Contemporary Finals Chap 8 13

CHAPTER 8
GLOBAL MEDIA CULTURES
Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. explain different forms and Theories of international communication
2. describe the interrelation and distinctions between Global Culture,
Westernization and Americanization.
3. explain how the process of acculturation or assimilation have shaped the
present global cultural identities..
8.1 Global Ideas and Communication
Public sphere (German Offentlingkeit) is an social life where individuals can come
together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence
political action. It was originally coined by German Philosopher Jurgen Habermas who defined
"the public sphere as a virtual or imaginary community which does not necessarily exist in any
identifiable space". The public sphere can be seen as "a theater in modern societies in which
political participation is enacted through the medium of talk" and "a realm of social life in which
public opinion can be formed." The ideology of the public sphere theory is that the government's
laws and policies should be steered by the public sphere and that the only legitimate governments
are those that listen to the public sphere.
Habermas also defined public sphere as a" society engaged in critical public debate. " The
conditions of the public sphere are according to Hebarmas: the formation of public opinion, all
citizens have access, conference in unrestricted fashion (based on the freedom of assembly, the
freedom of association, the freedom of expression and publication of opinions) about matters of
general interest, which implies freedom from economic and political control, and the debate over
the general rules government relations.
On the other hand, propaganda is information that is not objective and used primarily to
influence and further and agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage particular
synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational
response to the information that is presented. A wide range of materials and media are used for
conveying propaganda messages, which changed as new technologies were invented including
paintings, cartoons, posters, pamphlets, film, radio shows, TV shows, and websites
The propaganda model is a theory advanced by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky
which argues systemic biases in the mass media and seeks to explain them in terms of structural
economic causes. Although the model was based mainly in the characterization of United State
media, Chomsky and Herman believe the theory is equally applicable to any country that shares
the basic economic structure and organizing the model postulates as the cause of media bias.
Another theory concerning propaganda is the Epistemic Merit Model conceived by Sheryl
Tuttle Ross. Ross argues that one must consider a threefold communication, the Sender-
Message-Receiver model, which includes the message sender or the persuader (who made the
message out of his personal intention), a channel (where the persuader will send the message)
through the receiver (which is the target for such persuasion). She also added that there are four
conditions for a message to be considered propaganda. Propaganda involves the intention to
persuade. Also, propaganda is sent on behalf of a socio-political institution, organization, or
cause. Next, the recipient of propaganda is a socially significant group of people. Finally,
propaganda is a epistemic struggle to challenge others thoughts.
8.2 Normative Theories of Communication
8.2.1 Authoritarian Theory
This originated from the philosophy of Plato in Ancient Greece adapted by

European Monarchs in the medieval period exercising full control over the press.
Authoritarian Media Theory basically suppresses press freedom as not to

encourage the people to think and act negatively of the government. All forms of media
or communication are regulated by a governing elite group that regulates the
communication process between the media and the audience. Although this media
theory could help resolve issues since it is the state or the government that “dictates”
what to be done which may guide the press and the people to support and cooperate. In
this theory, the audience usually couls establish propaganda thru the one and unified
thinking since it is only the government voice that is being heard alone.
Theory Strength Weaknesses Opportunities Threats
1. All forms of In a one-way In an Media only

Authoritarian communication communication authoritarian serves the
Media comes from the process, there model, there interests of
governing elite, is no feedback would be the ruling elite
a monarch or a mechanism, so stability, peace and enhances
dictator and in the governing and security in the power of a
this vertical and elite does not the environment monarch or
downward flow know how the media is dictator,
of people think, controlled to which could
communication, feel, and protect and lead to
there will be behave toward prevent the discontent or
more effective the ruling people from any even a bloody
decision- power. threats. and violent
making, revolution.
efficiency will be
increased and
discipline will be
maintained.
8.2.2 Soviet Communist Model
This model began in the late 19th century and was used by the former Soviet
Union, now modern Russia, after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 when the car was
overthrown. The ruling power or the government continued to control the press but
instead of working for the personal interests of rulers, it serves the interests of the
working class but under the guidance of the party in power. There is no democracy and
freedom as there is still censorship and the press supports the government.
In the modern world, Cuba remained under this model where media is state-
controlled and owned.
The Soviet – Communist Media Theory controls the media which is similar to the
Authoritarian Media Theory but promotes equality. It is the interests of the people that
are given attention and focus but also gives consideration to the authority of the
government. In this theory, the government may somehow control the communication
process but does not totally suppress press freedom. The state simply filters the news
and information disseminated to complement the interest of the audience.
THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
2. Soviet The model is a The media works The media serves This model puts
Communist two-way process under the the people without an end to
Media encouraging the leadership, any authoritative private
public to provide promoting national blockades, using ownership of
feedback, which interests rather information to media and
would create than personal develop people's journalists
interests towards agendas. skills and fulfill their support the
media. basic needs. leadership
rather serves as
a watchdog.
8.2.3 Libertarian Theory
The concept of this model started in the new world, in the United States, when
Englishmen escaped from the tyranny of the monarchy to establish a free world and liberal
thinking. This model is opposed to both Authoritarian and Soviet-communist theories and
promotes freedom and democracy. The press or media is given liberty or freedom to
create public awareness. Any negative news and information are considered opportunity
to guide the people to know the good But, the press, unrestrained, exceeded their limits
by ignoring decency and privacy and exaggerating its information. Yellow journalism
flourished due to competition in private owned media.
3. Press is given There is no It promotes Too much

Libertarian the liberty or freedom of democracy and leniency may
freedom to information and provides checks harm the
reveal the truth freedom of the and balances to relationship
- media is press because government, between the
empowered to the government preventing media and the
present the protects its corruption. government -
truth be it ill or interest and members of the
good.. filters negative society will be
information that caught
maybe a threat to between its
the state. loyalty to the
government or
getting
influenced by
the
press/media.
8.2.4 Social Responsibility Theory
SRT gives media the right to be owned and operated by a private entity. It is not
governed by a media censorship because the press is guided by a set of ethics.
Sensationalized news and information can be questioned even if there is media
freedom.
4. Social Yellow Ethics are always The voiceless and There are times
Responsibility journalism or vague, marginalized when the press
sensationalism ambiguous, and people are able to severely
decreases as differ from case raise their voices damaged the
media can be to case so there due to pluralism reputation of
questioned by are no standards and diversification some
the law and in information on news and politicians
public as well as and people involved in through
self-regulation is communication. it. irresponsible
exercised by the reporting,
press leading to major
conflicts of
society.
8.2.5 Democratic Participant
DPT exercises press freedom and lets the target audience participate or gets involved in
news and information by expressing their own personal viewpoints.
5. The model is Communication Criticisms may be Allowing the

Democratic completely non- reach is limited accepted by the audience widely
Participant political and does because it is only government as participate with
not bolster wants local non- long as these media activities
political control institutionalized presented and consider
and encourages media provide the objectively through alternative when
national information the use of correct dissatisfied
development relevant to small forms of media empowers the
and supporting groups of without the audience to be
local culture. population. purpose choosy and
encouraging the inconsiderate.
audience to stand
against the state.
8.2.6 Development Communication Media
The main idea behind this model is media will play a role for development of people
in a nation or to help the target population. It focuses on issues disseminated by the
media considered as a guide in the development if a country wherein the target audience
participates and gets involved.
6. Development Helps in The socially The concept of Encourages

Communication development engineered participation in this the audience
Media of local and messages were model encourages to be too
international disseminated for social change, dependent
projects - a propaganda to uplifting the quality with media and
which helps in control culture of of life of people not the
the growth and the poor only economically government
progress of a countries. but also socially, since this
country most culturally, and theory
especially the politically. promotes and
small group of supports
people who development
are unaware of projects.
the use of
media.
8.2.7 Agenda-setting Media

This model gave rise to the power of global and international news agencies to set their
own agenda, apart from rulers, ruling powers, and governments. The press makes sure
that significant events reach the knowledge of the people
7. Agenda- Agenda setting is Media has the Creates impact An agenda may
setting Media the ability of media tendency not to over public thinking spark the
to determine present/publish a on certain political, beginning of a
salience of issues news or social, or economic propaganda
with news, through information if it agenda. through the
cognitive process does not have any concept of
called notable framing.
"accessibility",
significance or not
which is the process
salient to them -
of retrieving an
when media sees
issue in the
no value in the
memory.
news.
8.2.8 Gate Keeping Media
This theory shows the power and influence of traditional and mainstream media in everyday lives
of people. Media selects and decides which information is important and relevant for the people.
8. Gate Keeping Gatekeeping sets There is a Unfiltered news or Filtered news or

Media the standard for probability or information can information dies
newsworthiness. tendency that even help the public to not help the
factual information see the real audience to see
will not be situation as to train the real scenario,
published if the them to be in therefore, it does
news on-hand is flexible responding not support
not favorable to the and adjusting to flexibility of the
government or possible crisis. It people in coping
members of elite can help the with probable
groups. audience to crisis. It only
appreciate and/or makes them
constructively dependent on
criticize the state. positive situations
only.
8.3 Global Culture, Westernization and Americanization
Modernization which is normally related to the words change, progress, and development
refers to process of adapting something to the present needs or habits. In a way, one who opts
to modernization is one that is practical and flexible. Westernization, on the other hand, refers to
the process whereby societies adopt or imbibe the Western culture in areas such a industry, law,
politics, economics, and other fields. Americanization pertains to the action of making a person
or thing American in character or nationality.
In the study by Chi-Yue and his co-authors (2011) they carried out two cross-regional
studies to examine lay people's perception of globalization and its related concepts, as well as
lay people's appraisal of the social impacts of globalization. In their words : "The issues that are
commonly perceived to be strongly associated with globalization fall into one of the five
categories: (1) global consumer brands; (2) information technology that promote global
connectivity; (3) geographic mobility (passport, air travel, immigration); (4) global calamities; and
(5) international trade and regulatory bodies. Lay perceivers in international trade and technology.
Lay understandings of globalization also encompass awareness of the positive consequences
(e.g., increase geographical mobility) of globalization as well as its negative consequences (e.g.,
global calamities). Indeed, international trade versus technology, and globalization of
consumption versus its global consequences seem to be the dimension is that organize lay
people's categorization of globalization related issues.
Others accept with open arms the advent of the globalization of the production as well as
the distribution of goods and services for the benefits that they derive from this. One of which is
the access to products which are made available to them. On the other hand, others are affected
by this especially the producers.
8.4 Enculturation, Acculturation and Assimilation in Globalization
Enculturation refer to the process of learning our own (native) culture, whereas, acculturation is
the process of learning and adopting host cultural norms, values and beliefs. Learning native
cultural norms and values of a particular society are essential for an individual, to function in a
society.
Enculturation is anthropological term used for socialization, both terms refer to, the process of
learning through social interaction. However, the term enculturation is only confined to culture.
Whereas, socialization refer to each and every social interaction of an individual with other people
of a society.
Since conception, baby starts interacting with his family members most of all with mother. Parents
teach their children how to eat, drink, walk, play, and behave in different situations. However,
parents teach all those things according to their own culture. For instance, Middle Eastern families
eat food with their bare hands whereas, American families use fork and knife to eat food. So,
children born and raised in Middle Eastern families are enculturate to eat food with bare hands.
Whereas, American children are enculturated to eat food with fork and knife. Culture can be
transmitted from one generation to another. During the process of cultural transmission, learning
a culture by a new generation is called enculturation.
On the other hand, adopting foreign culture or other cultural norms and values is known as
acculturation. In this new technological era people can interact with other people living thousands
mile away from them. Due to social interaction through technology and with mass media people
learn new values. And if people adopt those learned values of other culture and modify their own
culture, it will come under the category of acculturation. Mostly, group of people acculturate
because they are influenced by the dominant culture in a given society. For instance, A Pakistani
boy SHAHID immigrates to America, during his first year, he wears, kurta shalwar; which is his
native cultural costume but after a year, he starts wearing, t-shirts jeans, suits and tuxedos, so
SHAHID acculturated; for the reason that, he adopted foreign culture .
When two different cultures becomes similar then we can say that assimilation occurs.
Assimilation is the process in which native culture go through complete change and adopt all the
elements of host culture. In other words, if one can differentiate between the host culture and
native culture after going through a change, then the process is known as acculturation.
Whereas, if one cannot differentiate between the host culture and native culture after going
through a change, the phenomenon will be called Assimilation. In assimilation process the
minority culture get completely absorbed into dominant majority culture.
CHAPTER 9
GLOBAL RELIGIONS

1. know the major religions of the world and their tenets
2. understand Globalization and Religious Pluralism
3. analyze religious conflict and violence
9.1 Definition of Religion
What is religion? Pioneer sociologist Émile Durkheim described it with the ethereal
statement that it consists of “things that surpass the limits of our knowledge” (1915). He went
on to elaborate: Religion is “a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things,
that is to say set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral
community, called a church, all those who adhere to them” (1915). Some people associate
religion with places of worship (a synagogue or church), others with a practice (confession or
meditation), and still others with a concept that guides their daily lives (like dharma or sin). All
of these people can agree that religion is a system of beliefs, values, and practices
concerning what a person holds sacred or considers to be spiritually significant.
(https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology)
9.2 Major Religions
9.2.1 Christianity
Christian Philosophy began as a Jewish Sect in Jerusalem proclaiming Jesus of

Nazareth as the Messiah. After Constantine came into power, he established Christianity
as a quasi- official state religion of the Roman Emprire in Ad 324.
Despite the many different divisions and sects of Christianity, most seem to agree,
with some variations on the following: God is the creator of all things; Jesus is the Messiah,
Christ , son of God; human being is a sinner who requires redemption; the Holy Trinity
includes God the Father, God the Son and the Holy Spirit; Christ came down to Earth to
redeem mankind, the soul is immortal.
9.2.2 Hinduism
It is the major religion in India. Hinduism is the world’s oldest religion, according to
many scholars, with roots and customs dating back more than 4,000 years. Today, with
about 900 million followers, Hinduism is the third-largest religion behind Christianity and
Islam. The oldest religion in the world, Hinduism originated in the Indus River Valley about
4,500 years ago in what is now modern-day northwest India and Pakistan. It arose
contemporaneously with ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian cultures. With roughly one
billion followers, Hinduism is the third-largest of the world’s religions. Hindus believe in a
divine power that can manifest as different entities. Three main incarnations—Brahma,
Vishnu, and Shiva—are sometimes compared to the manifestations of the divine in the
Christian Trinity.
Multiple sacred texts, collectively called the Vedas, contain hymns and rituals from
ancient India and are mostly written in Sanskrit. Hindus generally believe in a set of
principles called dharma, which refer to one’s duty in the world that corresponds with “right”
actions. Hindus also believe in karma, or the notion that spiritual ramifications of one’s
actions are balanced cyclically in this life or a future life (reincarnation).
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com)
9.2.3 Buddhism
Buddhism is a faith that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (“the Buddha”) more
than 2,500 years ago in India. With about 470 million followers, scholars consider
Buddhism one of the major world religions. Its practice has historically been most
prominent in East and Southeast Asia, but its influence is growing in the West. Many
Buddhist ideas and philosophies overlap with those of other faiths.
• Followers of Buddhism don’t acknowledge a supreme god or deity. They instead focus
on achieving enlightenment—a state of inner peace and wisdom. When followers reach
this spiritual echelon, they’re said to have experienced nirvana.
• The religion’s founder, Buddha, is considered an extraordinary man, but not a god. The
word Buddha means “enlightened.”
• The path to enlightenment is attained by utilizing morality, meditation and wisdom.
Buddhists often meditate because they believe it helps awaken truth.
• Buddhists embrace the concepts of karma (the law of cause and effect) and
reincarnation (the continuous cycle of rebirth).
• Followers of Buddhism can worship in temples or in their own homes.
• Buddhist monks, or bhikkhus, follow a strict code of conduct, which includes celibacy.
(www.history.com)
9.2.4 Islam
Muslims believe there is the one almighty God, named Allah, who is infinitely
superior to and transcendent from humankind. Allah is viewed as the creator of the
universe and the source of all good and all evil. Everything that happens is Allah's will. He
is a powerful and strict judge, who will be merciful toward followers depending on the
sufficiency of their life's good works and religious devotion. A follower's relationship with
Allah is as a servant to Allah.
Though a Muslim honors several prophets, Muhammad is considered the last

prophet and his words and lifestyle are that person's authority. To be a Muslim, one must
follow five religious duties: 1. Repeat a creed about Allah and Muhammad; 2. Recite
certain prayers in Arabic five times a day; 3. Give to the needy; 4. One month each year,
fast from food, drink, sex and smoking from sunrise to sunset; 5. Pilgrimage once in one's
lifetime to worship at a shrine in Mecca. At death -- based on one's faithfulness to these
duties -- a Muslim hopes to enter Paradise. If not, they will be eternally punished in hell.
For many people, Islam matches their expectations about religion and deity. Islam
teaches that there is one supreme deity, who is worshiped through good deeds and
disciplined religious rituals. After death a person is rewarded or punished according to
their religious devotion. Muslims believe that giving up one’s life for Allah is a sure way of
entering Paradise. (https://www.everystudent.com)
9.2.5 Confucianism
Confucianism was the official religion of China from 200 B.C.E. until it was officially
abolished when communist leadership discouraged religious practice in 1949. The religion
was developed by Kung Fu-Tzu (Confucius), who lived in the sixth and fifth centuries
B.C.E. An extraordinary teacher, his lessons—which were about self-discipline, respect
for authority and tradition, and jen (the kind treatment of every person)—were collected in
a book called the Analects.
Some religious scholars consider Confucianism more of a social system than a

religion because it focuses on sharing wisdom about moral practices but doesn’t involve
any type of specific worship; nor does it have formal objects. In fact, its teachings were
developed in context of problems of social anarchy and a near-complete deterioration of
social cohesion. Dissatisfied with the social solutions put forth, Kung Fu-Tzu developed
his own model of religious morality to help guide society (Smith 1991).
9.2.6 Taoism
In Taoism, the purpose of life is inner peace and harmony. Tao is usually translated
as “way” or “path.” The founder of the religion is generally recognized to be a man named
Laozi, who lived sometime in the sixth century B.C.E. in China. Taoist beliefs emphasize
the virtues of compassion and moderation.
The central concept of tao can be understood to describe a spiritual reality, the
order of the universe, or the way of modern life in harmony with the former two. The ying-
yang symbol and the concept of polar forces are central Taoist ideas (Smith 1991). Some
scholars have compared this Chinese tradition to its Confucian counterpart by saying that
“whereas Confucianism is concerned with day-to-day rules of conduct, Taoism is
concerned with a more spiritual level of being” (Feng and English 1972).
9.3 Globalization and Religious Pluralism
Globalization brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions “with overlapping but

distinctive ethics and interests” interact with one another.Essentially, the world’s leading
religious traditions teach values such as human dignity, equality, freedom, peace, and
solidarity. More specifically, religions maintain the Golden Rule: “what you do not wish
done to yourself, do not do to others.”Therefore, through such religious values,
globalization engenders greater religious tolerance in such areas as politics, economics,
and society.
In political areas, globalization has built global political forums that integrate
cultural, ethnic, and religious differences—ideologies that were once perceived as dividing
the world—through a large number of international organizations such as the United
Nations (UN) and the World Health Organization (WHO), as well regional organizations
like the European Union (EU), the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), or the
African Union (AU). When discussing issues such as international peace and security,
health issues, poverty, and environment, these organizations generally share many of the
same basic commitments as religious traditions—mainly peace, human dignity, and
human equality, as well as conflict resolution in which they actively engage in negotiation,
mediation, and diplomacy.(Golebiewski,2014)
9.4 Religions, conflict and Violence
Religious violence is a term that covers phenomena where religion is either the subject or
the object of violent behavior.[1] Religious violence is violence that is motivated by, or in
reaction to, religious precepts, texts, or the doctrines of a target or an attacker. It includes
violence against religious institutions, people, objects, or events. Religious violence does not
exclusively refer to acts which are committed by religious groups, instead, includes acts which
are committed against religious groups.
"Violence" is a very broad concept that is difficult to define since it is used on both human
and non-human objects.[2] Furthermore, the term can denote a wide variety of experiences
such as blood shedding, physical harm, forcing against personal freedom, passionate
conduct or language, or emotions such as fury and passion.[3]
Although not necessarily so, there are some aspects of religion that make it susceptible
to being a latent source of conflict. All religions have their accepted dogma, or articles of
belief, that followers must accept without question. This can lead to inflexibility and
intolerance in the face of other beliefs. After all, if it is the word of God, how can one
compromise it? At the same time, scripture and dogma are often vague and open to
interpretation. Therefore, conflict can arise over whose interpretation is the correct one, a
conflict that ultimately cannot be solved because there is no arbiter. The winner generally is
the interpretation that attracts the most followers. However, those followers must also be
motivated to action. Although, almost invariably, the majority of any faith hold moderate
views, they are often more complacent, whereas extremists are motivated to bring their
interpretation of God's will to fruition.
Religious extremists can contribute to conflict escalation. They see radical measures as
necessary to fulfilling God's wishes. Fundamentalists of any religion tend to take a Manichean
view of the world. If the world is a struggle between good and evil, it is hard to justify
compromising with the devil. Any sign of moderation can be decried as selling out, more
importantly, of abandoning God's will.
CHAPTER 10
DEMOGRAPHY AND POPULATION
1. Understand the basic concepts and measures of demography.

2. Trace the source and historical growth of the population
3. Critically evaluate the validity of different population theories.
4. Draw a conclusion regarding the underlying relationship between population
growth, food security and development.
October 31, 2011 was considered as the day of the 7 billionth baby. In the Philippines the
7 billionth baby was awarde to Danica May Camacho born at the Fabella Hospital in Manila. The
UN officers to the Philippines brought a cake and other gifts to danica May such as scholarship
grant and financial support for her parents to start a general merchandise store.
But the symbolic day of the birth of Danica may is more of a concern than a celebration.
According to the UN Chief Ban Ki-moon, more concern should ne given to billions of people who
go to bed hungry in contrast to those few who enjoy life of luxury. This is a story of 7 billion people
who need enough food, enough energy, good opportunities in jobs and education, rights and
freedom (www.collegenews.com)
Its because of this fact that there is a need to study population. Change in population size
constitutes some of the important features of social transition and change. Like the introduction
of new forms of technology, increase or decrease in population can also be catalyst for social
change.
10.1 Basic Concepts
Demography is the science that deals with the study of population. Three of the most
important components that affect the issues above are fertility, mortality, and migration. The
fertility rate of a society is a measure noting the number of children born. The fertility number is
generally lower than the fecundity number, which measures the potential number of children that
could be born to women of childbearing age. Sociologists measure fertility using the crude
birthrate (the number of live births per 1,000 people per year). Just as fertility measures
childbearing, the mortality rate is a measure of the number of people who die. The crude death
rate is a number derived from the number of deaths per 1,000 people per year. When analyzed
together, fertility and mortality rates help researchers understand the overall growth occurring in
a population. Another key element in studying populations is the movement of people into and
out of an area called migration.
Changing fertility, mortality, and migration rates make up the total population composition,
a snapshot of the demographic profile of a population. This number can be measured for societies,
nations, world regions, or other groups. The population composition includes the sex ratio, the
number of men for every hundred women, as well as the population pyramid, a picture of
population distribution by sex and age. Currently, the world has around 7.8 billion population.
Top 20 Largest Countries by Population (live)
1 China 1,440,693,002
2 India 1,383,374,953
3 U.S.A. 331,482,161
4 Indonesia 274,242,900
5 Pakistan 221,972,409
6 Brazil 212,933,346
7 Nigeria 207,436,111
8 Bangladesh 165,097,066
9 Russia 145,949,803
10 Mexico 129,269,597
11 Japan 126,382,002
12 Ethiopia 115,686,202
13 Philippines 109,945,187
14 Egypt 102,820,053
15 Vietnam 97,555,899
16 D.R. Congo 90,258,053
17 Turkey 84,564,816
18 Germany 83,849,877
19 Iran 84,261,143
20 Thailand 69,843,043
https://www.worldometers.info
10.2 Demographic Theories
Sociologists have long looked at population issues as central to understanding human

interactions. Below we will look at four theories about population that inform sociological thought:
Malthusian, zero population growth, cornucopian, and demographic transition theories.
10.2.1 Malthusian Theory
Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) was an English clergyman who made dire predictions about
earth’s ability to sustain its growing population. According to Malthusian theory, three factors
would control human population that exceeded the earth’s carrying capacity, or how many
people can live in a given area considering the amount of available resources. Malthus identified
these factors as war, famine, and disease (Malthus 1798). He termed them “positive checks”
because they increase mortality rates, thus keeping the population in check. They are countered
by “preventive checks,” which also control the population but by reducing fertility rates; preventive
checks include birth control and celibacy. Thinking practically, Malthus saw that people could
produce only so much food in a given year, yet the population was increasing at an exponential
rate. Eventually, he thought people would run out of food and begin to starve. They would go to
war over increasingly scarce resources and reduce the population to a manageable level, and
then the cycle would begin anew.
Of course, this has not exactly happened. The human population has continued to grow
long past Malthus’s predictions. So what happened? Why didn’t we die off? There are three
reasons sociologists believe we are continuing to expand the population of our planet. First,
technological increases in food production have increased both the amount and quality of calories
we can produce per person. Second, human ingenuity has developed new medicine to curtail
death from disease. Finally, the development and widespread use of contraception and other
forms of family planning have decreased the speed at which our population increases. But what
about the future? Some still believe Malthus was correct and that ample resources to support the
earth’s population will soon run out.
10.2.2 Zero Population Growth
A neo-Malthusian researcher named Paul Ehrlich brought Malthus’s predictions into the
twentieth century. However, according to Ehrlich, it is the environment, not specifically the food
supply, that will play a crucial role in the continued health of planet’s population (Ehrlich 1968).
Ehrlich’s ideas suggest that the human population is moving rapidly toward complete
environmental collapse, as privileged people use up or pollute a number of environmental
resources such as water and air. He advocated for a goal of zero population growth (ZPG), in
which the number of people entering a population through birth or immigration is equal to the
number of people leaving it via death or emigration. While support for this concept is mixed, it is
still considered a possible solution to global overpopulation.
10.2.3 Cornucopian Theory
Of course, some theories are less focused on the pessimistic hypothesis that the world’s
population will meet a detrimental challenge to sustaining itself. Cornucopian theory scoffs at
the idea of humans wiping themselves out; it asserts that human ingenuity can resolve any
environmental or social issues that develop. As an example, it points to the issue of food supply.
If we need more food, the theory contends, agricultural scientists will figure out how to grow it, as
they have already been doing for centuries. After all, in this perspective, human ingenuity has
been up to the task for thousands of years and there is no reason for that pattern not to continue
(Simon 1981).
10.2.4 Demographic Transition Theory
Whether you believe that we are headed for environmental disaster and the end of human
existence as we know it, or you think people will always adapt to changing circumstances, we can
see clear patterns in population growth. Societies develop along a predictable continuum as they
evolve from unindustrialized to postindustrial. Demographic transition theory (Caldwell and
Caldwell 2006) suggests that future population growth will develop along a predictable four-stage
model.
In Stage 1, birth, death, and infant mortality rates are all high, while life expectancy is
short. An example of this stage is the 1800s in the United States. As countries begin to
industrialize, they enter Stage 2, where birthrates are higher while infant mortality and the death
rates drop. Life expectancy also increases. Afghanistan is currently in this stage. Stage 3 occurs
once a society is thoroughly industrialized; birthrates decline, while life expectancy continues to
increase. Death rates continue to decrease. Mexico’s population is at this stage. In the final phase,
Stage 4, we see the postindustrial era of a society. Birth and death rates are low, people are
healthier and live longer, and society enters a phase of population stability. Overall population
may even decline. For example, Sweden is considered to be in Stage 4.
The United Nations Population Fund (2008) categorizes nations as high fertility,
intermediate fertility, or low fertility. The United Nations (UN) anticipates the population growth will
triple between 2011 and 2100 in high-fertility countries, which are currently concentrated in sub-
Saharan Africa. For countries with intermediate fertility rates (the United States, India, and Mexico
all fall into this category), growth is expected to be about 26 percent. And low-fertility countries
like China, Australia, and most of Europe will actually see population declines of approximately
20 percent.
CHAPTER 11
GLOBAL MIGRATION

1. Understand the basic concept of migration, and theories of migration.
2. Distinguish the various types of migrants, their patterns and their
special needs.
3. Know the consequences of migration
11.1 Basic Concepts In Migration
As discussed in the previous chapter, migration is one of the processes that influence the
demographic structure of the country. To reiterate, migration pertains to the act or process of
crossing the boundary of a political or administrative unit for certain minimum period (Boyle et;
1998 as quoted by Dicolen, 2013). It comes from the Latin word “Migratio” which means physical
movements by people from one area to another, sometimes over long distances or in large
groups (Dicolen, 2013:55). The concept of migration usually involves the “detachment from the
organization of activities at one place and the movement of total round of activities to another”,
although admittedly, this is not always the primary consideration of migration.
Not all types of change in one’s residence are called migration. For a change of residence
to be considered migration, it must cross a certain political or administrative unit. Otherwise, it is
merely a movement. An example of the movement is when there is a change of residence within
the same barangay. Furthermore, such movement must also be for a well-defined period, which
may be as temporary as six months, or as permanent as a lifetime abode. Hence, any brief change
in residence, say for two months, is just merely a vacation, and not migration.
An individual who moves from one area or region to another is called a migrant. He/She
is also known as emigrant from the point of view of the place of origin and an immigrant from the
point of view of the place of destination. Migrants may be permanent, long term or short term
according to the length of the stay in the place of destination. It is permanent if the migrant does
not return to his or her place of origin; long-term if the usual stay extends to more than 12 months;
and short –term if it falls below 12 months.
Migration can also be classified according to choice. It is classified as voluntary if the

migrant decides to move by his choice. Most of these migrants are labor-related such as the case
of temporary labor migrants, who migrate for a limited period as guest-workers or overseas
contract workers from a few months to several years in order to take up employment and send
home money (Remittances); highly-skilled and business migrants, who are hired as managers,
executives, professionals, technicians and similar, who move with the internal labor markets of
transnational corporations and international organizations, or who seek employment through
international labor markets for scarce skills; irregular migrants, who enter a country, usually in
search of employments without the necessary documents and permits; and return migrants, who
return to their countries of origin after a period in another country.
There is also migration by involuntary choice. This includes refugees, people residing
outside of their country of Nationality, who is unable or Unwillingly to return because of a well-
founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular
social group, or political opinion. It also includes asylum-seekers, or those people who moves
across borders seeking protection, but who may not fulfill the strict criteria laid down by the 1952
Convention. Further, this also includes the forced migrants, or those forced to move by
environmental catastrophes or development projects such as new factories, road or dams.
Finally, migration is generally classified into internal and international migration. Internal
migration refers to a move from one area (a province, district or municipality) to another within
one country. Intenational migration on the other hand refers means crossing the frontiers which
separates one of the world’s approximately 200 states from another (Castles, 2000:169)
11.2 Reasons of Migration
11.2.1 Neo-Classical Theory
According to Neo-Classical theory, migration is usually associated with individual’s

efforts to maximize their income my moving from low-income to high wage economies (Borjas,
1989 as quoted by Castles, 2000:272). This is the most common reason for migration especially
the migration of one coming from a developing nation to a developed one with high proportion of
underemployment in the country of origin. The current pattern of migration is an empirical data
of this theory.
11.2.2 Labor Migration Theory
This theory is a new economic approach in explaining migration. It argues that migration
cannot simply be explained by income differences between two countries, but also by factors
such as chances of secure employment, availability of capital for entrepreneurial activity, and
the need to manage risk over long periods. Migration decisions are made not just by individuals
but most often represent family strategies to maximize income and survival chance (Hugo, 1994
as quoted by Castles, 2000:272) (
11.2.3 Migration System Theory
This theory is argued as an outcome of collaboration of two countries where the

migration system is constituted by two or more countries which exchange migrants with each
other. In this system, it is necessary to examine both ends of the flow and study the linkages
(economic, cultural, political, military, etc.) Between the places concerned. Migratory
movements generally arise from the existence of prior links between sending and receiving
countries based on colonization, political influence, trade, investment, or cultural ties (ibid;
2000:272)
While this is the most prevailing reason for migration, this does not capture other
reasons of migration. As already mentioned, there are some reasons of migrations which are
not economic or income-related especially those who are driven away from their place
residence
11.2.4 Push-Pull Theory
The Most Popular theory explaining the causes of migration is one propounded by
Ravenstein (1889) known as the Push-Pull Theory. This theory states that some people move
because they are pushed out of their former location (push factors), or because they have been
pulled or attracted to some places elsewhere (pull Factor). Examples of the push factor are
scarcity of Job Opportunity, Poor medical care, death threats, poor housing, natural disasters,
famine, loss of wealth and discrimination. Pull Factors on the other hand are the opposite Better
Job Opportunities, Improved Living conditions, Political and/or Religious freedom, attractive
climates, better Education, ect. Ravenstein further opined that pull factors were more important
than the push factors because in most instances, people move in order to improve themselves in
material respects, but they would rather endure the conditions in their current residence unless
attached by the above-mention pull factors. To do this however, a potential migrant usually weighs
the cost-benefit of migration.
Most of movement or migration has been considered as an “implementing strategy” in

order to attain the goal of migration. The goal can be in terms of advancement in education, better
jov, a nicer house, a more pleasant environment, etc. It is in this implementing strategy that
migration is selective and more apparent at a certain age of the life cycle because there is a
specific age-group of population that is more prone to migration (Weeks, 1986:179-180).
11.3 Trends in Migration
Based on the statistics provided by the International Organization for Migration, Mobility
of people is increasing over time, either internal or international, migration. In 2009, an
estimated 740 Million migration happen without crossing national borders. In 2015, there are
about 244 million people living in a country other than their country of birth. These figures
however remain a slim proportion of the world population, as these movements constitute only
around 12% of the world population (9% for internal migration and 3% for international
migration)
In terms of international migration, the increase in mobility is notable for the past 4 ½
decades. In 1970, international migrants were estimated at 84 Million while in 1990 they
increase at around 153 million people
Migrants as a % of the
Year Number of migrants
world’s population
1970 84,460,125 2.3%
1975 90,368,010 2.3%
1980 101,983,149 2.3%
1985 113,206,691 2.3%
1990 152,563,212 2.9%
1995 160,801,752 2.8%
2000 172,703,309 2.8%
2005 191,269,100 2.9%
2010 221,714,243 3.2%
2015 246,700,236 3.3%
Europe and Asia catered around 75 million migrants each in the year 2015. This
constitutes 62% of the total global international migrants. In 2017, it is estimated that there were
around 80 Million international migrants residing in asia, while 78 million Europe. North America,
on the other hand hosted around 54 million international migrants (58 million in 2017), which
constitute 22 % of the total international migrants, Africa 9 % (25 million in 2017), Latin America
and the Caribbean at 4 % (9.5 million in 2017), and Oceania at 3% (8.4 million in 2017) (IOM,
IOM 2018:18). In most countries of Europe, Northern America and Oceania, international migrants
compromised more than 10% of the total population of 2017.
For about 45 years until now, United States of America has been the main country of
destination for international migration. In 1970, there are around 12 million migrants to the USA.
In 2015, it quadrupled to 46.6 million migrants. Since 2005 onwards, Germany became the
second top destination for migrants, accommodating around 12 million migrants in 2015. Some
other top destination for migrants include Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, United Kingdom,
UAE, Canada, France, Australia, and Spain
According to IOM’s World Migration Report 2015, nearly 1 in every 5 migrants in the world
lives in the top 20 largest cities which include Sydney, Auckland, Singapore, London, Amsterdam,
Frankfurt, and Paris.
Expectedly, migrant distribution is skewed to high-income countries. About 2/3 of

international migrants resided in high-income countries, around 157 million as of year 2015.
Around 77 million migrants resided in middle-income countries, while only 9 million migrants
resided in low-income countries (IOM, 2018:20). In 2017, these high income countries
accommodated nearly 165 million of the total number of international migrants worldwide.
According to region, the south to south migration (migration within developing countries)
continued to grow compared to South-North migration is estimated at 90.2 million, while the south
to north migration is calculated at 85.3 million
In 2017, Asia and Europe were the regions of origin with the largest numbers of
international migrants – 106 million and 61 million, respectively. Latin American and the
Caribbean followed with 38 million and African with 36 million.
Between 2000 and 2017, African experienced the largest relative increase in the number
of international migrants who had originated in that region (+68%), followed by Asia (+62%), Latin
American and the Caribbean (+52%) and Ocean (+51%)
India has the largest number of person born in the country who are now living outside its
borders. The number of Indian-born persons residing aboard number 17 million in 2017, ahead
of the number of Mexican-Born persons living outside Mexico (13 million). The Russian
Federation, China, Bangladesh, Syrian Arab Republic, Pakistan and Ukraine also have large
migrant populations living abroad, ranging from6 to 11 million each (International Migration
Report, 2017)
Pattern of Migration
Statistics shows that the bulk of Migrants belong to the working population, i.e. those
belong to the ages 15-64. Based on the estimates of the International Organization for Migration,
72% of the international migrants belong to the working population (IOM, 2018:17). This is not
surprising because as mentioned above, labor is the primary reason for migration. It is also in the
age group when Individual trend to separate from their parents, have their own lives, and/or look
for their own fortune.
11.4 Special Types of Migrants
Irregular Migrants
As defined above, irregular migrants, also known as undocumented or illegal migrants,

are those who enter a country, usually in search of employment, without the necessary documents
and permits (Castles, 2000:270). The is usually the case of Labor migration flows. It is illegal
because it does not go through the process of documentation from country of origin to the country
destination. There are countries, however, which tolerate this country of destination. There are
countries however, which tolerate this practice of migration because in a way, it “allow Mobilization
of labor in response to employer demands without social costs or measure for protection of
migrants (ibid)”. The evil side of this practice however, lies on the fact that most of these irregular
migrants are at a high risk of abuses committed by host country, without the necessary protection
from the sending country.
Migrant in Human Trafficking
Trafficking in Persons, also known as “Human Trafficking”, is defined as the recruitment,

transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of threats, force, coercion,
abduction, deception, abuse of power, etc. For the purpose of exploitation. The End-goal of these
exploitation can be in various manners. Examples are, Prostitution, Force Labor and slavery, Sex
tourism, sexual exploitation, debt bondages, or pornography. More recent additions to the list are
Force Marriages (How?), and Black Market Organ Harvesting.
Diaspora and Transnationalism
Typically, migratory chains are started by an external factor, such as recruitment or military
service, or by an initial movement of young people pioneers. Once a movement is established,
the migrants mainly follow ‘beaten paths’ (Stahl, 1993; Castles, 2000:272), and are helped by
relatives and the friends already in the area of immigration. Networks based on family or on
common place of origin help provide shelter, work, assistance with bureaucratic procedures and
support in personal difficulties.
Diaspora refers to “people, and often their descendants, from a specific country who are
living abroad” (IOM, 2018:20). It is used interchangeably with transnational communities, where
“migrants may establish and maintain connections with people in their home communities or
migrants in other countries”. The distinguishing characteristics of diasporas from other migrant
groups in the presence of strong cultural, historical, religious and affective ties with the country or
community of origin, or a sense of identity and belonging (Vertovec and Cohen, 1999, as quoted
by IOM, ibid; 304)
Refugees and Asylum Seekers
Refugee pertains to any person who, “Owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for
reason of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is
outside the country of his nationality, and is unable or, owing to such fear, is outside the country
of his nationality, and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection
of the country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual
residence as a result of such events, is unable to, owing to such fear is unwilling to return to it
(1951 UNCHR Convention Relating to the status of Refugees to be a Refugee).
11.5 Consequences of Migration
Migration Brings forth multiple Benefits. On an Individual’s case it gives the migrant the
chance to work and enhance their skills and productivity, while giving them a sense of
accomplishment and a sense of purpose. In Familial side it increases the living standards of the
family and/or relatives. This is the usual migration strategy especially among Filipinos, they may
also send a petition to the country of destination’s government to allow his family to join them
there. On International Scale, this increases productivity as well as increase trade and other
relations between the nations.
The only few consequences of Migrations, in Personal and Familial standpoint, are the
likelihood of stress and/or disorganization of daily life. It may also strain Familial bonds because
of the distance between, even thou modern technology lessened the strain there are some still
there. On National Scale, the Home country would have lessened pool of workforces while the
country of destination gets an increase of work.
CHAPTER 12
SOCIAL ISSUES AND PROBLEMS OF URBANIZATION IN A GLOBAL WORLD

1. differentiate the concepts of social issue and social problem
2. identify emerging social problems in a global world and determine their
causes.
3. Analyze the effects of these social problems and issues to globalization
A social problem is any condition or behavior that has negative consequences for
large numbers of people and that is generally recognized as a condition or behavior that needs
to be addressed.
A social issue is a problem that influences many citizens within a society. It is a

common problem in present-day society and one that many people strive to solve. It is often the
consequence of factors extending beyond an individual's control. Social issues are the source of
a conflicting opinion on the grounds of what is perceived as morally correct or incorrect
Four factors have been outlined that seem to characterize a social issue or problem.
These include:
> The public must recognize the situation as a problem.
>The situation is against the general values accepted by the society.
>A large segment of the population recognizes the problem as a valid concern.
>The problem can be rectified or alleviated through the joint action of citizens and/or
community resources.
12 Common Social Problems and Issues in Globalization
12.1 Global Health Issues including HIV and AIDS
In recent years, cities around the world are seriously disturbed with communicable health
risks such as but not limited to Ebola fever, SARS, AH1N1, and many others. Just recently added
to this is the spread of the New Corona Virus (NCOV2) which became a Pandemic that locked
down almost all countries all over the world. State monitoring particularly on returning nationals
from abroad was found to be effective mechanism to prevent the spread of such viruses. But
then in the process of Globalization as people move about so as these health threat move also
thus creating Health problems and social issues among many countries.
The World Health Organization has released a list of 10 threats to global health in 2019.
They include:
• Air pollution and climate change

• Noncommunicable diseases
• Threat of a global influenza pandemic
• Fragile and vulnerable settings, such as regions affected by drought and conflict
• Antimicrobial resistance
• Ebola and high-threat pathogens
• Weak primary care
• Vaccine hesitancy
• Dengue
• HIV/AIDS
This year the Novel Corona Virus (NCOV 2) is added to the above threats because it has
evolved already into a worldwide pandemic and continue to wreak havoc not only on health
infrastructures but on Economic infrastructures as well because of lock downs imposed by
countries in order to contain its spread.
12.1.1 WHAT IS HIV?
HIV stands for HUMAN IMMUNODEFFICIENCY VIRUS is a virus that attacks cells that
help the body fight infection, making a person more vulnerable to other infections and diseases.
Without treatment, HIV can gradually destroy the immune system and advance to AIDS.
AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. AIDS is the most advanced stage
of HIV infection.
The spread of HIV from person to person is called HIV transmission. HIV is spread only in
certain body fluids from a person who has HIV. These body fluids include:Blood,Semen, Pre-
seminal fluid,Vaginal fluids,Rectal fluids, and Breast milk.
In the United States, HIV is spread mainly by having anal or vaginal sex with someone
who has HIV without using a condom or taking medicines to prevent or treat HIV
Sharing injection drug equipment (works), such as needles, with someone who has HIV,
The spread of HIV from a woman with HIV to her child during pregnancy, childbirth, or
breastfeeding is called mother-to-child transmission of HIV.
On the other hand, you can’t get HIV by shaking hands or hugging a person who has
HIV.You also can’t get HIV from contact with objects such as dishes, toilet seats, or doorknobs
used by a person with HIV. HIV is not spread through the air or in water or by mosquitoes, ticks,
or other blood-sucking insects.
Within 2 to 4 weeks after infection with HIV, some people may have flu-like symptoms,
such as fever, chills, or rash. The symptoms may last for a few days to several weeks. During
this earliest stage of HIV infection, the virus multiplies rapidly.
After the initial stage of infection, HIV continues to multiply but at very low levels. More
severe symptoms of HIV infection, such as signs of opportunistic infections, generally don’t
appear for many years.
A person can reduce the risk of being infected with the following guidelines:
>Use condoms correctly every time you have sex
>Limit your number of sexual partners
>Never share injection drug equipment.
>HIV medicines, given to women with HIV during pregnancy and childbirth and to their babies
after birth, reduce the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV
Infection with HIV/AIDS leads to numerous bodily, mental and social issues that affect the
individual and impacts on their families and communities at large. The impact of the HIV treatment
is further aggravated by other factors such as worry about employment, sexuality, the prospects
of relationships, and the social reactions of other community members. Another impact of HIV is
the stigma and discrimination against persons living with HIV/AIDS. Apart from having to endure
treatment with severe side-effects, they constantly have to cope with rejection and social
discrimination. (https://nursinganswers.net)
12.2 Sex and Gender Discrimination
The distinction between sex and gender differentiates a person's biological sex (the
anatomy of an individual's reproductive system, and secondary sex characteristics) from that
person's gender, which can refer to either social roles based on the sex of the person (gender
role) or personal identification of one's own gender based on an internal awareness.
Sex often refers to what doctors (and society) assign a person at birth based on their
genitals. So the division become binary referring to being Male or Female. While sex is often
based on biology, gender is a social construct.
According to the World Health organization, Gender as a social construction includes

norms, behaviours and roles associated with being a woman, man, girl or boy, as well as
relationships with each other. As a social construct, gender varies from society to society and
can change over time. Because there are more than two genders, it therefore not binary but
instead it is a spectrum. Below are the most popular gender description in this spectrum.
Gender or sex as classification is hierarchical and produces inequalities that intersect
with other social and economic inequalities. Gender-based discrimination intersects with other
factors of discrimination, such as ethnicity, socioeconomic status, disability, age, geographic
location, gender identity and sexual orientation, among others.
Gender or sex discrimination occurs when a person is subjected to different or unequal

treatment ("discrimination") in any number of situations, when that treatment is based on the
person's gender.
Sex discrimination - refers to discrimination based on the biological differences between

male and female
Gender discrimination - refers to discrimination based on social behavior such as

nonconformance of gender roles including sexual orientation and gender identity discrimination
Gender and sex discrimination can take place in many different settings, but typically
occurs most often in the following situations:
a. Workplace- Gender discrimination may be direct or indirect. Direct gender

discrimination is when an employee is treating unfavourably because of their
gender. Indirect gender discrimination can occur if employers or managers hold
assumptions about what sort of work women and men are capable, or not
capable, of doing.
b. Education - When a child is treated less favourably on the grounds of gender,
sexual orientation. Sometimes they are not given equal opportunity and
treatment because of the sex or gender. In some regions, boys’ educational
opportunities are limited by gender roles that force them to work rather than
attend school. These financial responsibilities are often increased in boys’
adolescent years, making it difficult for them to complete secondary school in
some regions. However, in many parts of the world, girls are most often the
victims of gender discrimination as they pursue an education.
c. Household – when male children are given more opportunities than their sisters.
Sometimes this takes the form of giving more household chores to female
children while those having other genders such as gays or lesbians are looked
down upon or totally become unaccepted.
Gender stereotypes is a generalized view or preconception about attributes or

characteristics, or the roles that are or ought to be possessed by, or performed by women and
men. A gender stereotype is harmful when it limits women’s and men’s capacity to develop their
personal abilities, pursue their professional careers and make choices about their lives.
Gender equality is a human right, but our world faces a persistent gap in access to
opportunities and decision-making power for women and men.
Globally, women have fewer opportunities for economic participation than men, less
access to basic and higher education, greater health and safety risks, and less political
representation.
Guaranteeing the rights of women and giving them opportunities to reach their full
potential is critical not only for attaining gender equality, but also for meeting a wide range of
international development goals. Empowered women and girls contribute to the health and
productivity of their families, communities, and countries, creating a ripple effect that benefits
everyone.
12. 3 Climate Change
Weather, state of the atmosphere at a particular place during a short period of time. It
involves such atmospheric phenomena as temperature, humidity, precipitation (type and
amount), air pressure, wind, and cloud cover.
Climate describes the average weather of a particular part of the world at different times
of the year.
Climate change is the long-term shift in average weather patterns across the world.
Since the mid-1800s, humans have contributed to the release of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases into the air. This causes global temperatures to rise, resulting in long-term
changes to the climate. (Met College, 2016)
12.3.1 What are the causes?

a. SOLAR VARIABILITY- The luminosity, or brightness, of the Sun has been increasing
steadily since its formation. This phenomenon is important to Earth’s climate, because
the Sun provides the energy to drive atmospheric circulation and constitutes the input for
Earth’s heat budget. Low solar luminosity during Precambrian time underlies the faint
young Sun paradox, described in the section Climates of early Earth.
b. HUMAN ACTIVITIES- Recognition of global climate change as an environmental issue
has drawn attention to the climatic impact of human activities. Most of this attention has
focused on carbon dioxide emission via fossil-fuel combustion and deforestation. Human
activities also yield releases of other greenhouse gases, such as methane (from rice
cultivation, livestock, landfills, and other sources) and chlorofluorocarbons (from
industrial sources). There is little doubt among climatologists that these greenhouse
gases affect the radiation budget of Earth; the nature and magnitude of the climatic
response are a subject of intense research activity.
c. GREENHOUSE GASES- It is a gas that contributes to the greenhouse effect by
absorbing infrared radiation, e.g., carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons. When
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide build in the atmosphere, they act like a
blanket around the earth. When sunlight (ultraviolet radiation) hits this blanket, it passes
straight through and continues until it reaches the surface of the planet.
12.3. 2 Effects of Climate Change
Global climate change has already had observable effects on the environment. Glaciers
have shrunk, ice on rivers and lakes is breaking up earlier, plant and animal ranges have
shifted and trees are flowering sooner.
12.3.3 Possible Solutions
United Nations legal instruments
A. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCC)

-"International environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development (UNCED), informally known as the Earth Summit, held
in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992."
- It has no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries.No
enforcement mechanism.
-The treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties
(called "protocols") that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases.
B. Kyoto Protocol
-Is an international agreement that called for industrialized nations to reduce their
greenhouse gas emissions significantly.
-"Kyoto" because it was adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997, when greenhouse gases
were rapidly threatening our climate.
C. Paris Agreement
“At COP 21 in Paris, on 12 December 2015, Parties to the UNFCCC reached a
landmark agreement to combat climate change and to accelerate and intensify the actions
and investments needed for a sustainable low carbon future.”
“The Paris Agreement’s central aim is to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate
change by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above
pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5
degrees Celsius. Additionally, the agreement aims to increase the ability of countries to deal
with the impacts of climate change, and at making finance flows consistent with a low GHG
emissions and climate-resilient pathway. To reach these ambitious goals, appropriate
mobilization and provision of financial resources, a new technology framework and enhanced
capacity-building is to be put in place, thus supporting action by developing countries and the
most vulnerable countries, in line with their own national objectives. The Agreement also
provides for an enhanced transparency framework for action and support
CHAPTER 13
GLOBAL CITIES

1. Define and enumerate the concept and indicators of urbanization.
2. Trace the development of the cities as well as the process and pacing of
urbanization.
3. Differentiate world class cities, multicultural cities, and cities of the
developing world.
13.1 Concept of Urbanization
Urbanization is defines as the process of gradual shift from agricultural society to the
industrial society with a wide access toinformation, government and other institutions, means of
transportation, and other manifestations of a city or urban life. Generally however, it means the
process or rate of concentration or migration of a population in a particular area.
According to the World Cities Report (2016), more than half of the world’s population
today resides in urban areas. Expectedly, this is the result of the continuing industrialization, as
more and more segment of the population migrates to urban areas for non-agricultural sources
of living. Cities create wealth, generate employment and drive human progress by harnessing
the forces of agglomeration and inductrialization. (Farooq, 2013).
Although only 48 percent of its areas are urbanized, Asia has by far the highest number
of people living in urban areas. This is perhaps expected considering that Asia is the home of
2.11 billion population. Following Asia are Europe, Africa and Latin America.
Because of the unprecedented increase in urban growth rate, large and mega cities
subsequently emerged. Large cities are those with 5 to 10 million inhabitants while megacities
are those with more than 10 million inhabitants.
13.2 Indicators of Urbanization

a. Continuing industrialization – By industrialization, it means the proliferation of industries
that are basically non-agricultural in nature, but surely the expansion of establishment
aimed at increasing services for agricultural and non agricultural production.
b. Expanded employment opportunity – This means employment opportunities bot in formal
and informal sectors. Particularly cities are responsible for generating new private sector
jobs. According to World Cities Report (2018:33), “the 750 cities in the world created
87.7 million private sector jobs, or 58 percent of all new private sector jobs in 129
countries.” This is between 2006 to 2012.
c. Access to information and communication technology – The fact-paced environment in
the cities of highly urbanized areas is usually driven by high powered technology to
hasten production. Since the goal is mass production, technology is obviously an
important tool to meet the need of industries and the mass of people.
d. Better infrastructure facilities –In an effort to provide efficient social services to urban
dwellers , and in order to boost economic production, infrastructure improvement is a
must in the urban environement.
13.3 City Dwellers
Sociologist Herbert Gans as quoted by Ullman (2002:2) identified Five types of people
who lives in the city. The first three types live in the city by choice, finding in it a valued sense of
community.The last two have little choice about where they live.
a. Cosmopolites –these are the students, intellectuals, professionals, artists and

entertainers. They have been drawn to the city because of its conveniences and cultural
benefits.
b. Singles – young unmarried people who come to the cities seeing jobs and
entertainment. Businesses and services such as singes bar, single apartment
complexes, high rise condominiums cater to their needs.
c. Ethnic villagers – United by race ethnicity and social class, these people live in a tightly
knit neighborhoods that resemble villages in a small town. Moving within close circle of
family and friends, the ethnic villagers try to isolate themselves from what they view as
the harmful effects of the city life.
d. Deprived- They live in blighted neighborhoods more of like an urban jungles than urban
villages. Consisting of the very poor, they represent the bottom of society in terms of
income, education, social status, and work skills.
e. Trapped – they consist of people who could not afford to move when their neighborhood
is invaded by other migrant groups.
13.4 Development of Cities
“Why did cities form in the first place? There is insufficient evidence to assert what
conditions gave rise to the first cities, but some theorists have speculated on what they consider
pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that could explain the rise of cities. Agriculture is believed
to be a pre-requisite for cities, which help preserve surplus production and create economies of
scale. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic Revolution, with the
spread of agriculture. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic
lifestyles and settle near others who lived by agricultural production. Agriculture yielded more
food, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development.
Farming led to dense, settled populations, and food surpluses that required storage and could
facilitate trade. These conditions seem to be important prerequisites for city life. Many theorists
hypothesize that agriculture preceded the development of cities and led to their growth.
A good environment and strong social organization are two necessities for the formation
of a successful city. A good environment includes clean water and a favorable climate for growing
crops and agriculture. A strong sense of social organization helps a newly formed city work
together in times of need, and it allows people to develop various functions to assist in the future
development of the city (for example, farmer or merchant). Without these two common features,
as well as advanced agricultural technology, a newly formed city is not likely to succeed.
Cities may have held other advantages, too. For example, cities reduced transport costs
for goods, people, and ideas by bringing them all together in one spot. By reducing these
transaction costs, cities contributed to worker productivity. Finally, cities likely performed the
essential function of providing protection for people and the valuable things they were beginning
to accumulate. Some theorists hypothesize that people may have come together to form cities as
a form of protection against marauding barbarian armies”. (https://courses.lumenlearning.com)
13.5 The Process of Urbanization
Urbanization is the process of a population shift from rural areas to cities. During the last
century, global populations have urbanized rapidly:
13% of people lived in urban environments in the year 1900
29% of people lived in urban environments in the year 1950
One projection suggests that, by 2030, the proportion of people living in cities may reach
60%.
Urbanization tends to correlate positively with industrialization. With the promise of

greater employment opportunities that come from industrialization, people from rural areas will
go to cities in pursuit of greater economic rewards.
Another term for urbanization is “rural flight. ” In modern times, this flight often occurs in a
region following the industrialization of agriculture—when fewer people are needed to bring the
same amount of agricultural output to market—and related agricultural services and industries
are consolidated. These factors negatively affect the economy of small- and middle-sized farms
and strongly reduce the size of the rural labor market. Rural flight is exacerbated when the
population decline leads to the loss of rural services (such as business enterprises and schools),
which leads to greater loss of population as people leave to seek those features.
As more and more people leave villages and farms to live in cities, urban growth results.
The rapid growth of cities like Chicago in the late nineteenth century and Mumbai a century later
can be attributed largely to rural-urban migration. This kind of growth is especially commonplace
in developing countries.
Urbanization occurs naturally from individual and corporate efforts to reduce time and
expense in commuting, while improving opportunities for jobs, education, housing,
entertainment, and transportation. Living in cities permits individuals and families to take
advantage of the opportunities of proximity, diversity, and marketplace competition. Due to their
high populations, urban areas can also have more diverse social communities than rural areas,
allowing others to find people like them. (https://courses.lumenlearning.com)
Some cities have grown so large and have such influence over a region that the termy
“city” is no longer adequate to describe them. The term metropolis is used instead. This term
refers to a central city surrounded by smaller cities and suburbs.
Another consequence of urbanization is the convergence of people with diverse cultural

background. Sociologists most often call it multi-culturalism or cultural pluralism, which pertains
to a situation where various ethnic groups converged in amixed ethnic community area resulting
to the existence of multi cultural traditions, these are called Multi cultural cities.
Challenges and Issues in urbanization
a. Growth of Slums
b. Provision of adequate basic services and infrastructures
c. Climate change
d. Increasing urban divide between the rich and the poor
13.5 The Global City
A global city or world city sometimes called Alpha cities, are a concept which postulates
that globalization can be broken down in terms of strategic geographic locales that see global
processes being created, facilitated and enacted. The most complex of these entities is the "global
city", whereby the linkages binding a city have a direct and tangible effect on global affairs through
more than just socio-economic means, with influence in terms of culture, or politics. The
terminology of "global city", as opposed to megacity, is thought to have been first coined by Saskia
Sassen in reference to London, New York and Tokyo in her 1991 work The Global City.(
https://www.cs.mcgill.ca)
It has been argued that global cities are those sharing the following characteristics:
(https://www.cs.mcgill.ca)
International, first-name familiarity; whereby a city is recognised without the need for a political
subdivision. For example. although there are numerous cities and other political entities with the
name Paris or variations on it, one would say "Paris", not "Paris, France".
Active influence and participation in international events and world affairs; for example, New
York City is home to the United Nations headquarters complex and consequently contains a vast
majority of the permanent missions to the UN.
A fairly large population (the centre of a metropolitan area with a population of at least one
million, typically several million).
A major international airport (for example, London Heathrow Airport) that serves as an
established hub for several international airlines.
An advanced transportation system that includes several freeways and/or a large mass transit
network offering multiple modes of transportation ( rapid transit, light rail, regional rail, ferry, or
bus).
In the West, several international cultures and communities (such as a Chinatown, a Little Italy,
or other immigrant communities). In other parts of the world, cities which attract large foreign
businesses and related expatriate communities; for example, Singapore, Shanghai, Hong Kong,
Tokyo, and Moscow.
International financial institutions, law firms, corporate headquarters (especially

conglomerates), and stock exchanges (for example the London Stock Exchange, the New York
Stock Exchange or the Tokyo Stock Exchange) that have influence over the world economy.
An advanced communications infrastructure on which modern trans-national corporations rely,

such as fiberoptics, Wi-Fi networks, cellular phone services, and other high-speed lines of
communications.
World-renowned cultural institutions, such as museums and universities.
A lively cultural scene, including film festivals (for example the Toronto International Film
Festival), premieres, a thriving music or theatre scene (for example, West End theatre and
Broadway); an orchestra, an opera company, art galleries, and street performers.
Several powerful and influential media outlets with an international reach, such as the BBC,
Associated Press, Reuters, The New York Times, The Times, or Agence France-Presse.
A strong sporting community, including major sports facilities, home teams in major league
sports, and the ability and historical experience to host international sporting events such as the
Olympic Games, Football World Cup, or Grand Slam tennis events.
To some, London, New York City, Paris, and Tokyo have been traditionally considered the 'big
four' world cities – not coincidentally, they also serve as symbols of global capitalism. However,
many people have their own personal lists, and any two lists are likely to differ based on cultural
background, values, and experience.
In certain countries, the rise of suburbia and the ongoing migration of manufacturing jobs to these
countries has led to significant urban decay. Therefore, to boost urban regeneration, tourism, and
revenue, the goal of building a "world-class" city has recently become an obsession with the
governments of some mid-size cities and their constituents.
The phenomenon of world-city building has also been observed in Buenos Aires, Santiago,
Frankfurt, Montréal, Sydney, Mexico City and Toronto: each of these cities has emerged as large
and influential.

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CHAPTER 8

GLOBAL MEDIA CULTURES

After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

8.1 Global Ideas and Communication

8.2 Normative Theories of Communication

8.2.1 Authoritarian Theory

This originated from the philosophy of Plato in Ancient Greece adapted by

Authoritarian Media Theory basically suppresses press freedom as not to

Theory Strength Weaknesses Opportunities Threats

1. All forms of In a one-way In an Media only

8.2.2 Soviet Communist Model

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

3. Press is given There is no It promotes Too much

8.2.4 Social Responsibility Theory

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

8.2.5 Democratic Participant

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

5. The model is Communication Criticisms may be Allowing the

8.2.6 Development Communication Media

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

6. Development Helps in The socially The concept of Encourages

8.2.7 Agenda-setting Media

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

8.2.8 Gate Keeping Media

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

8. Gate Keeping Gatekeeping sets There is a Unfiltered news or Filtered news or

8.4 Enculturation, Acculturation and Assimilation in Globalization

After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

3. analyze religious conflict and violence

9.1 Definition of Religion

9.2 Major Religions

Christian Philosophy began as a Jewish Sect in Jerusalem proclaiming Jesus of

Though a Muslim honors several prophets, Muhammad is considered the last

Some religious scholars consider Confucianism more of a social system than a

Globalization brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions “with overlapping but

9.4 Religions, conflict and Violence

After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Understand the basic concepts and measures of demography.

10.1 Basic Concepts

Top 20 Largest Countries by Population (live)

16 D.R. Congo 90,258,053

10.2 Demographic Theories

Sociologists have long looked at population issues as central to understanding human

10.2.1 Malthusian Theory

10.2.2 Zero Population Growth

10.2.3 Cornucopian Theory

10.2.4 Demographic Transition Theory

After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

11.1 Basic Concepts In Migration

Migration can also be classified according to choice. It is classified as voluntary if the

11.2 Reasons of Migration

11.2.1 Neo-Classical Theory

According to Neo-Classical theory, migration is usually associated with individual’s

11.2.2 Labor Migration Theory

11.2.3 Migration System Theory

This theory is argued as an outcome of collaboration of two countries where the

11.2.4 Push-Pull Theory

Most of movement or migration has been considered as an “implementing strategy” in

11.3 Trends in Migration

1970 84,460,125 2.3%

1975 90,368,010 2.3%