ZNOTES // IGCSE SERIES

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Updated to 2019 Syllabus

CIE IGCSE
PHYSICS 0625
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE EXTENDED SYLLABUS
 TABLE
2 General Physics OF
CHAPTER 1

6 Thermal Physics
CHAPTER 2

9 Properties of waves, including light and sound

CHAPTER 3

1 Electricity and Magnetism

CHAPTER 4

3
2 Atomic Physics
CHAPTER 5

0
 CIE IGCSE PHYSICS//0625
1. GENERAL PHYSICS DISTANCE TIME GRAPHS

1.1 Length and Time

LENGTH
 A rule (ruler) is used to measure length for distances
between 1mm and 1meter. 𝒚𝟐−𝒚𝟏 ∆𝑑
 For even smaller lengths, use a micrometer screw gauge.  𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 = = = Speed (m/s)
𝒙𝟐−𝒙𝟏 𝑡
 SI unit for length is the meter (m)  Therefore, distance:
 To find out volume of regular object, use mathematical o With constant speed: 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
formula o With constant acceleration1:
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑+𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
×
 To find out volume of irregular object, put object into 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
2

measuring cylinder with water. When object added, it ACCELERATION BY GRAVITY

displaces water, making water level rise. Measure this  An object in free-fall near to the Earth has a constant
rise. This is the volume. acceleration caused by gravity due to the Earth’s uniform
TIME gravitational field
 Interval of time is measured using clocks or a stopwatch  Objects are slowed down by air resistance. When
 SI unit for time is the second(s) deceleration caused by air resistance = acceleration by
 To find the amount of time it takes a pendulum to make gravity, i.e. no net force acting on a body in free fall, the
a spin, time ~25 circles and then divide by the same body reached terminal velocity
number as the number of circles.
1.3 Mass and Weight
1.2 Motion  Mass: A measure of matter in a body and the body’s
 Speed is the distance an object moves in a time frame. It resistance to motion.
is measured in meters/second (m/s) or kilometers/hour  Weight is the force of gravity on a body as a result of its
(km/h). mass.
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
∴ � 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝑺𝒑 � = 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒆𝒆 � × 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚
�
𝒅𝒂 �
𝒗𝒆𝒓 �
𝒂𝒈𝒆
�
= �
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
 Speed is a scalar  Weights (and hence
quantity as it only masses) may be
shows magnitude. compared using a
 Speed in a specified balance
direction is velocity,
which is a vector 1.4 Density
SPEED TIME GRAPHS 𝑴𝒂
𝒔𝒔
(𝒎)
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝝆) =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 (𝑽)
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 CIE IGCSE PHYSICS//0625
 Density of a liquid: 𝒏  Second law of motion: 𝑭 =
Place measuring  1 Newton is the amount 𝒎𝒂
cylinder on balance. of force needed to give  Third law of motion: if
 Area under the line Add liquid. Reading on 1kg an acceleration of object A exerts a force on
equals to the distance measuring cylinder = V, 1m/s2 object B, then object B will
travelled change in mass on  A force may produce a exert an equal but
𝑦2−𝑦1 ∆𝑣 balance = m. Use
 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = = = change in size and shape opposite force on object A
formula. of a body, give an
Acceleration (m/s)2 HOOKE’S LAW
 Density of solid:
𝑥2−𝑥1 𝑡 acceleration or S
 Positive oFinding the volume: deceleration or a change p
acceleration means To find out volume of in direction depending on r
the velocity of a a regular object, use the direction of the force. i
body is increasing mathematical  The resultant of forces n
 Deceleration or negative formula. To find out
acting in the same g
acceleration means the volume of an irregular
dimension will be their s
velocity of a body is object, put object into
a measuring cylinder sum, provided a
decreasing e
with water and the convention for directions
 A curved speed time x
rise of water is the is set. Therefore, the
graph means changing t
acceleration. volume of the object. resultant of 2 forces
o Finding the mass: Use acting in the same e
 Acceleration is the rate n
of change in velocity balance dimension, in the
d
per unit of time, and a  An object will float in opposite direction will be
vector as it’s direction a fluid if it’s density is the difference in their i
is specified lesser than the magnitude in the n
density of the liquid, direction of the greatest.
i.e. The volume of  If there is no resultant p
fluid displaced has a force acting on a body, r
greater mass than the it either remains at o
object itself. rest or continues at p
constant speed in a o
straight line r
1
Average Speed * Time t
RESISTIVE FORCES
 Example: of water).  Friction: the force
i
an orange We can o
between two surfaces
with its also n
which impedes motion
peel has a say, that an orange and results in heating
t
density of without its peel, which  Air resistance is a form of
o
0.84g/cm3 has a density of friction
, we can 1.16g/cm3, will sink NEWTON’S LAWS OF
l
predict because it is greater than MOTION
o
that it will 1g/cm .3
 First law of motion: If a
float in no external for is acting d
water 1.5 Forces on it, an object will, if ,
because it  Force is measured in stationary, remain
is less Newtons stationary, and if a
than 1 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = moving, keep moving s
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 ×
g/cm3 at a steady speed in
𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 l
(density the same straight line
PAGE 3 OF 21
 CIE IGCSE PHYSICS//0625
o e  Elastic limit: point at 1.6 Moments
n x which the spring will  A moment is the
g t not return to its measure of the turning
e original shape after effect on a body and is
a n being stretched
s s defined as:
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝐼𝑛 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠) = 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕(𝑵𝒎)
i
𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆(𝑵) ×
t o
𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
h n 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑷𝒊𝒗𝒐𝒕(𝒎)
e 𝑭 = 𝒌𝒙
 Therefore, increasing
y a
CIRCULAR MOTION force or distance from
r
a e  An object at steady the pivot increases
r speed in circular orbit is the moment of a
e n always accelerating as force
o its direction is changing,  This explains why levers
u but it gets no closer to are force magnifiers
n l the center. The speed of oTurning a bolt is far
d o the ball stays constant. easier with a wrench
e n  Centripetal force is because the
r g the force acting perpendicular
e towards the center of distance from pivot is
t r a circle. It is a force
massively increased,
h that is needed, not
and so is the turning
e p caused, by circular
effect.
i r motion,
r o  For example, when you  In equilibrium,
p swing a ball on a string clockwise moment =
p o round in a circle, the anticlockwise moment
r r tension of the string is there is no resultant
o t the centripetal force. If force acting on the
p i the string is cut then body.
o o the ball will travel in a
oThis can be proven by
r n straight line at a
hanging masses of the
t a tangent to the circle at
i l the point where the same weight on
o string was cut. opposite sides of a
n  Centrifugal force is meter rule on a pivot
a the force acting away at equal distances
l from the center of a from the pivot
circle. This is what showing that the
l makes a slingshot go
meter rule in
i outwards as you spin
stationary.
m it. The centrifugal
i force is the reaction
t to the centripetal 1.7 Centre of Mass
. force. It has the same  Centre of mass:
 Limit of magnitude but imaginary point in a
proportionality: opposite direction to body where total
point at which centripetal force. mass of body seems
load and to be acting.
PAGE 4 OF 21
 CIE IGCSE PHYSICS//0625
 An object will be in when it returns to its  Conservation of 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
stable equilibrium original position given a energy: energy cannot =
small displacement. be created or 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
 For an object that is will be the diagonal. destroyed, when work ×
displaced, it will stabilize Make sure the same is done, energy is 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖
only if the scale is used to convert changed from one 𝑡𝑦
force caused by it’s form to another. ×
between length and
weight is within it’s base.  Energy can be stored 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ
forces. Measure length 𝑡
ENERGY TYPE
𝑮. 𝑷. 𝑬.
=
WHAT IT IS
𝒎𝒈𝒉
 Example of conversion of
EXAMPLE
energy: A book on a shelf
KINETIC Due to motion
has
GRAVITATIONAL From potential to fall
g.p.e , if it falls of the shelf
CHEMICAL In chemical bondsit will have k.e
 For an object to of diagonal and use  Due to the processes
start rotating it scale to convert value STRAIN Compress/stretch through which energy
needs to have an into force (FR). transfers take place not
Atoms
unbalanced NUCLEAR being 100% efficient,
rearranged/split
moment acting energy is lost to the
on it 1.9 Momentum INTERNAL surrounding and
Motion of molecules
therefore energy gets
ELECTRICAL Carried by electrons
1.8 Scalars and more spread out
LIGHT Carried in light waves
Vectors (dissipated)
Carried in sound
 A scalar is a quantity that SOUND  Efficiency: how much
waves
only has a magnitude (so useful work is done
it can only be positive) 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 1⁄2 × with energy supplied
for example speed. 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦2
𝑼𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍
 A vector quantity has a 𝑲. 𝑬. = 𝟏⁄𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
direction as well as a 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
magnitude, for example  Momentum: product of for which it acts
velocity, which can be mass and velocity 𝒎 �
negative. 𝒑 = �
 Calculating resultant 𝒎𝒗 �
force:  Principle of �
conservation of linear 𝒎
=
momentum: when  Imp
bodies in a system ulse �
interact, total : �
momentum remains pro �
constant provided no duc �
external force acts on t of
oA parallelogram has to the system. forc –
be made with the e
𝒎
acting forces (F1 and and �
𝑨𝒖
F2). The resultant force tim �
𝑨
e �
PAGE 5 OF 21
 CIE IGCSE PHYSICS//0625
� 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊 i
𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝟎
t
𝒄𝒚 = 𝑬𝒏𝒆
𝒓𝒈𝒚 s
𝒊𝒏𝒑
𝑬𝒇𝒇 𝒖𝒕 m
𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆 𝑼𝒔𝒆
o
𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒇𝒖𝒍
𝒑𝒐 t
=
𝒘𝒆𝒓 i
𝒐𝒖𝒕 o
𝒑𝒖𝒕
n
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒐 o
𝒘𝒆𝒓 r
𝒊𝒏𝒑
𝒖𝒕
i
1.10 Energy t
 Energy: amount of work and its measured in Joules (J) s
A
p
n
o
s
o
i
b
t
j
i
e
o
c
n
t
1.11Energy
Solar cells/ photovoltaic cells: made of materials that deliver electrical current when it absorbs light
m Resources
a  Renewable sources are
y not exhaustible
 Non-renewable sourcesVariable
of amount of sunshine in some coun
h No CO2 produced
energy are exhaustible
a TYPE
v Solar panels:
e ADVANTAGES a
b
e DISADVANTAGES
n s
e o
r r
g b
y s

d e
u n
e e
r
t g
o
y

PAGE 6 OF 21
 CIE IGCSE PHYSICS//0625
a tidal f
n  In the sun, energy is o
d created through a r
process called nuclear c
u fusion: hydrogen e
s nuclei are pushed
together to form p
e
helium. e
i r
1.12 Work and
tFuel: burnt to Power
 Cheap  Harmful wastes: u
make thermal  Work is done whenever a
 o Greenhouse/ n
tenergy, makes Plentiful force makes something
 pollutant gas i
osteam, turns Low-tech move. o Radiation t
turbine �
hWave energy: �
a
egenerators driven No greenhouse r
aby up and down   Difficult=to build
gases produced e
tmotion of waves a
∆
at sea. � .
wTidal energy: dam � 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑵)
abuilt where river 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
 The unit for work is the (𝑷𝒂) =
tmeets sea, lake Joule (J).
efills when tides  1 jouleofExpensive
 No greenhouse work = force (𝒎𝟐)
rcomes in &  Can’tmoves
of 1 Newton be built
an 𝑭
𝑷=
empties
The sunwhen
is the gases produced
object by 1 meter 𝑨
everywhere  Unit: Pascals (Pa) = N/m2
source
tide goesofout;
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 (𝑱) = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆  In Liquids
energy
water forruns
flow all
(𝑵) × 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒎) 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆(𝑷𝒂) =
our energy
generator 𝑾 = 𝑭𝑫 Wind: 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑) ×
resources
Hydroelectric: 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝒎/𝒔𝟐) ×
except  Power is the rate of work Windmi  NO
 FE 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕(𝒎)
river & rain fill up
geothermal,  Low impact
 The
on unit for power is lls are CO2/ 𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
W
lake behind dam,
nuclear and environment  Few areas of the
Watts (W) moved GRE  Therefore, as the depth
ARE
water released,  Energy produced
 1W = 1J/s world suitable by the ENH of a fluid increases, the
AS
turns 𝑫𝒐𝒏𝒆
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 turbine(𝑱)  at constant rate breeze. OUS pressure caused by the
OF
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝑾)
generator = They E
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 (𝒔) THE whole liquid increases.
Geothermal: generat GAS WO
water pumped   Deep drilling SES
Pressure No CO2 e RLD
down to hot rocks difficult and PRO
produced expensive  electrici SUI
rising as steam ty from DUC TAB
Nuclear fission: ED LE.
kinetic
uranium atoms  Produces a lot of
energy with very  Produces energy.
radioactive waste
split by shooting little resources  Measuring Pressure:
neutrons at them
2. THERMAL PHYSICS
MANOMETER
2.1 Simple Kinetic
Molecular Model
of Matter

PAGE 7 OF 21
 CIE IGCSE PHYSICS//0625
e
the
gas
is
at
 A manometer measures  Tube with vacuum at the a
SOLID
the pressure difference. top and mercury filling hig
 Fixed shape and  Fixed volume but  No fixed shape
 The height difference the rest. her
LIQUID
volume changes shape or volume, gases te
shows the excess  Pressure of the air
 Strong forces of depending on its fill up containers mp
pressure in addition to pushes down on
GAS attraction
the atmospheric reservoir, forcing container  Almost no era
 between
pressure. mercury up the tube.  Weaker intermolecular tur
particles-
 Measure height of attractive forces forces- large e.
particles close to
mercury than solids- distances T
each other.
 ~760 mm of mercury is 1 medium between h
 Fixed pattern
atm. distances particles e
(lattice)
 Atoms vibrate between  Particles far
particels apart, and move p
but can’t change r
position ∴ fixed  No fixed pattern, quickly
e
volume and liquids take  Collide with each
s
shape shape of their other and s
container bounce in all u
 Particles slide directions r
past each other. e

g
a
s
e
s

e
x
e
r
t

o
n

c
parti
o
cles
n
mov
t
e
a
and
i
ther
n
efor
e
PAGE 8 OF 21
CIE IGCSE PHYSICS//0625
e
t
i
c

e
n
e
r
g
y

i
n

g
a
s
s
e
s

t
h
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f
a
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t
e
r

t
h
e
y

 m
o
v
e

a
n
d

t
h
e

PAGE 9 OF 21
CIE IGCSE PHYSICS//0625
i
s

c
o
n
s
t
a
n
t
,

t
h
e
n

i
n
c
r
e
a
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i
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g

t
h
e

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

w
i
l
PAGE 10 OF 21
CIE IGCSE PHYSICS//0625
e

p
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
s
,

t
h
e

 k
i
n
e
t
i
c

e
n
e
r
g
y

d
e
c
r
e
a
s
e
s
,

d
e
c
r
PAGE 11 OF 21
CIE IGCSE PHYSICS//0625
B
R
O
W
N
I
A
N
M
O
T
I
O
N
G
a
s

m
o
l
e
c
u
l
e
s

m
o
v
e

r
a
n
d
o
m
l
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.

T
h
i
s

i
s

PAGE 12 OF 21
CIE IGCSE PHYSICS//0625
s
t
a
n
t
l
y

c
h
a
n
g
e

t
h
e

d
i
r
e
c
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m
o
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i
n
.
 Small molecules move be seen by larger smoke
much faster and have particles moving.
higher energy than larger  Therefore, the random
molecules. They can motion of particles in a
effectively move large suspension is evidence
molecules due to for the kinetic molecular
repeated random model of matter.
bombardment- this can
2.2 Evaporation
PAGE 13 OF 21

 It is the escape of
more energetic
particles from the
surface of a liquid.
 If more energetic
particles escape, the
liquid contains few high
energy particles and
more low energy
particles so the average
temperature decreases.
 In the above graph, the
number of particles
with higher kinetic
energies has gone
down.’
 Therefore a body in
contact with an
evaporating liquid
with subsequently
cool.
 Evaporation can be
accelerated by:
oIncreasing
temperature: more
particles have
energy to escape
oIncreasing surface
area: more
molecules are close
to the surface
oReduce humidity level
in air (draught): if the
air is less humid,
fewer particles are
condensing.
2.3 Pressure
Changes in Gases
 Pressure is inversely
CIE IGCSE PHYSICS//0625
proportional to the �  As the temperature
volume given a constant � increases of a fixed
temperature. � mass of gas, the
 If the volume �
pressure increases as
increases and the  The constant is valid at a the average kinetic
temperature stays fixed mass of gas at a energy increases…
constant, the particles constant temperature. EXPLAINED IN DETAIL IN
hit the surface less 2.1
often, thus decreasing
the pressure. 2.4 Thermal
� properties and
� temperature
�  Solids, liquids and
� gasses expand when
� they are heated as
� atoms vibrate more
and this causes them to
�
become further apart,
�
taking up a greater
volume.
=  Due to differences in
molecular structure of
� the different states of
� matter, expansion is
� greatest in gases, less so
� in liquids and lowest in
� solids
�  Applications and
consequences of thermal
�
expansion:
�
o Overhead cables have
� to be slack so that on
� cold
�
days, when they
� contract, they don’t
snap or detach.
= o Gaps have to be left in
bridge to allow for
� expansion
�
oBimetal thermostat:
� when temperature
�
gets too high, bimetal
�
strip bends, to make
�
contacts separate until
�
temperature falls
�
enough, then metal
�
strip will become
�
straight again and
�
contacts touch, to
�
maintain a steady
PAGE 14 OF 21
 CIE IGCSE PHYSICS//0625
temperature 100 °C.

 Temperature can be
measured by
observing a physical
property that
changes with
temperature.
Examples include
alcohol and mercury
- used in
thermometers.
 Fixed points are
definite temperatures
at which something
happens and are used
to calibrate a
thermometer. For
example, melting and
boiling point of water
 Sensitivity: Change in
length or volume per
degree
 Range: The values
which can be
measured using
the thermometer
 Linearity: Uniform
changes in the physical
property with a
change in temperature
over the measured
temperature values.
 Responsiveness: How
long it takes for the
thermometer to react
to a change in
temperature
 Calibrating a
thermometer:
o Place thermometer in
melting ice, this is 0
°C.
o Place thermometer in
boiling water, this is
PAGE 15 OF 21
 Liquid-in-glass thermometer:
oAs temperature rises or falls, the liquid (mercury or
alcohol) expands or contracts.
oAmount of expansion can be matched to temperature
on a scale.
o To increase sensitivity:
 Thinner capillary
 Less dense liquid
 Bigger bulb
oDepending on the melting and boiling point of the
liquid being used, the range is defined.
o The linearity depends on the liquid being used
 Thermocouple thermometer:
oThe probe contains 2 different metals joined to form
2 junctions.
o The temperature difference causes a tiny voltage
which makes a current flow.
o A greater temp. difference gives a greater current.
oThermocouple thermometers are used for high
temperatures which change rapidly and have a large
range (-200C° to 1100°C)
2.5 Thermal Capacity:
 The rise in temperature of a body is an increase in the
internal energy of that body. The average kinetic
energy of a gas particle is directly proportional to
the temperature. When of that gas particle. particles
move faster due to greater kinetic energy, they collide
more often, which is felt by heat
 This relationship is shown by the thermal capacity of a
 Specific Heat capacity (c) is the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a certain
substance by 1o C.
𝑄
𝑐=
𝑚 ∆𝑇
 Thermal Capacity (Q) is the amount of energy required
to raise the temperature of an object by 1 oC.
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐
 In non-metals - when heat is supplied to something, its
IMPORTANT: The Q’s in both equations are NOT the
same, however the c’s are.
2.6 Melting and Boiling
 Melting is when a solid turns into a liquid.
 The temperature increases thus kinetic energy in solid
increases and particles vibrate more rapidly.
 When melting starts there is no increase in temperature
of the substance because thermal energy supplied is
being used to break bonds between particles of the solid
thus making it into a liquid.
 The latent heat of fusion is the amount of energy needed
to melt 1Kg of a substance
 The melting point is the temp. at which a substance boils
 Boiling is when a liquid turns into a gas
 The temperature increases thus kinetic energy in liquid
increases and particles vibrate more rapidly.
 When boiling starts, there is no increase in temperature
of the substance because the thermal energy supplied is
being used to break bonds between particles of the
liquid thus making it into a gas.
 The latent heat of vaporization is the amount of energy
needed to boil 1Kg of a substance
 The boiling point is the temp. at which a substance melts
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛/𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑬
𝑳𝒇/𝑳𝒗 =
𝒎
 The difference between boiling and evaporation is that:
oBoiling occurs at a fixed temperature and throughout
the liquid
oEvaporation occurs at any temperature and only on
the surface
 Condensation is when a gas turns back into a liquid.
 When a gas is cooled, the particles lose energy. They
move more and more slowly. When they bump into each
other, they do not have enough energy to bounce away
again so they stay close together, and a liquid forms.
 When a liquid cools, the particles slow down even more.
Eventually they stop moving except for vibrations and a
solid forms.
2.7 Thermal Properties
 Conduction is the flow of heat
through matter from places of higher
temperature to places of lower
temperature without movement of
the matter as a whole
atoms vibrate faster and pass on their vibrations to the
 adjacent atoms. 3. PROPERTIES OF WAVES, INCLUDING
 In metals – conduction happens in the previous way and
in a quicker way –electrons are free to move, they travel LIGHT AND SOUND
randomly in the metal and collide with atoms and pass
on the vibrations Good conductors are used whenever 3.1 General Wave Properties:
heat is required to travel quickly through something  Waves transfer energy without transferring matter.
 Bad conductors (insulators) are used to reduce the  Examples of wave motion include:
amount of heat lost to the surroundings o Water Waves
o Ropes
 Convection is the flow of heat through a fluid from
o Springs
places of higher temperature in places of lower
temperature by movement of the fluid itself.  Frequency: the number of waves
passing any point per second
 As a fluid (liquid or gas) warms up, the particles which
measured in hertz (Hz)
are warmer become less dense and rise. 𝟏
 They then cool and fall back to the heat source, creating 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 =
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅
a cycle called convection current.
 Period: time taken for one oscillation
 As particles circulate they transfer energy to other
in seconds
particles. If a cooling object is above a fluid it will create
 Wavefront: the peak of a transverse wave or the
a convection current as well. compression of a longitudinal wave
 Radiation is the flow of heat from one place to another  Speed: how fast the wave travels measured in m/s
by means of electromagnetic waves. It does not require  Wavelength: distance between a
a medium. point on one wave to the
 Thermal radiation is mainly infra-red waves, but very hot corresponding point on the next
objects also give out light waves. Infra-red radiation is wave in length
part of the electromagnetic spectrum.  Amplitude: maximum
MATT BLACK WHITE SILVER displacement of a wave from its
undisturbed point.
EMITTER Best Worst
REFLECTOR Worst Best
ABSORBER Best Worst
 An emitter sends out thermal radiation.
 A reflector reflects thermal radiation, therefore is a bad
absorber.
 An emitter will cool down quickly, an absorber will heat
up more quickly and a reflector will not heat up quickly.
 The amount of radiation also depends on the surface TRANSVERSE WAVES LONGITUDINAL WAVES
temperature and surface area of a body.
 Travelling waves in  Travelling waves in
 Consequences of energy transfer include:
which oscillation is which oscillation is
oMetal spoon in a hot drink will warm up because it
perpendicular to parallel to direction of
conducts heat
direction of travel travel.
oConvection currents create sea breezes. During the
 Has crests and troughs  Has compressions and
day the land is warmer and acts as heat source. During
rarefactions
the night the sea acts as the heat source.  For example, light, water
 For example, sound
oA black saucepan cools better than a white one, white waves and vibrating
waves
houses stay cooler than dark ones. string
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑚/𝑠) = 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑦(𝐻𝑧) × 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝑚)
𝑽 = 𝑭𝝀
 Refraction: o Mechanical waves slow down when they pass from a
o Speed and wave length is reduced but frequency denser to a rarer material and vice versa
stays the same and the wave changes direction o Note: Electromagnetic waves like light increase in
 speed from an optically denser to a rarer medium. 3.1 Reflection of Light
o When wave is slowed down, it is refracted towards  Plane (flat) mirrors produce a reflection.
normal (i > r)
 Rays from an object reflect off the mirror into our eyes,
o When wave is sped up, it is refracted away from but we see them behind the mirror.
normal (i < r)
 The image has these properties:
o Deep water is denser than shallow water
o Image is the same size as the object
o Image is the same distance from the mirror as object
oA line joining corresponding points
of the image and object meet the
mirror at a right angle
oImage is virtual: no rays actually
When water wave travels When water waves pass through the image and the
from deep to shallow; travel from shallow to image cannot be formed on a screen
speed decreases, deep; speed increases  Laws of reflection:
wavelength decreases and wavelength increases oAngle of incidence = angle of
frequency remains reflection
and frequency remains
constant oThe incident ray, reflected ray and normal are always
constant on the same plane (side of mirror)
 Reflection:  Critical angle: angle at which refracted ray is parallel to
o Waves bounce away the surface of material.
from surface at same  If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical
angle they strike it angle there is no refracted ray, there is total internal
o Angle of incidence = reflection.
angle of reflection  If the angle of incidence is less than the critical angle
o The incident ray, the incidence ray will split into a refracted ray and a
normal and reflected weaker reflected ray.
ray all lie on the same plane.
o Speed, wavelength and frequency are unchanged by
reflection
 Diffraction:
 Waves bend round the
sides of an obstacle, or
spread out as they pass
through a gap.
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎
 Wider gaps produce less 𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 =
diffraction. 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎
 When the gap size is equal to the wavelength, 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 =
maximum diffraction occurs 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
−𝟏 𝟏
𝑪𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ⁄𝒏
3.2 Refraction of Light sides of the glass are
 Refraction is the bending when light travels from one parallel)
medium to another due to the change in speed of the o i = angle of incidence, r
ray of light. = angle of refraction

 Note:
o The emergent ray is  Light put in at one end is totally internally reflected until it
parallel to the comes out the other end.
incident ray only if the  Application: Optical Fibres
oUsed in communications: signals are coded and sent
 along the fiber as pulses of laser light Real Image
oUsed in medicine: an endoscope, an instrument used  When object is further away from the optical centre
by surgeons to look inside the body; contains a long than F’ is
bundle of optic fibers.

3.3 Thin Converging Lens

 Principal focus: the point where rays parallel to the
principal axis converge with a converging lens.
 Focal length: distance from principle focus and the
optical center.
 Principal axis: line that goes through optical center,
and the 2 foci.
 Optical center: the center of the lens
 Real: image can be caught on a screen
 Virtual: image cannot be caught on a screen
A) A ray through centre of the lens passes straight through
the lens.
B) A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through
the focus on the other side of the lens
C) A ray through F’ will leave the lens parallel to the
principal axis
Virtual Image
 When the object is closer to the optical centre than F’ is

 Magnifying glass: when a convex lens is used like this -

an object is closer to a convex (converging) lens than the
principal focus (like the diagram above), the rays never
converge. Instead, they appear to come from a position
behind the lens. The image is upright and magnified, it is
a virtual image.
 Images can be:
o Enlarged: The image is larger than the object.
o Same size: The image is the same size as the object.
o Diminished: The image is smaller than the object.
oUpright: The image is in the same vertical orientation
as the object.
3.4 Dispersion of Light dispersed into a spectrum.
Refraction by a prism:  White light is a mixture of colors, and the prism refracts
 When light is refracted each color by a different amount – red is deviated least
by a prism, the & violet most
incidence ray is not  Monochromatic light is that of a single frequency and
parallel to the colour.
emergent ray, since the  The visible spectrum of light looks like this :
prism’s sides are not
parallel.
 If a beam of white light is passed through a prism it is
3.5 Electromagnetic Spectrum

ROMAN MEN INVENTED VERY UNUSUAL XRAY GUNS
 All electromagnetic waves:
o Travel at the speed of light: approximately 3 × 108m/s.
o They travel at around the same speed in air too.
o Don’t need a medium to travel through (travel through
a vacuum)
o Can transfer energy
oAre produced by particles oscillating or losing energy
in some way
o Are transverse waves
 Applications:
o Radio waves: radio and television communications
o Microwaves: satellite television and telephones
o Safety issue: cause internal heating of body tissues
oInfrared: electrical appliances (radiant heaters and
grills), remote controllers for televisions and intruder
alarms
oX-rays: medicine (x-ray photography and killing cancer
cells) and security
o Safety issue: is a mutagen, it cause cancer (mutations)
oMonochromatic: light of a single wavelength and color
(used in lasers)
3.6 Sound
 Sound is a mechanical wave.
 Sound waves come from a vibrating source e.g.
loudspeaker
 As the loudspeaker cone vibrates, it moves forwards and
backwards, which squashes & stretches the air in front.
 As a result, a series of compressions (squashes) and
rarefactions (stretches) travel out through the air, these
are sound waves
 Humans can hear frequencies between 20 and 20 000Hz.
 Properties:
oSound waves are longitudinal: they have
compressions and rarefactions and oscillate backwards
and forwards.
oSound waves need a medium to travel through as it
moves due to oscillating particles.
 Ultrasound Waves: high frequency sound waves,
medically used to look at structures and organs inside
the human body, i.e. to form an image of a fetus in a
pregnancy
 Compression: High pressure section of a longitudinal
wave
 Rarefaction: Low pressure section of a longitudinal wave
 The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.
 The higher the amplitude, the louder the sound
 If a sound is repeated 0.1 seconds or more after it is first  Methods of inducing magnetism:
heard, the brain senses it again. oA piece of steel becomes permanently magnetized
 Therefore , given the adequate distance, if sound reflects when placed near a magnet, but its magnetism is
off a surface, and comes back, an echo is produced. usually weak.
oIt can be magnetized more strongly by stroking it with
SPEED OF SOUND IN VARRIOUS MEDIA one end of a magnet
MEDIUM State Speed oMost effective method: place it in a solenoid and pass a
CONCRETE Solid 5000 m/s large, direct current (d.c.) through the coil.
PURE WATER Liquid 1400 m/s  Methods of demagnetisation:
AIR Gas 330 m/s oIf a magnet is hammered, its atomic magnets are
𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝑮𝒂𝒔 < 𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 < 𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 thrown out of line and it becomes demagnetized.
 Finding the speed of sound oHeating a magnet to a high temperature also
oWhen sound reflects off of a wall, it will come back to demagnetize it.
you; echo oStroking with another magnet to destroy the
oIf you know the distance between you and the wall, alignment of poles
and measure how long it takes for the echo to sound, oPlace magnet with poles opposite to that which is
you can figure out the speed of sound in air. induced by a d.c. current and insert into coil with d.c.
oRemember to take into account that sound has gone current
there & back oMost efficient method: place magnet inside a solenoid
connected to an alternating current (a.c.) supply.
4. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM  Soft Iron vs. Steel
SOFT IRON STEEL
4.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism  Gets magnetized
MAGNETS: faster but loses its
magnetism as soon
 Magnets have a magnetic field around them as inducing magnet is
 They 2 opposite poles (North and South) which exert removed.
forces on other magnets. Like poles repel and unlike  High susceptibility
poles attract. This is caused by the interaction of but low retentivity
magnetic fields.  Use: core in the
oTherefore if magnets are facing each other with transformer
opposite poles, they will come together given a small
space between them  Slow to be
magnetized but
 They attract magnetic materials by inducing (permanent
retains acquired
or temporary) magnetism in them.
magnetism for a long
 Will exert little or no force on a non-magnetic material
time.
 The direction of an electric field at a point is the
 Low susceptibility
direction of the force on a positive charge at that point but high retentivity.
 Induced Magnetism:  Use: making
o Magnets attract materials by inducing magnetism in magnets.
them; the material becomes a magnet as well.
 Permanent Magnet vs. Electromagnet
o The side of the material facing the magnet will
PERMANENT MAGNET ELECTROMAGNET
become the opposite pole as the magnet.
 Design: hard magnetic
material
 Use: for applications
where magnetism is
needed over long
periods – fridge doors
  Design: Uses a solenoid
to create magnetic field
 Use: For applications
where magnetic field
needs to be turned on &
off - scrap metal moving
FERROUS NON-FERROUS
Magnetic materials Non-magnetic materials
IRON PLASTIC
NICKEL WOOD
COBALT RUBBER
4.2 Electric Charge  Induced charges:
 There are 2 types of charges: positive and negative. oCharging a body involves the addition or removal of
 Unlike charges attract and like charges repel. electrons.
 The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C). o A charge that “appears” on an uncharged object
 The presence of an electrostatic charge can be detected because of a charged object nearby
using a leaf electroscope. oFor example if a positively charged rod is brought near
oIf a charged object is placed near the cap, charges are a small piece of aluminum foil, electrons in foil are
induced. pulled towards rod, which leaves the bottom of the foil
oThe metal cap gets one type of charge (positive or with a net positive charge.
negative) and the metal stem and gold leaf get the oThe attraction is stronger than repulsion because the
other type of charge so they repel each other. attracting charges are closer than the repelling ones.

4.3 Current
 Current: a flow of charge, the SI unit is the Ampere (A).
 An ammeter measures the current in a circuit and is
connected in series
 Current is a rate of flow of charge.
 In metals, current is caused by a flow of electrons
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐶)
 Electric field: region in which electric charge experiences 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴) =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)
a force. 𝐼 = 𝑄/𝑡
 The direction of an electric field at a point is the  Current follows path of least resistance
direction of the force on a positive charge at that point  Conventional current flows in the direction opposite to
 Conductors: materials that let electrons pass through that which electrons flow in.
them. Metals are the best electrical conductors as they
have free electrons. E.g. copper Red= Conventional
 Insulators: materials that hardly conduct at all. Their Current
Green= flow of
electrons are tightly held to atoms and hardly move,
electrons
but they can be transferred by rubbing. E.g. Rubber
 Simple Field Patterns:
 1𝑒̅ = 1.6 × 10−19𝐶
 1𝐶 = 6.25 × 1018𝑒̅

4.4 Electromotive Force (EMF)

 The energy supplied by the source in driving a unit
Parallel Point +ve and -ve +ve and +ve
plates charge
 charge around a circuit.  When a current is being supplied, the voltage is lower
 The maximum voltage a cell can produce is called because of the energy wastage inside the cell.
the electromotive force (EMF), measured in volts.  A cell produces its maximum PD when not in a circuit
and not supplying current.
4.5 Potential Difference (P.D) 4.8 Series and Parallel Circuits
 Potential difference, or PD for short, is also known as  The current at any point in a series circuit is the same
voltage.  The current splits at each branch in a parallel circuit so
 Voltage is the amount of energy the cell gives the the total current is always greater than the current in
electrons it pushes out. Voltage is measured in volts (V) one branch
and is measured by a voltmeter (connected in parallel). If  Combining resistors
a cell has 1 Volt, it delivers 1 Joule of energy to each o In Series: 𝑹𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
coulomb of charge (J/C). o In Parallel: 𝑹𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏⁄ +𝟏𝟏⁄
𝑹 𝑹
𝟏 𝟐
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
o The combined resistance of 2 resistors in parallel is
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 less than that of either resistor by itself and the
𝑬
𝑽= current in the two resistors in greater in the source
𝑪 than in the individual resistors and is equal to the sum
of the currents in all the resistors connected in
4.6 Resistance parallel.
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑽
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (Ω) = =  Advantages of putting lamps in parallel are:

Factors affecting resistance: 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑰 o If one lamp breaks, the other still works
 Length o Each lamp gets maximum PD
oΩ∝ 𝐿  In series: PD across the supply = PD across all the
components combined
o The electrons have to travel a longer length and thus 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉) × 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)
encounter more resistance. 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰
 Cross-sectional area 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉) × 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
1
oΩ ∝ 𝐴 𝑬 = 𝑽𝑰𝒕
o More electrons can flow per unit time, increasing the
current and therefore decreasing the resistance.
 Material
o Better conductor = less resistance
 Current Voltage Character of an Ohmic Resistor and a
Filament Lamp:

oOhm’s law states that voltage across a resistor is

directly proportional to the current through it. This is
only true if the temperature of the resistor or lamp
remains constant

4.7 Electrical Energy

 Electrical energy is transferred from the battery or
power source to the circuit components then into the
surroundings
 1 Watt is 1J/s
 In parallel: Current across the source = sum of
currents in the separate branches

4.9 Circuit Diagrams

Cell

Battery of cells

Or

Power supply
a.c. power
supply
Junction of
conductors
Lamp

Fixed resistor
Thermistor

Variable Resistor

Light dependent
resistor
Heater
4.10Switch
Action and Use of Circuit Components:
 A potential divider divides the voltage into smaller parts.
Earth or Ground

Electric Bell

Buzzer

Microphone

Loudspeaker  To find the voltage (at VOUT) we use the following

formula:
Motor 𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝑶𝑼𝑻
= 𝑽 𝑰𝑵 × ( )
Generator 𝑹𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
 A variable potential divider (potentiometer) is the same
Ammeter as the one above but using a variable resistor; it acts like
a potential divider, but you can change output voltage.
Voltmeter  Input Transducers:
o Thermistor: input sensor and
Galvanometer a transducer. It is a
temperature-
Potential Divider
dependent resistor. At higher
Relay Coil temperature there is less resistance.
o Light dependent resistor (LDR): input
Transformer sensor and a transducer. When light
intensity increases, resistance
Diode decreases.
 Relays:
Light- emitting
diode o A switch operated by an electromagnet

Fuse
Oscilloscope

AND gate

OR gate

NAND gate
NORMAL CLOSED RELAY NORMALLY OPEN RELAY
NOR gate

NOT gate

When coil not energized, switchWhen

is closed,
coil energized,
completingswitch
circuitis closed, completing ci

 Diodes: oA device that has an extremely high resistance in one

 direction and a low resistance in the other, therefore
it effectively only allows current to flow in one
 Hazards:
direction
oForward bias is when the diode is pointing in the
direction of the conventional current and reverse bias
is the opposite
oIt can be used in a rectifier; turns AC current into DC
current.
4.12 Dangers of Electricity:
oDamaged insulation: contact with the wire (live wire
especially) due to gap in the insulation causes electric
shock which can cause serious injury or shock.
oOverheating of cables: when long extension leads are
coiled up, they may overheat. The current warms the
wire, but the heat has less area to escape from a tight
bundle. This might cause a fire.
oDamp conditions: water can conduct a current, so if
electrical equipment is wet someone might get
electrocuted
FUSE CIRCUIT BREAKER

4.11 Digital Electronics

 Analogue uses a whole range of continuous variations to
transmit a signal that include variations of high and low
A fuse protects a circuit. An automatic switch
states.
Thin piece of wire which which if current rises over
 Digital signals use only 2 states, on and off.
overheats and melts if a specified value, the
 Logic gates are processors that are circuits containing
current is too high. It is electromagnet pulls the
transistors and other components. Their function is
placed on the live wire contacts apart, breaking
shown by the truth table below (3 columns from the
before the switch. This the circuit. The reset
right)
prevents overheating and button is to rest
catching fire. A fuse will everything. It works like a
have a specific current fuse but is better because
value (e.g. 13 Amps.) so it can be reset.
when choosing a suitable
fuse you must use the one
above minimum value but
less than maxiumum value
 Benefits of Earthing a Metal Case:
oMany electrical appliances, have
metal cases, the earth wire
creates a safe route for current
to flow through if the live wire
touches the casing
oEarth terminal connected to
metal casing, so in such a case,
the current goes through earth wire
instead of causing an electric shock.
oA strong current surges through earth wire because it
has very low resistance
o This breaks the fuse and disconnects the appliance
4.13 Electromagnetic Effects EMF is induced and can
 Electromagnetic Induction: If a wire is passed across a be detected by a
magnetic field/changing galvanometer.
magnetic field, a small  The direction of an induced
 EMF opposes the change
causing it.
 The induced EMF can be increased by:
o moving the wire faster
o using a stronger magnet
oIncreasing length of wire in magnetic field, e.g.
looping the wire through the field several times.
 The current and EMF direction can be reversed by:
o moving the wire in the opposite direction
o turning the magnet round so that the field direction
is reversed
 Fleming’s right-hand rule gives the current direction:
 When a magnet is moved towards a coil the pole of the
coil and magnet next to each other are the same.
 When the magnet is moved away the poles are opposite
(opposite poles attract).
 The pole-type (north or south) is controlled by the
direction in which the current is induced.
 The direction of the current is given by the right-hand
grip rule:

 The fingers point in the conventional current direction

and the thumb gives the North Pole.

4.14 Applications
 In a direct current (d.c) the electrons flow in a singular
direction.
 In an alternating current (a.c) the direction of flow is
reversed in regular time periods.
 A.C Generator:
oThe coil is made
Bar magnet pushed into coil of insulated
copper wire and is
rotated by turning
the shaft; the slip
rings are fixed to
the coil and rotate
with it.
 The induced EMF (and current) can be increased by: o The brushes are 2
o moving the magnet faster contacts which rub against the slip rings and keep the
o using a stronger magnet coil connected to the outside part of the circuit,
o increasing the number of turns in the coil usually made of carbon.
 If the magnet is pulled away, the direction of the oWhen the coil is rotated, it cuts magnetic field lines,
induced EMF (and current) is reversed so an EMF is generated, which makes a current flow.
 Using South pole instead of North pole reverses oEach side of the coil travels upwards then downwards
direction of induced EMF (and current) then upwards etc. so the current flows backwards
 If the magnet is held still, there is no EMF then forwards then backwards etc. so it is an
 An induced current always flows in a direction such that alternating current.
it opposes the change which produced it.
 The current is maximum when the coil is horizontal 4.17 Electromagnetic Effect of a Current
since field lines are being cut at the fastest rate and 0 o rotating the coil Magnetic field around a
when the coil is vertical, since it is cutting NO field faster current carrying wire
lines.
 The EMF can be increased by:
o increasing the number of turns on the coil
o increasing the area of the coil
o using a stronger magnet
 Magnetic field around a current carrying solenoid

4.15 Transformers
 AC currents can be increased or decreased by using a  Increasing the strength of the field
transformer.  Increasing the current increases the strength of the field
 Consists of a primary coil, a secondary coil and an iron  Increasing the number of turns of a coil increases the
core. strength increases the strength of the field.
 The iron core gets magnetized by the incoming current  Reversing the current direction reverses the magnetic
and this magnetism then creates a current in the leaving field direction (right-hand rule).
wire.  The direction of a magnetic field line at a point is the
 The power is the same on both sides (assume= 100% direction of the force on the N pole of a magnet at that
efficiency). point
 You can figure out number of coils and the voltage with:  Magnetic effect of current is used in a relay and a circuit
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 breaker.
= 𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 4.18 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
𝑽𝑷 𝑵𝑷
=  If a current carrying conductor is in a magnetic field, it
𝑽𝑺 𝑵𝑺
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 × 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 warps the field lines.
= 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 × 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕  The field lines from the magnet want to straighten out
𝑽𝑷 × 𝑰𝑷 = 𝑽𝑺 × 𝑰𝑺 naturally.
(Under 100% efficiency)  This causes a catapult like action on the wire creating a
 When magnetic field is force
changed across the
primary coil by
connecting it with A.C. an
e.m.f. induces across the
secondary coil.
 The iron core channels the alternating field through the
secondary coil, inducing an alternating e.m.f. across it.
 A step-up transformer increases the voltage and a step-
down transformer decreases it.  If you reverse current, you will reverse direction of force
 Transformers used to make high voltage AC currents.  If you reverse direction of field, you will reverse direction
 Since power lost in a resistor 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 × 𝑹, having a of force.
lower current will decrease the power loss.
 Since transmission cables are many kilometres long they
have a lot of resistance, so a transformer is used to
increase the voltage and decrease the current to
decease power lost.
 The advantages of high-voltage transmission:
o Less power lost
oThinner, light, and cheaper cables can be used since
current is reduced
 The direction of the force, current or magnetic field is
given by Fleming’s left-hand rule: TURNING EFFECT REVERSING ROTATION CAN
INCREASED BY: BE DONE BY:

4.19 D.C. Motor
 When a current-carrying coil is in a magnetic field, it
experiences a turning effect.
 A DC motor runs on a direct current.
 The coil is made of insulated copper wire and is free to
rotate between the poles of the magnet.
 The commutator (split-ring) is fixed to the coil and
rotates with it.
 When the coil overshoots the vertical, the commutator
changes direction of the current through it, so the forces
change direction and keep the coil turning.
 The brushes are two contacts which rub against the
commutator and keep the coil connected to battery,
usually made of carbon
 The max. turning effect is when the coil is horizontal.
 There is no force when the coil is vertical but it always
overshoots this position
2
See 20.7
5.2 Detection of Radioactivity
 Background radiation: small amount of radiation around
us all time because of radioactive materials in the
 Increasing the current  Reversing the battery
 Using a stronger magnet  Reversing the poles
o Increasing the strength
of the magnetic field
 Increasing the number of
turns on the coil.
5. ATOMIC PHYSICS
5.1 The Atom
 Atoms consist of:
oNucleus: central part of atom made of protons
(positively charged) and neutrons. These two types of
particles are called nucleons. They are bound together
by the strong nuclear force.
oElectrons: almost mass-less particles which orbit
nucleus in shells
 This is proved by Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment2
 Proton number: number of protons in an atom
 Nucleon number: the number of nucleons (protons +
neutrons) in an atom
 The following is the nuclide notation for atoms
 Isotope:
oAtoms of the same element that have different
numbers of neutrons e.g. Carbon 12 and Carbon 14.
oThere are non-radioactive isotopes and radio-
isotopes.
oRadio isotopes are unstable atoms, which break down
giving radiation
 Uses:
oMedical use: cancer treatment (radiotherapy) – rays
kill cancer cells using cobalt-60
oIndustrial use: to check for leaks – radioisotopes
(tracers) added to oil/gas. At leaks radiation is
detected using a Geiger counter.
oArchaeological use: carbon 14 – used for carbon
dating
environment. It mainly comes from natural sources such
as soil, rocks, air, building materials, food and drink – and
even space.
 A Geiger-Müller (GM) tube can be used to detects 𝛼, 𝛽 Gamma emission:
and 𝛾 radiation  Gamma emission by itself causes no change in mass
number or atomic number; they just emit energy
5.3 Type of Radioactive Emissions  Some isotopes do not change in mass or atomic number
 Radioactive emissions occur randomly over space & time however they emit energy as their particles rearrange
ALPHA (𝜶) BETA (𝜷) GAMMA (𝜸) themselves to become more stable

5.5 Half Life

 Half-life of a radioisotope: is the time taken for half the
nuclei present in any given sample to decay.
 Some nuclei are more stable than others.
 Remember to factor background radiation in half-life
Helium calculations involving tables and decay curves
One high Electro-
nucleus (2
NATURE speed magnetic
protons and 5.6 Safety Precautions
electron radiation
2 electrons)  Radioactive material is stored in a lead container
CHARGE +2 -1 none  Picked up with tongs, not bare hands

PENETRATION Stopped by Stopped by Only reduced  Kept away from the body and not pointed at people
paper aluminum by lead  Left out of its container for as short a time as possible
EFFECT FROM Very Not
Deflected
FIELDS deflected deflected 5.7 Rutherford’s Experiment
IONIZING  Thin gold foil is bombarded with alpha particles, which
Very strong Very weak are positively charged.
EFFECT Weak
SPEED 1⁄ 𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 9⁄ 𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
10 10 𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡  Most passed straight through, but few were repelled so
 Depending on their charge, they will be affected by strongly that they were bounced back or deflected at
electric and magnetic fields. large angles.
Rutherford concluded that the atom must be largely
5.4 Radioactive Decay empty space, with its positive charge and most of its
 Radioactive decay: A radioisotope (unstable mass concentrated in a tiny nucleus.
arrangement of neutrons and protons) is altered to
make a more stable arrangement.
 The parent nucleus becomes a daughter nucleus and a
particle (decay products).
 The nucleus changes when undergoing alpha or beta
decay
Alpha decay:
 An element with a proton number 2 lower and nucleon
number 4 lower, and an alpha particle is made (2p + 2n)
e.g. Radium-226 nucleus → Radon-222 + helium-4 nucleus
226
88Ra → 86
222
Rn + 42He
Beta decay:
 A neutron changes into a proton, an electron and an
antineutrino so an element with the same nucleon
number but with a proton number 1 higher e.g.
e.g. iodine-131 → xenon-131 + antineutrino + beta particle
0β + 0
0v
131𝐼 → 131𝑋𝑒 + −1
53 54
 CIE IGCSE PHYSICS//0625

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