a.y.

2021/2022

Prof. Stefano Bifaretti

Department of Industrial Engineering
The presence of semiconductor switches implies that
conversion circuits have a non-linear behavior.

It is possible to apply a piecewise linearization by subdividing

the operating period in many subintervals as the conduction
states of fully controlled switches; each subinterval is
characterized by a constant switches configuration.

In every subinterval each switch is considered in on or off state;

thus the circuit to analyze is composed of only linear elements.

The electrical symbol of bipolar transistor will be used to indicate a

fully controlled switch, independently from its technology.
Single-stage DC/DC converters are used to provide an output
voltage level different from the source one.

Two configurations will be considered:

• buck or step-down converters, able to provide an output
voltage level lower than the power source;
• boost or step-up converters able to provide an output
voltage level higher than the power source.

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 3/89

ia S iu
Considering an ideal behavior of the
+ Transistor S, the period T during which
the Transistor is alternatively turned on
Ea R
vu and off is subdivided in two subintervals.
-
In the first time subinterval, whose
ia S iu duration is indicated with t, S is on, thus
+ the voltage applied to the load is
vu = Ea
Ea R and the output current (equal to the
vu
source current)
-
iu =Ea /R = ia
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 4/89
 ia S iu
During the second subinterval,
+ whose duration is equal to T -t,
the voltage applied to the load is
Ea R vu = 0
vu
and the output current (equal to
- the source current)
i u = ia = 0

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 5/89

 t ia iu

Vu 
Mean output voltage,
Ea DC component +
T
Vu t Ea
Ea R
vu

Iu   -
R T R

• Discontinuous current
• High ripple in both
voltage and current

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 6/89

 Energy transferred to the load

t0 t
2

Eat
E u t 0 v u i u
 (t )  (t ) dt 
R

Power transferred to the load

E t 2
Pu  a

R T

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 7/89

In the real case the converter presents energy losses subdivided in:
• conduction losses (Pc) due to the switch saturation voltage;
• switching losses (Ps) generated from the product, different from
zero, among the switch voltage drop waveform and the current
waveform during each commutation.

Indicating with Pu the power furnished to the load the conversion

efficiency h can be achieved as:

Pu
h 1
Pu  Pc  Ps

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 8/89

During the time intervals in which the switch S is on, the output
voltage
vu = Ea -Vce sat.

Thus the power dissipated on the Transistor can be achieved as:

1 t0 t being ic the collector

Pc   vce (t )ic (t ) dt current flowing into
T t0
the switch

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 9/89

When power supply voltage Ea is high enough (> 100 V), Vce sat can
be neglected for the calculation of the switching losses.

The switching losses are subdivided in:

• turn-on losses
• turn-off losses

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 10/89

During transistor turn-on the collector current begin to raise with a
waveform that can be considered as linear; after the raise time (tr) the
switch is considered fully in on-state.

vce = Ea
ic

Energy dissipated in the transistor t0 t0+tr t

2
t 0 t r E
E r t0 vce ic
 (t )  (t ) dt  a
6R rt vce ∙ ic≠0 Er ≠ 0

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 11/89

During transistor turn-off the collector current begin to decrease with a
linear waveform; after the fall time (tf) the switch is considered in off-state.

vce = Ea
ic

Energy dissipated in the transistor t1 t1+tf t

2

  vce(t )  ic (t )dt  E a t f
t1t f vce ∙ ic≠0 Ef ≠ 0
E f
t1 6R
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 12/89
The energy dissipated during the turn-off Ef is greater than turn-on energy
Er as the fall time is quite larger than raise time (tf > tr ).

Total switching losses

Er  E f 2
Ea (tr  t f )
Ps  
T 6R T

When the switching frequency is high can be convenient the usage

of an auxiliary circuit to reduce the energy dissipated inside the
Transistor, as shown in detail later.

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 13/89

 The previous analysis has shown that in case of pure resistive
load the converter produces a discontinuous current. This it is
necessary to insert an inductor in order to mitigate the current
ripple.
The insertion of an inductor implies that, during the Transistor
turn-off, the load current cannot reach a zero value
instantaneously; thus, a diode (free-wheeling diode) has to be
included in the circuit to permit the load current circulation
during the Transistor turn-off.

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 14/89

 ia iu

+
L
Ea D
vu
R
-

In the electrical diagram L represents the sum of the load inductance

and the filter inductance added to the circuit to reduce the current
ripple.

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 15/89

 ia iu

+
L
Ea D
vu
R
-

Neglecting the forward voltage drops on Transistor and Diode as

well as switching phenomena, the output voltage vu assumes the
same waveform as resistive load case.
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 16/89
 Configuration during the first time subinterval (t0 , t0 + t)
The Transistor is on, thus the output voltage vu = Ea

ia iu
The DC output
+ voltage is the same as
L
in resistive case:
Ea
R
vu
t
-
Vu  Ea
T

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 17/89

 Configuration during the first time subinterval (t0 , t0 + t)
ia iu The output current waveform is
obtained by solving the Kirchoff
+ differential equation (I order, non-
L
homogenous)
Ea vu
R
diu (t )
- Ea  Riu (t )  L
dt
To find the solution the first step is to solve the associated homogenous
differential equation that permit to achieve the general integral ig(t):
dig (t )
0  Rig (t )  L
dt
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 18/89
 The variables can be separeted

R dig (t )  R i g (t )
exp( ) R
 ( t t0 )
 dt   (t  t0 )  ln ig (t )  Ae L
L ig (t ) L ig (t0 )

Then, a particular solution ip(t) has to be find from the original equation.

di p (t )
Ea  Ri p (t )  L
dt
As the source is constant, if a constant current is imposed the following solution
can be achieved:
Ea
i p (t ) 
R

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 19/89

The final solution set is the sum the general and particular solutions:
R
 ( t t0 ) Ea
iu (t )  ig (t )  i p (t )  Ae L

R
Using the initial condition, the value of constant A is obtained
Ea
i (t0 )  I 0  A 
R
Ea
A  I0 
R

R
Ea  ( t t0 )
iu (t )  I 0  (  I 0 )(1  e L )
R
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 20/89
 Configuration during the first time subinterval (t0 , t0 + t)
ia iu

+
L
Ea vu
R
-
The load current has an increasing exponential waveform, which
tends to Ea/R with a time constant equal to L/R.
R
Ea  ( t t0 )
iu (t )  I 0  (  I 0 )(1  e L )
R
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 21/89
 Configuration during the first time subinterval (t0 , t0 + t)
ia iu

+
L
Ea vu
R
-

At time instant t = t1 = t0 + t , the Transistor is turned off and the

current iu is equal to:

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 22/89

 Configuration during the second time subinterval (t1 , t0 + T)
ia iu

+
L
Ea vu
R
-

Output voltage vu=0, while the current decreases with an

exponential waveform with the same time constant:

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 23/89

 Configuration during the second time subinterval (t1 , t0 + T)
ia iu

+
L
Ea vu
R
-

At time instant t = t0 + T the Transistor is turned on again; the

current value iu is equal to:

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 24/89

During the steady-state operation, the current waveform iu is
periodic, with the same period as voltage vu; thus, current iu (t2)= iu
(t0) (I2 = I0) (steady-state condition).

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 25/89

The output mean current value can be calculated by integrating the
two expressions valid in the subintervals (t0, t1) and (t1, t0 + T).
At steady-state, the mean voltage applied to the inductor is zero
thus the mean voltage value on the resistor R is the same as vu.
As a conclusion, the same expression calculated in resistive
case are obtained:

t Vu t Ea
Vu  Ea Iu  
T R T R
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 26/89
Usually the inductance L (or a fraction) is specifically inserted to
reduce the current ripple, thus the time constant L/R >> T and the
two exponentials in the current expressions can be approximated
with two line segments.

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 27/89

If the linearization is performed supposing that the voltage drop Riu
can be considered constant and equal to its mean value RI u the two
expressions for the current can be simplified in:

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 28/89

 The difference D among the peak current value and the mean
current value is usually denoted as current ripple.

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 29/89

 t (T  t ) t t
D  Ea  Ea (1  )
2 LT 2L T
The current ripple assumes the maximum value for t = T/2:

Dmax is:
• inversely proportional to the inductance value
• directly proportional to the control period T

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 30/89

For what concern the Transistor sizing, it can be observed that the
maximum vce voltage is equal to Ea while the current peak value Icp is
equal to:

The power sizing of the Transistor is defined as the product amongst the
peak voltage applied to the Transistor and the peak collector current:

Neglecting the current ripple:

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 31/89

 Power transferred to the load neglecting
the current ripple

The ratio k amongst the power sizing of the Transistor and the
power transferred to the load is:

Considering the same load power, the power sizing of the

Transistor becomes more critical as the ratio t/T becomes
smaller, i.e. as the ratio Vu/Ea decreases.

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 32/89

Considering an ideal behavior of the converter (h=1) it is possible
to achieve a simplified converter model able to show only the
input-to-output voltage and current relationships, that is its overall
characterization at the output pins.

Ii Io

Vi DC/DC Vo
converter

Control
Input
n

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 33/89

 Ii Io
Pi  Vi  Ii  Vo  I o  Po
Vi DC/DC Vo
converter Vo I i
 n
Control
n
Vi I o
Input

being n (modulation ratio) the ratio t/T<1 .

For what concern the voltages and
currents mean values, it is worth to
Vo  n Vi
notice that the converter behaves as a Ii
DC transformer with a transformation Io 
n
ratio equal to n.
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 34/89
In many applications, the load presents in series to the resistance
and the inductor, also an back electromagnetic force Ec,
becoming an active load.

A typical active load is the rotor circuit of a DC motor.

It is also possible to approximate with active loads even the

case of voltage controlled power supplies in which a capacitor is
connected in parallel to the load to reduce the output voltage
ripple to negligible values.

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 35/89

 L R
S

iu

D vu
Ea Ec

Active load represented by the rotor circuit of a DC motor

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 36/89

 Basic schematic of voltage controlled power supply
Lf Rf ic
S

iu

D vu vc
Ea C

The inductance Lf has been added as a filter to mitigate the current

ripple, while Rf represents the parasitic resistance of the inductor
windings (few mW). The capacitor C has been added as a filter to
mitigate the output voltage ripple.
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 37/89
 L R
S

iu

D vu
Ea Ec

Two different modes of operation are possible:

• Continuous conduction mode when the current furnished by the
converter iu > 0
• Discontinuous conduction mode when iu is zero in some intervals.
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 38/89
 L R
S

iu

D vu
Ea Ec

In Continuous conduction mode, the converter behavior is the same

as the case of an inductive load, except for the mean current value:

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 39/89

Assuming a time constant L/R >> T, (situation always verified in
particular when a filter inductor is added) the current waveforms in
the two subintervals can be approximated with lines segments:

in the first subinterval

(t0, t1)

in the second subinterval

(t1, t0+T)

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 40/89

 Continuous conduction mode is verified if

In discontinuous conduction mode the output mean voltage is

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 41/89

 Example of a voltage controlled power supply
fswitch=2kHz L=0.2mH R=0.2W ic
30
iu

iu (A)
25
D vu vc
Ea C
0.25
mF 20
0.196 0.197 0.198 0.199 0.2
Tempo (s)

100 vc
vc (V), vu (V)

vu

50

0
0.196 0.197 0.198 0.199 0.2
Tempo (s)
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 42/89
 Turn-off losses

When S begins to turn-off, the ic decreases linearly with a slope equal to a

I1/tf while the load current decreases with a lower slope imposed by the
inductor. When the diode turns on, the load current begins to flow into the
device and the output voltage instantaneously goes to zero thus imposing
vce = Ea.

ic iu
vce = Ea + iD
ic iD L
Iu≈I1=ic+iD D
Ea vu
R
-
t1 t1+tf t
very large Ef
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 43/89
 Turn-off losses

The energy and the power dissipated into the Transistor due to the
switching losses are:

t1t f t
E f  t1 vce (t ) ic(t )dt  E a I 1 2
f

Ef
Pf 
T
Example: Ea=300V I1=40A tf =2 ms Vcesat =1V => Ef = 12mJ
Pf = 1.2W@100Hz
Pf = 120W@10 kHz
Conduction power losses:

1 t 0t
Pc   Vcesat  ic (t )dt  Vcesat  I u  40 W
T t0
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 44/89
 Reduction of the turn-off losses
In order to mitigate the energy losses during the Transistor turn-off without
compromising the system performance, two strategies can be used:

• reduce the switch turn-off time tf selecting a faster device;

• introduce an auxiliary circuit (snubber) to avoid that voltage vce
instantaneously reach Ea.

The snubber circuit can be basically realized connecting a capacitor

opportunely sized, between the collector and the emitter of the Transistor.

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 45/89

 Reduction of the turn-off losses
When the turn-off begins at instant t = t1 the collector current starts to
decrease linearly. The difference among ic and the load current iu is
compensated by the capacitor current ia.
Thus, the diode current remains zero during the switch turn-on.
C1 ia iu

+ ic
S iD
L
ia (t )  iC (t )  i u (t )  I 1
D t  t1
Ea vu i c (t )  I 1(1  )
R t f
-

t  t1 t (t  t 1) 2

1
i a (t )  i u (t )  i c (t )  I 1  v ce(t )  i a (t ) dt  I 1
tf C1 t1 2C1t f

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 46/89

 Reduction of the turn-off losses

vce
C1<Ca
Ea
C1=Ca

t1 ta t1+tf C1>Ca
t

I1t f
Trade-off value Ca  for C1=Ca
2 Ea
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 47/89
 Reduction of the turn-off losses

The energy stored in C1 at the end of commutation and dissipated in the

Transistor at the next turn-on is:

Total energy loss during turn-off Ed = Ef+Ei

The sizing of C1 is then performed by calculating Ca and selecting the

capacitor commercial value just below the calculated value.

Example. Ea=300V I1=40A tf =2 ms

Ca=133nF => Ef = 2mJ Ei = 6mJ Ed = 8mJ
Ca=100nF => Ef = 2.85mJ Ei = 4.5mJ Ed = 7.35mJ

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 48/89

 Reduction of the turn-off losses

A resistor R1 is necessary to avoid that, at he next switch turn-on, the energy

stored in C1 is completely dissipated in the Transistor.

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 49/89

 Turn-on losses

Starting from turn-on instant t0:

t-t0
ic (t )  iu (t )  i D (t )  I 0 e vce (t )  Ea
tr
vce = Ea
Iu≈I0 iD ic

t0 t0+tr t
Without any attention devoted to reduce the losses, the energy dissipated
during the turn-on is:

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 50/89

 Reduction of turn-on losses

To reduce the turn-on losses, it is necessary to connect in series to the

collector an inductor L2 selecting a inductance that limits the current slope
to values lower than I0/tr (slope imposed by the switch):

Minimum inductance value

I0 ic iu
vce  Ea  L2
L2
vce = Ea
tr
+
Iu≈I0 iD ic L
Ea vu
R
-
t0 t0+tr t
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 51/89
 Reduction of the turn-on losses
Buck converter diagram with all
the extra circuitry needed for
switching losses reduction
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters
Inserting an extra inductor L2 at the
next turn-off of the Transistor a
high overvoltage would arise on the
switch.
To mitigate the overvoltage, it is
necessary to insert a resistor R2 able
to dissipate the energy stored in the
inductor. To prevent the action of
resistor R2 during turn-on, the
diode D2 has to be added.
52/89
 Reduction of the turn-on losses
The energy stored in the inductor when the Transistor is turned-off and, thus,
dissipated on the resistance R2, is:

If L2 = L2*, the energy dissipated energy dissipated without

on the resistance assume the any added inductor
minimum value:

Considering that I1 >I0 => Eimin > Er

Adding an inductor does not reduce the total energy losses but it avoids that
such losses are localized in the Transistor.
To reduce Ei a saturable inductance can be used, assuring that the saturation
arises after a time interval grater than tr.
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 53/89
 Sizing of the components

The two protection circuits interact each other.

The snubber circuit (RCD) that reduces the turn-off losses, produces a losses
increment during the turn-on.
Conversely, the other circuit (LRD) increases the total losses and the voltage
applied to the Transistor during its turn-off.
The interaction amongst the circuits is lesser as larger is the value of R1 and
lower is R2.
The selection of R1 and R2 has to be performed accounting for maximum and
minimum vales of voltage and current supported by the Transistor and the
minimum values for τmin and (T - τ )min.

Usually R1C1 = 1/4 ÷1/5 τmin L2/R2 = 1/4 ÷1/5 (T - τ )min

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 54/89

The mean output voltage value is always proportional to the ratio
t/T except in case of active load and discontinuous conduction.
The Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technique employs a fixed
value of T and a variable t according to the desired voltage output.

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 55/89

 Comparator Waveforms example

vi is the modulating signal

proportional to the desired
output voltage
vg is the carrier signal with
a saw tooth waveform.
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 56/89
 The mean output voltage value becomes proportional to vi

The Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is the most common technique

for power converters due to the large availability on the market of
specific Integrated Circuits (IC) as well as embedded hardware in
industrial grade microcontrollers. The ICs include all the necessary
hardware, such as an oscillator and a comparator, and other
components for additional tasks (operational amplifiers, current
limiter, threshold comparators).
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 57/89
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 58/89
 L il D iu

ii

Ea S vi C vu

Usually employed for regulated power supplies and as an interface

for photovoltaic panels in solar inverters.
The mathematical model can be determined neglecting the output
current ripple (i.e. considering a capacitor such as iu(t)=Iu).
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 59/89
The control period T is divided in two different time subintervals

L il D iu

ii

Ea S vi C vu

In the first subinterval (to, to +t) • L is charged at constant voltage

IS is ON and D is OFF: • C is discharged at constant current

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 60/89

 L il D iu

ii

Ea S vi C vu

The inductor current and the output

voltage waveforms are achieved
directly from integration.

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 61/89

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 62/89
 L il D iu

ii

Ea S vi C vu

In the second subinterval (t1, to +T)

IS is OFF and D is ON:

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 63/89

 L il D iu

ii

Ea S vi C vu

If the value of C is high

enough to keep the voltage
ripple sufficiently low,
vu(t)=Vu thus the first eq.
can be easily integrated.

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 64/89

 L il D iu

ii

Ea S vi C vu

If the value of L is high

enough to keep the current
ripple sufficiently low,
iu(t)=Iu thus also the second
eq. becomes linear.

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 65/89

If the output current does not present zero intervals (continuous
conduction), in t = t2 = to +T the current value is achieved as:

Imposing the periodicity condition I2 = Io

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 66/89

 being

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 67/89

 In order to keep the converter in continuous conduction, the
following condition has to be assured:

On the contrary
Diode D conducts only for a
fraction of the second
subinterval.
The mean output voltage becomes:

depending from actual command and

load current
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 68/89
 Ii Io
Pi  Vi  Ii  Vo  I o  Po
Vi DC/DC Vo
converter Vo I i 1
 
Control
n
Vi I o 1  n
Input

being n (modulation ratio) the ratio t/T<1 .

For what concern the voltages and 1
Vo   Vi
currents mean values, it is worth to 1 n
notice that the converter behaves as a
DC transformer with a transformation Io  (1  n) Ii
ratio equal to 1/(1-n).
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 69/89
For what concern the Transistor sizing, similar consideration to the
buck converter can be done. The maximum forward voltage is a
little bit higher than the output mean voltage, while the collector
peak current Icp is a little bit higher than the inductor current mean
value.

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 70/89

The power sizing of the Transistor Pt is:

Pt = (Il +Δi) (Vu + Δv)

where Δv = Iuτ/2C e Δi = Eaτ/2L

Neglecting the current and voltage ripples:

𝐼𝑢 𝐸𝑎 𝑇 2
𝑃𝑡 = 𝐼𝑙ҧ 𝑉ത𝑢 =
(𝑇 − 𝜏)2

while the output power Pu furnished by the converter to the load is:

Pu = Iu Vu

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 71/89

The ratio k among the Transistor power sizing and the output
power transferred to the load:

𝑃𝑡 𝑇 𝑉ത𝑢
𝑘= = =
𝑃𝑢 𝑇 − 𝜏 𝐸𝑎

Considering the same output power, the Transistor sizing becomes

more critical as the ratio Vu/Ea increases, i.e. as an high
transformation ratio is required.

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 72/89

 The bidirectional converters can be classified as:

V • two-quadrantV

1° • four-quadrant
a) 2° 1° b)

In two-quadrant converters,
I only one output variable
I (voltage or
current) can change its sign while, in four-quadrant converters both
output voltage and current can assume positive and negative values.
V V
V
1° c) 2° 1° d)
a) 1° b)
2° four-quadrant converter
I I operating zones
4° I 3° 4°
two-quadrant converter
operating zones
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 73/89
Two-quadrant DC-DC converters are obtained from the union of a
unidirectional buck converter and a boost converter.
Each converter is enabled depending on the desired sign for the
output current.
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 74/89
 Mode 1 – Buck operation

IS2 is continuously OFF

IS1 is modulating to
provide the desired mean
output voltage
IS1

t
iu Vu  Ea  Ea
T

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 75/89

 Mode 2 – Boost operation

IS1 is continuously OFF

IS2 is modulating to
provide the desired mean
voltage on the load
T t
Vu  Ea
T
iu
Note that in this mode the
“output voltage” is Ea as the
converter is operating
reversely than in Mode 1
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 76/89
The four-quadrant converters can be realized using two different
configurations:V
a) b)
Half-bridge,
2° using
1° a balanced DC source (-Ea /2, 0, + Ea /2)
I I
Full-bridge (or H-bridge), using an unbalanced DC source (0, Ea)

c) 2° 1° d)
four-quadrant bidirectional
I
3° 4°
I converter operating points

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 77/89

• Built with 2 Transistors e 2 anti-parallel diodes
• Needs two independent DC sources
• Output voltage vu can assume two voltage levels (-Ea/2,+Ea/2)
• Can provide positive or negative mean output voltage

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 78/89

 vu = Ea/2
IS1
IS1 ON
iu > 0
iu
The output voltage vu is imposed
by the converter while the output
current waveform iu depends on the
load type (passive or active).

iu < 0
iu

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 79/89

 vu = -Ea/2
IS2 ON
iu > 0
iu

iu < 0

IS2
iu

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 80/89

 To avoid short-circuits, a suitable
IS1 time interval (dead-time) has to be
inserted amongst two commutations.

IS1

IS2

During the dead-time the output

IS2
voltage is not imposed and depends
on the load current direction.
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 81/89
 Waveforms examples

Vu  0 Vu  0
vu vu IS2 ON
IS1 ON IS2 ON IS1 ON
Ea/2 Ea/2

T T
0 0
T/2 t T/2 t

-Ea/2 -Ea/2

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 82/89

• Built with 4 Transistors e 4 anti-parallel diodes (4 current
bidirectional switches)
• Needs only one independent DC source
• Output voltage vu can assume three voltage levels (Ea,0, -Ea)
• Can provide positive or negative mean output voltage
Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 83/89
 vu = Ea
IS1 IS1 and IS4 ON
IS2 and IS3 OFF
iu IS4

iu > 0

iu < 0
iu

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 84/89

 IS1 vu = 0
IS1 and IS3 ON
iu IS2 and IS4 OFF
iu > 0

IS3

iu < 0
iu

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 85/89

 vu =0
IS1 and IS3 OFF
IS2 and IS4 ON
iu IS4
iu > 0

iu < 0
IS2 iu

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 86/89

 vu = -Ea
IS2 and IS3 ON
IS1 and IS4 OFF
iu iu > 0

IS3

iu < 0
IS2
iu

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 87/89

 Vu  0 Vu  0
IS1 IS4 ON
vu vu IS1 IS3 ON
Vo Vo
IS2 IS4 ON IS2 IS3 ON
0 T
0
T t t

-Vo -Vo

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 88/89

 H-Bridge
• Lower output filter sizing due to the three-level output voltage
• Higher costs for the larger count of power devices and drivers

Half-Bridge
• Lower costs for power devices and drivers, but higher costs for
achieving two independent DC sources if not already available
• Considering the same DC voltage amplitude, the output voltage
swing is half compared to the H-Bridge
• Two-level modulation requires larger filter sizing to obtain the same
power quality level of an H-Bridge

Power Electronics – DC/DC Converters 89/89