and ni,

n j  [s]  ni = sin j  ni
ni  [s]  n j = s jni  n j

– Subtract two equations,

(si − s j )ni  n j = 0

– Since two principal stresses are different,

ni  n j = 0, when i  j

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 PRINCIPAL DIRECTION cont.
• There are three cases for principal directions:
1. σ1, σ2, and σ3 are distinct  principal directions are three unique
mutually orthogonal unit vectors.
2. σ1 = σ2 and σ3 are distinct  n3 is a unique principal direction, and
any two orthogonal directions on the plane that is perpendicular to n3
are principal directions.
3. σ1 = σ2 = σ3  any three orthogonal directions are principal directions.
This state of stress corresponds to a hydrostatic pressure.

n3

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 COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION
– When [σ]xyz is given, what would be the components in a different
coordinate system x′y′z′ (i.e., [σ]x′y′z′)?
– Unit vectors in x′y′z′-coordinates:
y
y x
b 1
1
 b2
1
 b 3
1

  2   3  
b1 = b 1
2  , b = b
2
2  , b = b
3
2 
b 1  b2  b 3  2
b b1
 3   3   3 
3
x
b
– b1 = {1, 0, 0}T in x′y′z′ coordinates,
while b1 = {b11, b12 , b13 } in xyz coordinates
z
– the rotational transformation matrix z

 b11 b12 b13 

 
[N] = [b1 b 2 b3 ] = b12 b22 b32 
b13 b32 b33 


– Stress does not rotate. The coordinates rotate

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 COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION cont.
– [N] transforms a vector in the x′y′z′ coordinates into the xyz coordinates,
while [N]T transforms a vector in the xyz coordinates into the x′y′z′
coordinates. y
y x
– Consider bx′y′z′ = {1, 0, 0}T:
 b11 
 
1
b2 b
b1xyz = [N]  b1x ' y ' z ' = b12  x
b1  b3
 3
z
– Stress transformation: Using stress vectors, z
1 2 3
[T (b ) T (b )
T (b ) ]xyz = [s]xyz [b1 b2 b3 ] = [s]xyz [N]

– By multiplying [N]T the stress vectors can be represented in the x′y′z′

coordinates
[s]xyz = [N]T [s]xyz [N]

– The first [N] transforms the plane, while the second transforms the
force.
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 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS
– Important in the failure criteria of the material
– Mohr’s circle t
– maximum shear stress
s1 − s3 tmax
tmax =
2
– Normal stress s3 s2 s1 s
at max shear stress plane
s1 + s3
sn =
2

39
 What Stress Could Be Design Criteria?
– It must be independent of the coordinate system.
– Stress Invariants
– Principal Stresses
– Maximum Shear Stress

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Example 1

41
Example 1 Cont…

42
Example 1 Cont…

43
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45
 Example 2
Determine the principal stresses and their associated
directions, when the stress matrix at a point is given by

1 1 1
[s ] = 1 1 2  MPa
 
1 2 1

46
47
48
 Example 3
Let x′y′z′ coordinate system be defined using the three
principal directions obtained from Example 1. Determine the
transformed stress matrix [σ]x′y′z′ in the new coordinates
system

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STRAIN

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 STRAIN
• Strain: a quantitative measure of deformation
– Normal strain: change in length of a line segment
– Shear strain: change in angle between two perpendicular line segments
• Displacement of P = (u, v, w)
• Displacement of Q & R
u u
uQ = u + x uR = u + y
x y
v v
vQ = v + x vR = v + y R'
x y
w w
wQ = w + x wR = w + y Q'
x y P'(x+u,y+v,z+w)
R

y y
x
P(x,y,z) Q
x

z
51
 STRAIN
– Strain is defined as the elongation per unit length

uy

y

P x ux P

– Tensile (normal) strains in x- and y-directions

ux ux
 xx = lim = Textbook has different, but
x →0 x x
uy uy more rigorous derivations
 yy = lim =
y →0 y y

– Strain is a dimensionless quantity. Positive for elongation and negative

for compression
52
 SHEAR STRAIN
– Shear strain is the tangent of the change in angle between two
originally perpendicular axes
ux
uy
q1 tan q1 =
x q2
ux y
q2 tan q2 = p/2 – g12
y q1 uy
P
x
– Shear strain (change of angle)
uy ux uy ux
g xy = q1 + q2 = lim + lim = +
x →0 x y →0 y x y

1 1  u u 
 xy = g xy =  y + x 
2 2  x y 

– Positive when the angle between two positive (or two negative) faces
is reduced and negative when the angle is increased.
– Valid for small deformation
53
 STRAIN MATRIX
– Strain matrix and strain vector  xx 
 
 xx  xy  xz   yy 
   zz 
[ ] =  yx  yy  yz  { } =  
  g yz 
 zx  zy  zz  g 
 zx 
 g xy 
– Normal component: nn = n  [ ]  n

– Coordinate transformation: []xyz = [N]T []xyz [N]

– Principal strain: [ ]  n = n
– ε1 ≥ ε2 ≥ ε3 g max 1 − 3
– Maximum shear strain: 2 = 2
• Will the principal direction of strain be the same as that of
stress?
54
 STRESS VS STRAIN

[s] is a symmetric 3×3 matrix [] is a symmetric 3×3 matrix

Normal stress in the direction n is Normal strain in the direction n is

snn = n  [s ]  n nn = n  [ ]  n
Transformation of stress Transformation of strain
[s ]xyz = [N]T [s ]xyz [N] []xyz = [N]T []xyz [N]

Three mutually perpendicular Three mutually perpendicular

principal directions and principal principal directions and principal
stresses can be computed as strains can be computed as
eigenvalues and eigenvectors of eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
the stress matrix as [s ]  n = n the strain matrix as [ ]  n = n

55
Example

56
57
58
 STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP
• Applied Load shape change (strain) stress
• There must be a relation between stress and strain
• Linear Elasticity: Simplest and most commonly used
• Uni-axial Stress:
– Axial force F will generate stress s zz = F / A
– In the elastic range, the relation between stress and strain is

s zz = E zz

F F

– Reduction of cross-section

 xx =  yy = − zz

– E: Young’s modulus, : Poisson’s ratio

59
 UNI-AXIAL TENSION TEST
s
Ultimate
stress Fracture

Yield stress

Proportional
limit


Strain Necking
Terms Explanations hardening

Proportional limit The greatest stress for which stress is still proportional to strain
Elastic limit The greatest stress without resulting in any permanent strain
Yield stress The stress required to produce 0.2% plastic strain
Strain hardening A region where more stress is required to deform the material
Ultimate stress The maximum stress the material can resist
Necking Cross section of the specimen reduces during deformation
Fracture Material failure 60
 LINEAR ELASTICITY (HOOKE’S LAW)
• When the material is in the Proportional Limit (or Elastic Limit)
• In General 3-D Relationship
{s } = [C]  {}

s xx   C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16   xx 

s  C   
 yy   21
C22 C23 C24 C25 C26
  yy 
s zz  C31 C32 C33 C34 C35 C36    zz 
{s } =   , [C] =   , { } =  g 
 t yz  C41 C42 C43 C44 C45 C46   yz 
t  C51 C52 C53 C54 C55 C56  g 
  zx
   zx 
 t xy  C61 C62 C63 C64 C65 C66   g xy 

Stress-Strain Matrix

– For homogeneous, isotropic material 36 constants can be reduced to 2

independent constants.
61
 LINEAR ELASTICITY (HOOKE’S LAW) cont.
• Isotropic Material:
– Stress in terms of strain: {s} = [C]  {}

s xx  1 −      xx 
  E     
s
 yy  = −  
  yy 
1
  (1 +  )(1 − 2 ) 
   −    
s
 zz   1   zz 
t xy = Gg xy , t yz = Gg yz , tzx = Gg zx

– Strain in terms of stress

Shear Modulus
 xx   1 − −  s xx 
  1  s 

 yy  = − −
  yy 
1 E
E  G=
   − −    2(1 +  )

 zz   1  s zz 
t xy t yz t
g xy = , g yz = , g zx = zx
G G G

62
 DEGENERATION TO 2D
• Plane Strain Problem
– 3D engineering problems are often simplified to 2D problems
– Deformation in z-dir is constrained
– Strains in z-dir are zero
 zz = 0,  xz = 0,  yz = 0
s xx  1 −   0   xx 
  E     
{s } = s yy  = 1−  0  yy 
 
  (1 +  )(1 − 2 )  0  
 t xy  2 −    g xy 
1
 0

y y Normal stress in z-dir

E
x x s zz =
(1 +  )(1 − 2 )
(  xx +  yy )
Plane strain model

z
63
 DEGENERATION TO 2D cont.
• Plane Stress Problem:
– Plate-like structure under in-plane loads fy
– No constraints in thickness dir
– Stresses in z-dir are zero
s zz = t xz = t yz = 0
y fx
– Stress-strain relation
x
 xx  1  1 −  s xx 
 =   s  s xx  1  0   xx 

 yy  E  − 1   yy     
{s } = s yy  =
E  1  
  yy 
0
 1 −  2 
 zz = − (s xx + s yy )   0 0  
 t xy  2 (1 −  )   g xy 
1
E
t
g xy = xy
G
g yz = g zx = 0

64
 EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS
• Equilibrium Relation (2D) s yy y+
dy
2

t yx y+
dy
 s xx t yx 2

 + =0 y t xy
 x y
dx
x+
s xx s xx
2

 t xy + s yy = 0
dx dx
x− x+
2 x 2
 x y t xy x−
dx
2
t yx y−
dy
• Equilibrium Relation (3D) 2

s yy y−
dy
 s xx t yx tzx 2
 + + =0
 x y z
 t xy s yy tzy
 + + =0
 x y z
 t t yz s zz
 xz
+ + =0
 x y z
65
 BOUNDARY-VALUE PROBLEM
• When boundary conditions are given, how can we calculate
the displacement, stress, and strain of the structure?
– Solve for displacement
Applied
loads

{s} = [C] {}

Boundary
condition
– Equilibrium equation
– Constitutive equation (Stress-strain relation)
– Strain definition
– Load and boundary conditions
– Compatibility conditions
66
 FAILURE THEORIES
• Materials fail because the stress exceed the strength
→ Need to specify the exact stress type to determine failure
→ Design Criteria
• Material failure
→ Ductile materials (metals): yield stress
→ Brittle materials (ceramics): ultimate stress, fracture
• Materials don’t fail by changing volume (inter-atomic distance)
• Shear stress (distortion of shape) is related to material failure.

• Two Categories: stress-based and energy-based

67
 STRAIN ENERGY
• Force Deformation Stress Stored Energy
1 s
• Strain Energy Density:U0 = s
2
1 E
• 3-D situation:U0 = (s11 + s22 + s33 )
2 si
• Use principal stress-strain relation

 1
 1 E (s1 − s2 − s3 )
 =
U Strain energy

 1

 2 = (s2 − s1 − s3 ) i 
 E
 1
 3 E (s3 − s1 − s2 )
 =


1
• Strain Energy Density:U0 = s12 + s22 + s32 − 2(s1s2 + s 2s3 + s1s3 )
2E
in terms of principal stresses
68
 DECOMPOSITION OF ENERGY
• Hydrostatic Stress (Volumetric stress)
– Hydrostatic pressure does not contribute to failure
– Thus, subtract the volumetric strain energy from total strain energy.
– Hydrostatic pressure: same for all directions
s1 + s2 + s3 s xx + s yy + s zz
sh = =
3 3
– Strain energy density caused by sh:

1 3 (1 − 2 ) 2
Uh = sh2 + sh2 + sh2 − 2(shsh + shsh + shsh ) = sh
2E 2 E

2
3 (1 − 2 )  s1 + s2 + s3 
Uh =
2 E  3 

1 − 2 2
= s1 + s22 + s32 + 2(s1s2 + s2s3 + s1s3 )
6E

69
 DECOMPOSITION OF ENERGY cont.
• Distortion Energy Density

Ud = U0 − Uh
1+  2
= s1 + s22 + s32 − s1s2 − s2s3 − s1s3 
3E
1+  2
= s VM
3E
Von Mises Stress

( s1 − s2 ) + ( s2 − s3 ) + ( s3 − s1 )
2 2 2

s VM =
2

This energy contributes to material failure

70
 DISTORTION ENERGY THEORY
• Von Mises (1913)
– Material fails when the distortion energy reaches a certain level.
– Material yields in the tensile test when sxx = sY, and all others are zero
– Distortion energy when the material yields in tensile test

1+  2
Ud = sY
3E

– In general stress status, the material yields when the distortion energy
is greater than that of the tensile test at yielding:

1+  2 1+  2
s VM  sY
3E 3E

– Without calculating distortion energy, just compare the von Mises

stress with yield stress of the tensile test:
 s VM  s Y

71
 DISTORTION ENERGY THEORY cont.
– 3D stress status

(s xx − s yy )2 + (s yy − s zz )2 + (s zz − s xx )2 + 6( t2xy + t2yz + t2zx )

s VM =
2

s VM = s12 + s22 + s32 − s1s2 − s 2s3 − s1s3

– 2D (when s3 = 0)

s VM = s12 − s1s2 + s22

s VM = s2xx + s2yy − s xx s yy + 3t2xy

72
 DISTORTION ENERGY THEORY cont.
• Example: Pure Shear Problem
t
– s1 = t = –s3 and s2 = 0
– straight line through the origin at –45º t t
s3 s1
s = s + s1s1 + s = 3s = 3t
2
Y
2
1
2
1
2
1
2

sY −t
t = s1 = = 0.577s Y
3
s3 s Y = s12 − s1s3 + s32
s1 = −s3

A Safe region

s1
B Material failure

73
 MAX SHEAR STRESS THEORY
• Tresca (1864)
– Material fails when the max. shear stress exceeds the shear stress in a
tensile specimen at yield.
– In tensile test, s1 = sY, s2 = s3 = 0: s2, s3 t s1
– sY s − s3 s
tY = tmax = 1  tY = Y
2 2 2
– Tresca theory is more conservative than the distortion energy theory
Safe region
s3
Failure in max. shear stress theory
Safe in distortion energy theory

C
Pure shear problem
s1 sY
t = s1 = −s3 =
D 2

74
 MAX PRINCIPAL STRESS THEORY
• Rankine
– Material fails when the principal stress reaches some limit on normal
stress such as tensile yield stress or ultimate tensile stress.
– This theory frequently used for brittle materials.

s1  sU
Distortion energy theory
s2

s1

Principal stress theory

75
 SAFETY FACTOR
– For design purposes it is convenient to include a chosen safety factor
N so that the stress will be safely inside the failure-stress envelope.
– In many engineering applications, N = 1.1 – 1.5.
– Safety factor in the distortion energy theory:

sY
NVM =
s VM

– safety factor in the maximum shear stress theory:

tY sY / 2
Nt = =
tmax tmax

– Note:
NVM  Nt
sY t
 Y
s VM tmax
76